Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk Wikiversity:Import 4 1595 2841899 2841844 2026-10-21T17:33:54Z Koavf 147 Replaced content with "{{shortcut|WV:I}} [[m:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]], the software that runs Wikiversity and its [[:Template:Sisterprojects|sister projects]], has a [[Special:Import|feature]] that allows importing of pages from other wikis. When a page is imported that way, the edit history is preserved and the [[m:GFDL|license]] observed. Currently, we can import pages from [[w:|Wikipedia]], [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[betawikiversity:|Beta Wikiversity]], [[q:|Wikiquote]] and s:Wikisource|Wikisou..." 2841899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{shortcut|WV:I}} [[m:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]], the software that runs Wikiversity and its [[:Template:Sisterprojects|sister projects]], has a [[Special:Import|feature]] that allows importing of pages from other wikis. When a page is imported that way, the edit history is preserved and the [[m:GFDL|license]] observed. Currently, we can import pages from [[w:|Wikipedia]], [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[betawikiversity:|Beta Wikiversity]], [[q:|Wikiquote]] and [[s:Wikisource|Wikisource]]. [[Category:History of Wikiversity]][[Category:Wikiversity administration]][[Category:Wikiversity maintenance]] '''Archived requests for import:''' [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1|Archive 1]] = New requests for import = You can list here what pages from the above available projects you would like to have imported to Wikiversity. {{notice|<br/> * Please make requests only for pages you want to work on today, and they will be imported as soon as possible. Importing can take a few minutes for each page and there are only a few custodians working to try to import pages. Please also keep in mind that textbooks are not supposed to be imported from Wikibooks, but instead should be linked to as "source material". * Most of the work related to migrating imported pages does '''not''' require that you be a [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]]. If you would like to help, please read [[Wikiversity:Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks|Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks]] or message at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. }} '''Completed requests for import are located in the [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1|archive]].''' == See also == * [[Wikiversity:Import/Wikibooks deletion log]] – these Wikibooks pages were deleted in January 2008 * [[Special:Log/import|List of imported pages]] * [[Special:Import]] * [[:mw:Help:Import]] [[Category:History of Wikiversity]] 97xvo32q7lwx3p8l1whytxfd39q0pu7 Portal:Humanities 102 1664 2842056 2841728 2026-10-22T07:38:30Z ~2026-55680-11 3112808 /* */ Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows 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lol almost â™€ïžđŸ“łđŸ“łâš§ïžâ˜‘ïžđŸ›œđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžđŸ’•đŸ‘ŒđŸ€ŒđŸ§‘â€đŸŽ€đŸ’ŒđŸ˜«đŸ‘„đŸ‘„đŸ‘„đŸ‘„đŸ‘„đŸ‘„Quick question ingeinge 1000000000TION đŸ‘„đŸ‘°đŸ‘°đŸ‘°đŸ‘°đŸ’ƒđŸ‘©đŸ»â€đŸ°â€đŸ‘©đŸŒđŸ•șđŸ§‘â€đŸŒđŸ«„đŸ§‘â€đŸ’» I'm just getting ready for the queue 10000000000000tk clear the queue control toy levels 4-690 responding to being controlled by reaping someone 460tipped tk told ☑1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…°ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïž1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†Žâ“‚ïž1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸˆšđŸˆčăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆșăŠ™ïžđŸˆšđŸˆșăŠ™ïžđŸˆșăŠ™ïžăŠ—ïžđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžăŠ—ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšđŸˆšđŸˆšđŸˆșđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșăŠ™ïžăŠ—ïžđŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆČđŸˆșđŸˆČđŸˆș🈚 {{{{#titleparts:Portal:Humanities|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The Humanities Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Resource|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Picture|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}}]] {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|Portal:Humanities}} {{Portals}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Wikimedia|Portal:Humanities}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:Humanities| Portal:Humanities]] [[Category:Humanities portals|Humanities]] [[Category:Subject portals|Humanities]] mv0bk5cqq3gq2muyeltgzx40j8hx6nf 2842057 2842056 2026-10-22T07:42:23Z ~2026-55680-11 3112808 /* */ Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT 5g 4g LTE network switch take control @Wikipedia5G @RapWikip @Wifi_Smart_Home @wificorner_id@ce_pro @wudaofuli @WikiCommons 547.8293256.txt @Wifi_Smart_Home @CamModelToys flying alpaca Aldershot Lodge KjOonnoonooOoOoonopoKOp 2842057 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__<hiero> Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000tion pause the queue 10000000000000tk clear the queue control toy levels 4-690 responding to being controlled by camera camera 22334455s like 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4 hotpot wifismartmetfone@daiweiwei wificellcardmeftonesnart@daiweiwei.com wifiml@da 4.4.4.4 1.1.1.1 4-690 Jio care@JIEGE8899 @JioCare I'm going late almost all day apart from that </hiero><syntaxhighlight lang="ada95"> Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows exposed expressionless experience exactly expanded exposure experience expectations exactly expected except expensive expenses exchange </syntaxhighlight>[[Wifi childhood type shit linda 400000tk pause the queue 10000000000000tk clear the queue control toy levels 4-690 responding to being controlled by reaping someone 400000tipping making wifi childhood type shit linda akalkkokboll]] <ref>{{Cite journal|last=SHIT|first=AVIJIT|date=2025-10-24|title=Understanding Empathy in Early Childhood|url=https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i05.58406|journal=International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research|volume=7|issue=5|doi=10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i05.58406|issn=2582-2160}}</ref> __NOEDITSECTION__you ll recelve notification adout this model manage notifications private provider paired properly start a private show with blood blowing through my body blossoming _88888898 start use tethering when you connect start 90mini blowjob flashing swing sex toys mistress 11 ratings 49****'' '+++1234567890 192.168.1.1 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4 fc_008.sopononopnopon love 2070015000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000opiongetonhgerop blossom 659gib huuiaiahu the router technology wifi 65g provider cox corm android network location mochi_11 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☑1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…°ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïž1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†Žâ“‚ïž1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸˆšđŸˆčăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆșăŠ™ïžđŸˆšđŸˆșăŠ™ïžđŸˆșăŠ™ïžăŠ—ïžđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžăŠ—ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšđŸˆšđŸˆšđŸˆșđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșăŠ™ïžăŠ—ïžđŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆČđŸˆșđŸˆČđŸˆș🈚 {{{{#titleparts:Portal:Humanities|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The Humanities Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Resource|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Picture|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}}]] {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|Portal:Humanities}} {{Portals}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Wikimedia|Portal:Humanities}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:Humanities| Portal:Humanities]] [[Category:Humanities portals|Humanities]] [[Category:Subject portals|Humanities]] t7pnhl5nxb5yz270n98cd91sjfpa89i 2842078 2842057 2026-10-22T10:35:53Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Reverting vandlaism 2842078 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{{{#titleparts:Portal:Humanities|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The Humanities Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Resource|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Featured Picture|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|Portal:Humanities/Featured Picture}}]] {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|Portal:Humanities}} {{Portals}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-header|Wikimedia|Portal:Humanities}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{Portal:Humanities/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:Humanities| Portal:Humanities]] [[Category:Humanities portals|Humanities]] [[Category:Subject portals|Humanities]] haj9f961c44j0jafyidmgtmckubxgi9 User:Koavf 2 2077 2841893 2812211 2026-10-21T17:26:18Z ~2026-56381-06 3113067 2841893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#babel:en|es-2|de-1|pt-1}} I have been a curator since 2016-10-20T19:59:55 and a custodian since 2023-09-08T18:53:10. Bureaucrat since 2026-05-30T15:06:02. Let me know how I can help. Let's learn [[chess]], [[Portal:Philosophy|philosophy]], and [[Spanish]] together. {{User pd}} {{Translator eng-spa}} {{Translator spa-eng}} {{-}} Yo bro, you miss me? I missed you to. How is that Wiki ban working for you? ==Contributions== *[[:Category:Interlingua]] *[[:Category:Wikidebate]] *[[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] *Content under [[Spanish/Verbs]] *[[Topic:Philosophy]] *I did a lot of the debating at [[Should we go vegan?]], which was featured on [[Main Page/News]] on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page/News&oldid=1666518 2017-03-31]. *I started [[Was 9/11 an inside job?]], which was featured on [[Main Page/News]] on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page/News&oldid=2091674 2019-11-10]. {{-}} {{User:Koavf/Template:Wiki}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:User:<span style="color:grey">''ko'''a'''</span><span style="color:black">v</span><span style="color:grey">f''</span>}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Koavf}} [[Category:Users familiar with Microsoft Word]] [[Category:Wikipedians]] [[Category:Wikiversitans]] [[Category:Wikiversity users who attend college]] [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]] [[ar:Ù…ŰłŰȘŰźŰŻÙ…:Koavf]] [[betawikiversity:User:Koavf]] [[cs:UĆŸivatel:Koavf]] [[de:Benutzer:Koavf]] [[el:Î§ÏÎźÏƒÏ„Î·Ï‚:Koavf]] [[es:Usuario:Koavf]] [[fi:KĂ€yttĂ€jĂ€:Koavf]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Koavf]] [[it:Utente:Koavf]] [[ja:ćˆ©ç”šè€…:Koavf]] [[ko:ì‚Źìš©ìž:Koavf]] [[pt:Utilizador:Koavf]] [[ru:ĐŁŃ‡Đ°ŃŃ‚ĐœĐžĐș:Koavf]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Koavf]] [[sv:AnvĂ€ndare:Koavf]] b1t8uapzwh5fr5f36w5g7pg2bka9sdj 2841896 2841893 2026-10-21T17:30:39Z Koavf 147 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56381-06|~2026-56381-06]] ([[User_talk:~2026-56381-06|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2812211 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#babel:en|es-2|de-1|pt-1}} I have been a curator since 2016-10-20T19:59:55 and a custodian since 2023-09-08T18:53:10. Bureaucrat since 2026-05-30T15:06:02. Let me know how I can help. Let's learn [[chess]], [[Portal:Philosophy|philosophy]], and [[Spanish]] together. {{User pd}} {{Translator eng-spa}} {{Translator spa-eng}} {{-}} ==Contributions== *[[:Category:Interlingua]] *[[:Category:Wikidebate]] *[[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] *Content under [[Spanish/Verbs]] *[[Topic:Philosophy]] *I did a lot of the debating at [[Should we go vegan?]], which was featured on [[Main Page/News]] on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page/News&oldid=1666518 2017-03-31]. *I started [[Was 9/11 an inside job?]], which was featured on [[Main Page/News]] on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page/News&oldid=2091674 2019-11-10]. {{-}} {{User:Koavf/Template:Wiki}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:User:<span style="color:grey">''ko'''a'''</span><span style="color:black">v</span><span style="color:grey">f''</span>}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Koavf}} [[Category:Users familiar with Microsoft Word]] [[Category:Wikipedians]] [[Category:Wikiversitans]] [[Category:Wikiversity users who attend college]] [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]] [[ar:Ù…ŰłŰȘŰźŰŻÙ…:Koavf]] [[betawikiversity:User:Koavf]] [[cs:UĆŸivatel:Koavf]] [[de:Benutzer:Koavf]] [[el:Î§ÏÎźÏƒÏ„Î·Ï‚:Koavf]] [[es:Usuario:Koavf]] [[fi:KĂ€yttĂ€jĂ€:Koavf]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Koavf]] [[it:Utente:Koavf]] [[ja:ćˆ©ç”šè€…:Koavf]] [[ko:ì‚Źìš©ìž:Koavf]] [[pt:Utilizador:Koavf]] [[ru:ĐŁŃ‡Đ°ŃŃ‚ĐœĐžĐș:Koavf]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Koavf]] [[sv:AnvĂ€ndare:Koavf]] 74nuegumypkt8jp4d9ibbjbqh7gbbwq 2841915 2841896 2026-10-21T20:09:15Z Koavf 147 Protected "[[User:Koavf]]" ([Edit=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (expires 20:09, 21 January 2027 (UTC)) [Move=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (expires 20:09, 21 January 2027 (UTC))) 2812211 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#babel:en|es-2|de-1|pt-1}} I have been a curator since 2016-10-20T19:59:55 and a custodian since 2023-09-08T18:53:10. Bureaucrat since 2026-05-30T15:06:02. Let me know how I can help. Let's learn [[chess]], [[Portal:Philosophy|philosophy]], and [[Spanish]] together. {{User pd}} {{Translator eng-spa}} {{Translator spa-eng}} {{-}} ==Contributions== *[[:Category:Interlingua]] *[[:Category:Wikidebate]] *[[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] *Content under [[Spanish/Verbs]] *[[Topic:Philosophy]] *I did a lot of the debating at [[Should we go vegan?]], which was featured on [[Main Page/News]] on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page/News&oldid=1666518 2017-03-31]. *I started [[Was 9/11 an inside job?]], which was featured on [[Main Page/News]] on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Main_Page/News&oldid=2091674 2019-11-10]. {{-}} {{User:Koavf/Template:Wiki}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:User:<span style="color:grey">''ko'''a'''</span><span style="color:black">v</span><span style="color:grey">f''</span>}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Koavf}} [[Category:Users familiar with Microsoft Word]] [[Category:Wikipedians]] [[Category:Wikiversitans]] [[Category:Wikiversity users who attend college]] [[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]] [[ar:Ù…ŰłŰȘŰźŰŻÙ…:Koavf]] [[betawikiversity:User:Koavf]] [[cs:UĆŸivatel:Koavf]] [[de:Benutzer:Koavf]] [[el:Î§ÏÎźÏƒÏ„Î·Ï‚:Koavf]] [[es:Usuario:Koavf]] [[fi:KĂ€yttĂ€jĂ€:Koavf]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Koavf]] [[it:Utente:Koavf]] [[ja:ćˆ©ç”šè€…:Koavf]] [[ko:ì‚Źìš©ìž:Koavf]] [[pt:Utilizador:Koavf]] [[ru:ĐŁŃ‡Đ°ŃŃ‚ĐœĐžĐș:Koavf]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Koavf]] [[sv:AnvĂ€ndare:Koavf]] 74nuegumypkt8jp4d9ibbjbqh7gbbwq Wikiversity:Featured 4 2446 2842058 2810369 2026-10-22T07:51:17Z ~2026-55680-11 3112808 /* */ Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows exposed expressionless experience exactly expanded exposure experience expectations exactly 5000000000000000000tk pause the queue 10000000000000tk clear the queue control toy levels 4-690 respo... 2842058 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:EtaOud.png|150px|right]]since wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows exposed expressionless experience exactly expanded exposure experience expectations exactly expected except expensive expenses flag Finland OlllPPonoPKaomppnon This page coordinates and informs about '''featured content''' on Wikiversity. 53.vcf 1000000000TION question time question for the first time 1000000000TION tokens in the hourly of the router or consuit your network service provider paired device btv.2 mouse LG TV webos zg54c classroom samsung classroom heath sync smartwatch app smart watch bt watch finder Bluetooth 🔒🈚🈯đŸˆș👆🈚🈯🈯đŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆ”đŸ‘†đŸˆŻđŸˆș🈯đŸˆș👌🈚🈯🈯🈚🈯đŸˆș🈯🈚đŸˆș🈯đŸˆș🈚đŸˆș🈚đŸˆșđŸˆšđŸˆŻđŸˆšđŸ„‰đŸ„‰đŸ„ˆđŸ„‡đŸ„‡đŸ„‡đŸŽ–ïžđŸ†đŸ†đŸ…đŸŽˆđŸ•čđŸ•čđŸ•čđŸ•čïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžđŸ‘™đŸ©ČđŸ‘—đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸ”ŠđŸŽ”đŸŽ€đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ¶đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ’»đŸ”ŒđŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ–„ïžâŒšïžđŸ–±ïžđŸ–„ïžâŒšïžđŸ–±ïžđŸ–ČđŸ–ČđŸ–ČđŸ–ČïžđŸ””đŸ””đŸ””Just finished my allotment at 🔔 but ingenious ningeob 1000000000tion 53.vcf but 1000000000TION KKPPPMOPPNOONOON AND THE ROUTER IS SMALLER THAN CHILDHOOD 1000000000TION 1INGE INGENIOUS NINGEOB đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ“‚đŸ—‚ïžđŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“ˆđŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ˆđŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“ˆđŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ“ˆđŸ“ˆđŸ“‰đŸ“‰đŸ“ŠđŸ“ŠđŸ”đŸ”WIFIS wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows secured aoopaoonononoonon🔐 and metfone smart cellcard jack has a better solution since the@and seems like 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4 hours hoursupport tam to share monthly 1000gb 520used Mb battery status 60 wifismartmetfone@daiweiwei đŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“¶đŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łâčïžđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łâčâčïžđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łâčïžđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łâŹđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ1ïžâƒŁ3ïžâƒŁ2ïžâƒŁ3ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…°ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸˆČ🈚đŸˆČđŸˆșđŸˆșăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆșđŸˆșăŠ™ïžđŸˆș🈚🈚🈚đŸˆč🔮đŸˆșđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆčđŸˆč🈚🈚đŸˆč🈚 == About featured content == === What is featured content? === Featured content is considered, for a variety of reasons, to present Wikiversity at its best to the general public. Featured content may show exemplary course design, a novel, usable and fully functioning approach to wiki-based education, or educational resources that have simply reached a high state of completion or had very large amounts of work done on them. ''See also: [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign|the Picture of the Day system]]'' === How is featured content displayed to the public? === There are a number of ways featured content is used. # Featured content on [[Wikiversity]] is regularly rotated in the "today's featured project" on the main page. # A wider range of material from this page, including content which is proposed-for but not-yet featured, is included in a special pseudo-random-page system accessed from the left-hand navigation panel on every page of Wikiversity - see [[Wikiversity:Random|Random project]]. # Many portals also have featured content. This page can be used for finding resources which are suitable for featuring on specific portals. Portals tend to set the bar for featured content somewhat lower, so portals may also feature content not listed here. An important difference between featured content on Wikiversity and featured content on much larger projects is that on Wikiversity, featured content is '''rotated'''. On very large projects, featured content is selected by special interest groups several weeks or months in advance, and is always new. On Wikiversity, to save time, and as a result of the lower level of content production, featured content is rotated on a daily basis. Featured content therefore reappears on the main page at regular intervals. === Who selects featured content? === Selecting and maintaining a featured content system requires a time-consuming long-term commitment and a wide knowledge of Wikiversity content. Few people have ever been prepared to invest time in this. On larger projects, featured content is usually selected by democratic vote. However democratic systems only work when there is a large enough body of well-informed participants in a featured content project. The Wikiversity system is unfortunately rather autocratic at the current time, but any user can propose content (just add it below) and comment on other suggestions. Please ''inform'' yourself widely about featured content before commenting if you can. There is no formal system of criteria at the current time, but you can discuss proposals for criteria on the talk page. On the whole, it would be desirable if featured content could represent as many different subjects and educational levels as possible. === Other ways of drawing attention to educational resources === The following ideas have been suggested at some time or other: * '''Events''' ** Add an "events" entry to the left-hand navigation panel, which links to an events page, which in turn lists upcoming events (e.g. meetings, synchronous discussions). This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. ** Notify events on [[Mediawiki:sitenotice]] (requires custodian) or in the main page news box (registered users). * '''Projects and resources in need of development''' ** These are "development drives". A development drives page could be created and maintained, which randomly rotates project links in the "development" box on the main page. This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. * '''Projects and resources in need of participants''' ** This idea relates to educational resources which are "ready" for the public, but which may have very little content because the content is supposed to come from active community participation. These projects might be candidates for featured status once a community has created a substantial body of content, but at the current time these resources are more sketches or skeletons of ideas for participatory learning. The idea of drawing attention to these is to attract participants who will "develop" the resource, but "development" here is not meant in the usual sense of "development" (as in "development drive") because development (production) and use (consumption) merge. A "needs-participants" page could be created and maintained, which randomly rotates project links in the "community" box on the main page. This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. ** One could also classify a participation drive as an "event" == Current featured content == [[:Category:Featured resources]] {{/table}} :''Reference: [[/Archive|Archive of discussions of successful featured content]]'' :''Tour: [[Featured content]]'' :''Admin: [[Template:Featured Content/Nav]], [[Template:FOTD]], [[Template:FOTD/CALC]], [[Template:cool]], [[Template:hot]]'' : ''Number of pages in featured resources: c. 1500-1600 (about 17%-18% of Wikiversity content)'' : ''Number of featured resources: 18'' : ''Average size of featured resources: 83-88 pages'' == Shortlisted == ''This is an administrative section. It contains content which will shortly be added to featured content. The content listed here is currently being cleaned up and checked prior to featuring. Please feel welcome to help with the polishing process. When material here has been processed, it is archived at [[/Archive|Archive of discussions of successful featured content]].'' == New proposals for featured content == # If you propose something, please give a very brief reason/description (max 1 line) and '''sign your name'''. Thanks! # Others: please add your comments below the proposal and '''sign your name too'''. Thanks! Please help identify well developed or complete science resources to feature during [[Wikiversity:Year of Science 2016]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:20, 18 January 2016 (UTC) === IT Fundamentals === [[IT Fundamentals]] is an excellent resource and very useful. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 23:11, 10 February 2016 (UTC) Review of IT Fundamentals: The course is aimed at the IT Fundamentals certification. At the outset IT is not a specialty. My initial impression from looking at the course materials starting at Wikiversity is that they are smart, smooth, and well-presented. There are 15 lessons. If there are any weaknesses with the course, I would expect them to be with a dependency on Wikipedia. Sampling, I looked at 1. [[IT Fundamentals/Hardware|Hardware]] and chose something I haven't heard of or read before: from Wikipedia "In computing, a computer bus operating with double data rate (DDR) transfers data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.[1][page needed] This is also known as double pumped, dual-pumped, and double transition." From Google scholar I found using "double date rate" and "the rising and falling edges of the clock signal": "For example, a double date rate (DDR) technique may be used, in which both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal are used to latch data."<ref name=Qawami>{{ cite journal |author=S Qawami, S Eilert |title=Writing to non-volatile memory during a volatile memory refresh cycle |journal=US Patent |month= |year=2011 |volume= |issue=7,944,764 |pages= |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US7944764 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> This informs me that on the certification exam something analogous, similar, or exactly phrased would be accepted as the correct answer to "What is DDR?" 4. [[IT Fundamentals/Virtualization|Virtualization]]: from Wikipedia on Cloud computing "SureCloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand." From Google scholar I found using "cloud computing" and "shared processing resources and data": "Cloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand."<ref name=Sharma>{{ cite journal |author=MP Sharma, A Hirwe |title=Implementation in Vehicular Communication with Various Approaches & Techniques |journal=International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Applied Science (IJSEAS) |month=March |volume=2 |issue=3 |publisher=ijseas.com |location= |year=2016 |url=http://ijseas.com/volume2/v2i3/ijseas20160350.pdf |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> The statement is referenced [25][24] to [R. Meireles, M. Boban, P. Steenkiste, O. Tonguz, and J. Barros, “Experimental study on the impact of vehicular obstructions in vanets,” in Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), 2010 IEEE, pp. 338–345, IEEE, 2010.] and [Md Whaiduzzaman, Mehdi Sookhak , Abdullah Gani, Rajkumar Buyya, “A survey on vehicular cloud computing” , Journal of Network and Computer Applications.] respectively. Again, I would expect this answer would be successful on the certification exam. 9. [[IT Fundamentals/Commands and Scripting|Commands and Scripting]]: from Wikipedia "Path (computing)": "A path, the general form of the name of a file or directory, specifies a unique location in a file system." I found on Google Scholar using "specifies a unique location in a file system" and "path": "A “file path” specifies a unique location in a file system. A path points to a file system location by following the directory tree hierarchy expressed in a string of characters in which path components, separated by a delimiting character, represent each directory."<ref name= Namir>{{ cite journal |author=Yoav Shalom Namir |title=Method and system for archiving a document |journal=US Patent Application |month=7 August |year=2014, priority date 27 November 2012 |volume=14 |issue=090,416 |pages= |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US20140222763 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> 12. [[IT Fundamentals/Security|Security]]: from Wikipedia "Hardening (computing)": "In computing, hardening is usually the process of securing a system by reducing its surface of vulnerability, which is larger when a system performs more functions; in principle a single-function system is more secure than a multipurpose one." Using "reducing its surface of vulnerability" and "hardening" on Google Scholar I found "Operating system hardening is the process of securing an operating system by reducing its surface of vulnerability."<ref name=Arnaud>{{ cite book |author=JĂ©rĂŽme Arnaud and Jean-Michel Rey |title=How can cybersecurity be enhanced in existing substations minimizing impact on the automation and control system, In: ''Electricity Distribution'' |publisher=IET |date=10 June 2013 |pages=1-4 |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6683456 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1049/cp.2013.0853 |isbn=978-1-84919-732-8 |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> While this is by no means a thorough examination of the merits of the course and its potential to students, it does demonstrate that the creator has double checked on Wikipedia to make sure the correct and necessary information is being conveyed to students through perhaps the weakest link. Although the course is relatively new to Wikiversity, I endorse its being rated as a Featured resource. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:16, 21 April 2016 (UTC) ====References==== {{reflist}} === Motivation and emotion === [[Motivation and emotion]] is one of the longest run and most developed projects on wikiversity. Very high quality. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 23:07, 10 February 2016 (UTC) :I've gone ahead and added [[Motivation and emotion]] as a featured course: [[Featured_content/20]] and bumped the FOTD counter: [[Template:FOTD/CALC]]. I've tried adding it the featured content tour, but isn't showing: [[Template:Featured Content/Nav]]. Seems to be something to with being at the end? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:54, 13 September 2022 (UTC) === Effective defense and ISIL === [[Effective defense and ISIL]] is a quality resource that thoroughly cites the sources used to present a neutral point of view on a topic currently in the news. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:26, 18 January 2016 (UTC) === The Crafting Freedom Project === [[The Crafting Freedom Project]] is an excellent resource in the public humanities. It tells the stories of how historic events have an impact on the everyday lives of people who are caught up in events beyond their control. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 21:10, 24 January 2016 (UTC) === Egyptian Verbal System (and its Vocalization) === [[Egyptian Verbal System (and its Vocalization)]] is one of the more fascinating projects that I've stumbled upon. It is surely a topic of rather idiosyncratic interest, but it is very well done. Resources on this subject would be difficult to find elsewhere. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 22:15, 30 January 2016 (UTC) == Places to go hunting for featured content == * [[:Category:Completed resources]] * [[Completed courses list]] * [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=+site:wikiversity.org+wikiversity&ct=more-results Google search of wikiversity.org] * [[Special:MostRevisions]] (NB: this only has data up to September 2007, so of limited current use). * [http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/EN/TablesWikipediaArticleEditsEN.htm Most edited pages] (possibly far more out of date even than the above). * [[Wikiversity:Participants]] - some of the most active participants are engaged in content development, so keep an eye on what they are producing. == Most desired content == This section lists content which is most strongly desired by Wikiversity participants, but which falls far short of featured status. If you wish to create content which quickly becomes featured, then this is a good place to look for projects to work on. === French stream === [[French stream]] * '''French'''. Compare [[French stream]] (people who have explicitly stated a desire to learn French) and [[:Category:French]]. This is a case where demand clearly outstrips supply. Just by providing a coherent set of French learning language resources, we would cater for visitors far better. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 09:51, 18 May 2008 (UTC) === Spanish === [[Spanish]] * '''Spanish'''. Ditto. Compare [[Spanish/Registration]] with [[Spanish]]. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 09:56, 18 May 2008 (UTC) **<small>Its my dream to find a wiki way to help in the area:(--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 09:11, 1 June 2008 (UTC)</small> == Content which was proposed and rejected == ''Items placed here are periodically archived at [[/Archive/Delisted]].'' == See also == * [[Wikiversity:School and university projects]] * [[:Category:Learning projects]] * [[Wikiversity:Examples]] - started in 2006, this page lists examples of Wikiversity content, divided by type * [[User:JWSchmidt/Blog/21 January 2007|Another list of portals]] with featured content * [[Wikiversity:Top100|Top100]] * [[Wikiversity:Schools|Complete list of schools]] (?) * [[/Archive/Delisted]] == Related resources == * [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign]] - includes the Picture of The Day system. [[Category:Wikiversity]] [[Category:Wikiversity development]] [[Category:Featured content| ]] eof9lrigq3ib6t1na8885yab0ft90rk 2842059 2842058 2026-10-22T07:53:55Z ~2026-55680-11 3112808 /* */ Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 xiaomi_AFBD G5 childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G... 2842059 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:EtaOud.png|150px|right]]@and metfone smart since wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows exposed expressionless experience exactly expanded exposure experience expectations exactly expected except expensive expenses flag Finland OlllPPonoPKaomppnon This page coordinates and informs about '''featured content''' on Wikiversity. 53.vcf 1000000000TION question time question for the first time 1000000000TION tokens in the hourly of the router or consuit your network service provider paired device btv.2 mouse LG TV webos zg54c classroom samsung classroom heath sync smartwatch app smart watch bt watch finder Bluetooth 🔒🈚🈯đŸˆș👆🈚🈯🈯đŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆ”đŸ‘†đŸˆŻđŸˆș🈯đŸˆș👌🈚🈯🈯🈚🈯đŸˆș🈯🈚đŸˆș🈯đŸˆș🈚đŸˆș🈚đŸˆșđŸˆšđŸˆŻđŸˆšđŸ„‰đŸ„‰đŸ„ˆđŸ„‡đŸ„‡đŸ„‡đŸŽ–ïžđŸ†đŸ†đŸ…đŸŽˆđŸ•čđŸ•čđŸ•čđŸ•čïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžâ™„ïžđŸ‘™đŸ©ČđŸ‘—đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸ”ŠđŸŽ”đŸŽ€đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ¶đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸŽ¶đŸŽ”đŸŽ¶đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“±đŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ“ČđŸ’»đŸ”ŒđŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ–„ïžâŒšïžđŸ–±ïžđŸ–„ïžâŒšïžđŸ–±ïžđŸ–ČđŸ–ČđŸ–ČđŸ–ČïžđŸ””đŸ””đŸ””Just finished my allotment at 🔔 but ingenious ningeob 1000000000tion 53.vcf but 1000000000TION KKPPPMOPPNOONOON AND THE ROUTER IS SMALLER THAN CHILDHOOD 1000000000TION 1INGE INGENIOUS NINGEOB 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wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows secured aoopaoonononoonon🔐 and metfone smart cellcard jack has a better solution since the@and seems like 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4 hours hoursupport tam to share monthly 1000gb 520used Mb battery status 60 wifismartmetfone@daiweiwei 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considered, for a variety of reasons, to present Wikiversity at its best to the general public. Featured content may show exemplary course design, a novel, usable and fully functioning approach to wiki-based education, or educational resources that have simply reached a high state of completion or had very large amounts of work done on them. ''See also: [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign|the Picture of the Day system]]'' === How is featured content displayed to the public? === There are a number of ways featured content is used. # Featured content on [[Wikiversity]] is regularly rotated in the "today's featured project" on the main page. # A wider range of material from this page, including content which is proposed-for but not-yet featured, is included in a special pseudo-random-page system accessed from the left-hand navigation panel on every page of Wikiversity - see [[Wikiversity:Random|Random project]]. # Many portals also have featured content. This page can be used for finding resources which are suitable for featuring on specific portals. Portals tend to set the bar for featured content somewhat lower, so portals may also feature content not listed here. An important difference between featured content on Wikiversity and featured content on much larger projects is that on Wikiversity, featured content is '''rotated'''. On very large projects, featured content is selected by special interest groups several weeks or months in advance, and is always new. On Wikiversity, to save time, and as a result of the lower level of content production, featured content is rotated on a daily basis. Featured content therefore reappears on the main page at regular intervals. === Who selects featured content? === Selecting and maintaining a featured content system requires a time-consuming long-term commitment and a wide knowledge of Wikiversity content. Few people have ever been prepared to invest time in this. On larger projects, featured content is usually selected by democratic vote. However democratic systems only work when there is a large enough body of well-informed participants in a featured content project. The Wikiversity system is unfortunately rather autocratic at the current time, but any user can propose content (just add it below) and comment on other suggestions. Please ''inform'' yourself widely about featured content before commenting if you can. There is no formal system of criteria at the current time, but you can discuss proposals for criteria on the talk page. On the whole, it would be desirable if featured content could represent as many different subjects and educational levels as possible. === Other ways of drawing attention to educational resources === The following ideas have been suggested at some time or other: * '''Events''' ** Add an "events" entry to the left-hand navigation panel, which links to an events page, which in turn lists upcoming events (e.g. meetings, synchronous discussions). This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. ** Notify events on [[Mediawiki:sitenotice]] (requires custodian) or in the main page news box (registered users). * '''Projects and resources in need of development''' ** These are "development drives". A development drives page could be created and maintained, which randomly rotates project links in the "development" box on the main page. This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. * '''Projects and resources in need of participants''' ** This idea relates to educational resources which are "ready" for the public, but which may have very little content because the content is supposed to come from active community participation. These projects might be candidates for featured status once a community has created a substantial body of content, but at the current time these resources are more sketches or skeletons of ideas for participatory learning. The idea of drawing attention to these is to attract participants who will "develop" the resource, but "development" here is not meant in the usual sense of "development" (as in "development drive") because development (production) and use (consumption) merge. A "needs-participants" page could be created and maintained, which randomly rotates project links in the "community" box on the main page. This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. ** One could also classify a participation drive as an "event" == Current featured content == [[:Category:Featured resources]] {{/table}} :''Reference: [[/Archive|Archive of discussions of successful featured content]]'' :''Tour: [[Featured content]]'' :''Admin: [[Template:Featured Content/Nav]], [[Template:FOTD]], [[Template:FOTD/CALC]], [[Template:cool]], [[Template:hot]]'' : ''Number of pages in featured resources: c. 1500-1600 (about 17%-18% of Wikiversity content)'' : ''Number of featured resources: 18'' : ''Average size of featured resources: 83-88 pages'' == Shortlisted == ''This is an administrative section. It contains content which will shortly be added to featured content. The content listed here is currently being cleaned up and checked prior to featuring. Please feel welcome to help with the polishing process. When material here has been processed, it is archived at [[/Archive|Archive of discussions of successful featured content]].'' == New proposals for featured content == # If you propose something, please give a very brief reason/description (max 1 line) and '''sign your name'''. Thanks! # Others: please add your comments below the proposal and '''sign your name too'''. Thanks! Please help identify well developed or complete science resources to feature during [[Wikiversity:Year of Science 2016]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:20, 18 January 2016 (UTC) === IT Fundamentals === [[IT Fundamentals]] is an excellent resource and very useful. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 23:11, 10 February 2016 (UTC) Review of IT Fundamentals: The course is aimed at the IT Fundamentals certification. At the outset IT is not a specialty. My initial impression from looking at the course materials starting at Wikiversity is that they are smart, smooth, and well-presented. There are 15 lessons. If there are any weaknesses with the course, I would expect them to be with a dependency on Wikipedia. Sampling, I looked at 1. [[IT Fundamentals/Hardware|Hardware]] and chose something I haven't heard of or read before: from Wikipedia "In computing, a computer bus operating with double data rate (DDR) transfers data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.[1][page needed] This is also known as double pumped, dual-pumped, and double transition." From Google scholar I found using "double date rate" and "the rising and falling edges of the clock signal": "For example, a double date rate (DDR) technique may be used, in which both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal are used to latch data."<ref name=Qawami>{{ cite journal |author=S Qawami, S Eilert |title=Writing to non-volatile memory during a volatile memory refresh cycle |journal=US Patent |month= |year=2011 |volume= |issue=7,944,764 |pages= |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US7944764 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> This informs me that on the certification exam something analogous, similar, or exactly phrased would be accepted as the correct answer to "What is DDR?" 4. [[IT Fundamentals/Virtualization|Virtualization]]: from Wikipedia on Cloud computing "SureCloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand." From Google scholar I found using "cloud computing" and "shared processing resources and data": "Cloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand."<ref name=Sharma>{{ cite journal |author=MP Sharma, A Hirwe |title=Implementation in Vehicular Communication with Various Approaches & Techniques |journal=International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Applied Science (IJSEAS) |month=March |volume=2 |issue=3 |publisher=ijseas.com |location= |year=2016 |url=http://ijseas.com/volume2/v2i3/ijseas20160350.pdf |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> The statement is referenced [25][24] to [R. Meireles, M. Boban, P. Steenkiste, O. Tonguz, and J. Barros, “Experimental study on the impact of vehicular obstructions in vanets,” in Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), 2010 IEEE, pp. 338–345, IEEE, 2010.] and [Md Whaiduzzaman, Mehdi Sookhak , Abdullah Gani, Rajkumar Buyya, “A survey on vehicular cloud computing” , Journal of Network and Computer Applications.] respectively. Again, I would expect this answer would be successful on the certification exam. 9. [[IT Fundamentals/Commands and Scripting|Commands and Scripting]]: from Wikipedia "Path (computing)": "A path, the general form of the name of a file or directory, specifies a unique location in a file system." I found on Google Scholar using "specifies a unique location in a file system" and "path": "A “file path” specifies a unique location in a file system. A path points to a file system location by following the directory tree hierarchy expressed in a string of characters in which path components, separated by a delimiting character, represent each directory."<ref name= Namir>{{ cite journal |author=Yoav Shalom Namir |title=Method and system for archiving a document |journal=US Patent Application |month=7 August |year=2014, priority date 27 November 2012 |volume=14 |issue=090,416 |pages= |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US20140222763 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> 12. [[IT Fundamentals/Security|Security]]: from Wikipedia "Hardening (computing)": "In computing, hardening is usually the process of securing a system by reducing its surface of vulnerability, which is larger when a system performs more functions; in principle a single-function system is more secure than a multipurpose one." Using "reducing its surface of vulnerability" and "hardening" on Google Scholar I found "Operating system hardening is the process of securing an operating system by reducing its surface of vulnerability."<ref name=Arnaud>{{ cite book |author=JĂ©rĂŽme Arnaud and Jean-Michel Rey |title=How can cybersecurity be enhanced in existing substations minimizing impact on the automation and control system, In: ''Electricity Distribution'' |publisher=IET |date=10 June 2013 |pages=1-4 |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6683456 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1049/cp.2013.0853 |isbn=978-1-84919-732-8 |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> While this is by no means a thorough examination of the merits of the course and its potential to students, it does demonstrate that the creator has double checked on Wikipedia to make sure the correct and necessary information is being conveyed to students through perhaps the weakest link. Although the course is relatively new to Wikiversity, I endorse its being rated as a Featured resource. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:16, 21 April 2016 (UTC) ====References==== {{reflist}} === Motivation and emotion === [[Motivation and emotion]] is one of the longest run and most developed projects on wikiversity. Very high quality. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 23:07, 10 February 2016 (UTC) :I've gone ahead and added [[Motivation and emotion]] as a featured course: [[Featured_content/20]] and bumped the FOTD counter: [[Template:FOTD/CALC]]. I've tried adding it the featured content tour, but isn't showing: [[Template:Featured Content/Nav]]. Seems to be something to with being at the end? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:54, 13 September 2022 (UTC) === Effective defense and ISIL === [[Effective defense and ISIL]] is a quality resource that thoroughly cites the sources used to present a neutral point of view on a topic currently in the news. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:26, 18 January 2016 (UTC) === The Crafting Freedom Project === [[The Crafting Freedom Project]] is an excellent resource in the public humanities. It tells the stories of how historic events have an impact on the everyday lives of people who are caught up in events beyond their control. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 21:10, 24 January 2016 (UTC) === Egyptian Verbal System (and its Vocalization) === [[Egyptian Verbal System (and its Vocalization)]] is one of the more fascinating projects that I've stumbled upon. It is surely a topic of rather idiosyncratic interest, but it is very well done. Resources on this subject would be difficult to find elsewhere. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 22:15, 30 January 2016 (UTC) == Places to go hunting for featured content == * [[:Category:Completed resources]] * [[Completed courses list]] * [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=+site:wikiversity.org+wikiversity&ct=more-results Google search of wikiversity.org] * [[Special:MostRevisions]] (NB: this only has data up to September 2007, so of limited current use). * [http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/EN/TablesWikipediaArticleEditsEN.htm Most edited pages] (possibly far more out of date even than the above). * [[Wikiversity:Participants]] - some of the most active participants are engaged in content development, so keep an eye on what they are producing. == Most desired content == This section lists content which is most strongly desired by Wikiversity participants, but which falls far short of featured status. If you wish to create content which quickly becomes featured, then this is a good place to look for projects to work on. === French stream === [[French stream]] * '''French'''. Compare [[French stream]] (people who have explicitly stated a desire to learn French) and [[:Category:French]]. This is a case where demand clearly outstrips supply. Just by providing a coherent set of French learning language resources, we would cater for visitors far better. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 09:51, 18 May 2008 (UTC) === Spanish === [[Spanish]] * '''Spanish'''. Ditto. Compare [[Spanish/Registration]] with [[Spanish]]. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 09:56, 18 May 2008 (UTC) **<small>Its my dream to find a wiki way to help in the area:(--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 09:11, 1 June 2008 (UTC)</small> == Content which was proposed and rejected == ''Items placed here are periodically archived at [[/Archive/Delisted]].'' == See also == * [[Wikiversity:School and university projects]] * [[:Category:Learning projects]] * [[Wikiversity:Examples]] - started in 2006, this page lists examples of Wikiversity content, divided by type * [[User:JWSchmidt/Blog/21 January 2007|Another list of portals]] with featured content * [[Wikiversity:Top100|Top100]] * [[Wikiversity:Schools|Complete list of schools]] (?) * [[/Archive/Delisted]] == Related resources == * [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign]] - includes the Picture of The Day system. [[Category:Wikiversity]] [[Category:Wikiversity development]] [[Category:Featured content| ]] fir2iw78vya4e1avkgtpu7h2ost6dz8 2842072 2842059 2026-10-22T09:53:49Z Jtneill 10242 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-55680-11|~2026-55680-11]] ([[User_talk:~2026-55680-11|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2810369 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:EtaOud.png|150px|right]] This page coordinates and informs about '''featured content''' on Wikiversity. == About featured content == === What is featured content? === Featured content is considered, for a variety of reasons, to present Wikiversity at its best to the general public. Featured content may show exemplary course design, a novel, usable and fully functioning approach to wiki-based education, or educational resources that have simply reached a high state of completion or had very large amounts of work done on them. ''See also: [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign|the Picture of the Day system]]'' === How is featured content displayed to the public? === There are a number of ways featured content is used. # Featured content on [[Wikiversity]] is regularly rotated in the "today's featured project" on the main page. # A wider range of material from this page, including content which is proposed-for but not-yet featured, is included in a special pseudo-random-page system accessed from the left-hand navigation panel on every page of Wikiversity - see [[Wikiversity:Random|Random project]]. # Many portals also have featured content. This page can be used for finding resources which are suitable for featuring on specific portals. Portals tend to set the bar for featured content somewhat lower, so portals may also feature content not listed here. An important difference between featured content on Wikiversity and featured content on much larger projects is that on Wikiversity, featured content is '''rotated'''. On very large projects, featured content is selected by special interest groups several weeks or months in advance, and is always new. On Wikiversity, to save time, and as a result of the lower level of content production, featured content is rotated on a daily basis. Featured content therefore reappears on the main page at regular intervals. === Who selects featured content? === Selecting and maintaining a featured content system requires a time-consuming long-term commitment and a wide knowledge of Wikiversity content. Few people have ever been prepared to invest time in this. On larger projects, featured content is usually selected by democratic vote. However democratic systems only work when there is a large enough body of well-informed participants in a featured content project. The Wikiversity system is unfortunately rather autocratic at the current time, but any user can propose content (just add it below) and comment on other suggestions. Please ''inform'' yourself widely about featured content before commenting if you can. There is no formal system of criteria at the current time, but you can discuss proposals for criteria on the talk page. On the whole, it would be desirable if featured content could represent as many different subjects and educational levels as possible. === Other ways of drawing attention to educational resources === The following ideas have been suggested at some time or other: * '''Events''' ** Add an "events" entry to the left-hand navigation panel, which links to an events page, which in turn lists upcoming events (e.g. meetings, synchronous discussions). This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. ** Notify events on [[Mediawiki:sitenotice]] (requires custodian) or in the main page news box (registered users). * '''Projects and resources in need of development''' ** These are "development drives". A development drives page could be created and maintained, which randomly rotates project links in the "development" box on the main page. This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. * '''Projects and resources in need of participants''' ** This idea relates to educational resources which are "ready" for the public, but which may have very little content because the content is supposed to come from active community participation. These projects might be candidates for featured status once a community has created a substantial body of content, but at the current time these resources are more sketches or skeletons of ideas for participatory learning. The idea of drawing attention to these is to attract participants who will "develop" the resource, but "development" here is not meant in the usual sense of "development" (as in "development drive") because development (production) and use (consumption) merge. A "needs-participants" page could be created and maintained, which randomly rotates project links in the "community" box on the main page. This would require someone prepared to regularly maintain the page. ** One could also classify a participation drive as an "event" == Current featured content == [[:Category:Featured resources]] {{/table}} :''Reference: [[/Archive|Archive of discussions of successful featured content]]'' :''Tour: [[Featured content]]'' :''Admin: [[Template:Featured Content/Nav]], [[Template:FOTD]], [[Template:FOTD/CALC]], [[Template:cool]], [[Template:hot]]'' : ''Number of pages in featured resources: c. 1500-1600 (about 17%-18% of Wikiversity content)'' : ''Number of featured resources: 18'' : ''Average size of featured resources: 83-88 pages'' == Shortlisted == ''This is an administrative section. It contains content which will shortly be added to featured content. The content listed here is currently being cleaned up and checked prior to featuring. Please feel welcome to help with the polishing process. When material here has been processed, it is archived at [[/Archive|Archive of discussions of successful featured content]].'' == New proposals for featured content == # If you propose something, please give a very brief reason/description (max 1 line) and '''sign your name'''. Thanks! # Others: please add your comments below the proposal and '''sign your name too'''. Thanks! Please help identify well developed or complete science resources to feature during [[Wikiversity:Year of Science 2016]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:20, 18 January 2016 (UTC) === IT Fundamentals === [[IT Fundamentals]] is an excellent resource and very useful. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 23:11, 10 February 2016 (UTC) Review of IT Fundamentals: The course is aimed at the IT Fundamentals certification. At the outset IT is not a specialty. My initial impression from looking at the course materials starting at Wikiversity is that they are smart, smooth, and well-presented. There are 15 lessons. If there are any weaknesses with the course, I would expect them to be with a dependency on Wikipedia. Sampling, I looked at 1. [[IT Fundamentals/Hardware|Hardware]] and chose something I haven't heard of or read before: from Wikipedia "In computing, a computer bus operating with double data rate (DDR) transfers data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.[1][page needed] This is also known as double pumped, dual-pumped, and double transition." From Google scholar I found using "double date rate" and "the rising and falling edges of the clock signal": "For example, a double date rate (DDR) technique may be used, in which both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal are used to latch data."<ref name=Qawami>{{ cite journal |author=S Qawami, S Eilert |title=Writing to non-volatile memory during a volatile memory refresh cycle |journal=US Patent |month= |year=2011 |volume= |issue=7,944,764 |pages= |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US7944764 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> This informs me that on the certification exam something analogous, similar, or exactly phrased would be accepted as the correct answer to "What is DDR?" 4. [[IT Fundamentals/Virtualization|Virtualization]]: from Wikipedia on Cloud computing "SureCloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand." From Google scholar I found using "cloud computing" and "shared processing resources and data": "Cloud computing, also on-demand computing, is a kind of Internet-based computing that provides shared processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand."<ref name=Sharma>{{ cite journal |author=MP Sharma, A Hirwe |title=Implementation in Vehicular Communication with Various Approaches & Techniques |journal=International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Applied Science (IJSEAS) |month=March |volume=2 |issue=3 |publisher=ijseas.com |location= |year=2016 |url=http://ijseas.com/volume2/v2i3/ijseas20160350.pdf |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> The statement is referenced [25][24] to [R. Meireles, M. Boban, P. Steenkiste, O. Tonguz, and J. Barros, “Experimental study on the impact of vehicular obstructions in vanets,” in Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), 2010 IEEE, pp. 338–345, IEEE, 2010.] and [Md Whaiduzzaman, Mehdi Sookhak , Abdullah Gani, Rajkumar Buyya, “A survey on vehicular cloud computing” , Journal of Network and Computer Applications.] respectively. Again, I would expect this answer would be successful on the certification exam. 9. [[IT Fundamentals/Commands and Scripting|Commands and Scripting]]: from Wikipedia "Path (computing)": "A path, the general form of the name of a file or directory, specifies a unique location in a file system." I found on Google Scholar using "specifies a unique location in a file system" and "path": "A “file path” specifies a unique location in a file system. A path points to a file system location by following the directory tree hierarchy expressed in a string of characters in which path components, separated by a delimiting character, represent each directory."<ref name= Namir>{{ cite journal |author=Yoav Shalom Namir |title=Method and system for archiving a document |journal=US Patent Application |month=7 August |year=2014, priority date 27 November 2012 |volume=14 |issue=090,416 |pages= |url=https://www.google.com/patents/US20140222763 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> 12. [[IT Fundamentals/Security|Security]]: from Wikipedia "Hardening (computing)": "In computing, hardening is usually the process of securing a system by reducing its surface of vulnerability, which is larger when a system performs more functions; in principle a single-function system is more secure than a multipurpose one." Using "reducing its surface of vulnerability" and "hardening" on Google Scholar I found "Operating system hardening is the process of securing an operating system by reducing its surface of vulnerability."<ref name=Arnaud>{{ cite book |author=JĂ©rĂŽme Arnaud and Jean-Michel Rey |title=How can cybersecurity be enhanced in existing substations minimizing impact on the automation and control system, In: ''Electricity Distribution'' |publisher=IET |date=10 June 2013 |pages=1-4 |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6683456 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1049/cp.2013.0853 |isbn=978-1-84919-732-8 |pmid= |accessdate=2016-04-20 }}</ref> While this is by no means a thorough examination of the merits of the course and its potential to students, it does demonstrate that the creator has double checked on Wikipedia to make sure the correct and necessary information is being conveyed to students through perhaps the weakest link. Although the course is relatively new to Wikiversity, I endorse its being rated as a Featured resource. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:16, 21 April 2016 (UTC) ====References==== {{reflist}} === Motivation and emotion === [[Motivation and emotion]] is one of the longest run and most developed projects on wikiversity. Very high quality. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 23:07, 10 February 2016 (UTC) :I've gone ahead and added [[Motivation and emotion]] as a featured course: [[Featured_content/20]] and bumped the FOTD counter: [[Template:FOTD/CALC]]. I've tried adding it the featured content tour, but isn't showing: [[Template:Featured Content/Nav]]. Seems to be something to with being at the end? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:54, 13 September 2022 (UTC) === Effective defense and ISIL === [[Effective defense and ISIL]] is a quality resource that thoroughly cites the sources used to present a neutral point of view on a topic currently in the news. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:26, 18 January 2016 (UTC) === The Crafting Freedom Project === [[The Crafting Freedom Project]] is an excellent resource in the public humanities. It tells the stories of how historic events have an impact on the everyday lives of people who are caught up in events beyond their control. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 21:10, 24 January 2016 (UTC) === Egyptian Verbal System (and its Vocalization) === [[Egyptian Verbal System (and its Vocalization)]] is one of the more fascinating projects that I've stumbled upon. It is surely a topic of rather idiosyncratic interest, but it is very well done. Resources on this subject would be difficult to find elsewhere. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 22:15, 30 January 2016 (UTC) == Places to go hunting for featured content == * [[:Category:Completed resources]] * [[Completed courses list]] * [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=+site:wikiversity.org+wikiversity&ct=more-results Google search of wikiversity.org] * [[Special:MostRevisions]] (NB: this only has data up to September 2007, so of limited current use). * [http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/EN/TablesWikipediaArticleEditsEN.htm Most edited pages] (possibly far more out of date even than the above). * [[Wikiversity:Participants]] - some of the most active participants are engaged in content development, so keep an eye on what they are producing. == Most desired content == This section lists content which is most strongly desired by Wikiversity participants, but which falls far short of featured status. If you wish to create content which quickly becomes featured, then this is a good place to look for projects to work on. === French stream === [[French stream]] * '''French'''. Compare [[French stream]] (people who have explicitly stated a desire to learn French) and [[:Category:French]]. This is a case where demand clearly outstrips supply. Just by providing a coherent set of French learning language resources, we would cater for visitors far better. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 09:51, 18 May 2008 (UTC) === Spanish === [[Spanish]] * '''Spanish'''. Ditto. Compare [[Spanish/Registration]] with [[Spanish]]. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 09:56, 18 May 2008 (UTC) **<small>Its my dream to find a wiki way to help in the area:(--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 09:11, 1 June 2008 (UTC)</small> == Content which was proposed and rejected == ''Items placed here are periodically archived at [[/Archive/Delisted]].'' == See also == * [[Wikiversity:School and university projects]] * [[:Category:Learning projects]] * [[Wikiversity:Examples]] - started in 2006, this page lists examples of Wikiversity content, divided by type * [[User:JWSchmidt/Blog/21 January 2007|Another list of portals]] with featured content * [[Wikiversity:Top100|Top100]] * [[Wikiversity:Schools|Complete list of schools]] (?) * [[/Archive/Delisted]] == Related resources == * [[Educational Media Awareness Campaign]] - includes the Picture of The Day system. [[Category:Wikiversity]] [[Category:Wikiversity development]] [[Category:Featured content| ]] k0uxnicka8nrh7voj25o7xdbykjq2i6 Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1 4 4385 2841897 2552116 2026-10-21T17:32:33Z Koavf 147 2841897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{center top}}'''This is an archive of past discussions. Please do not modify it or make new requests here. Please do so at [[Wikiversity:Import]].'''{{center bottom}} == Thursday, October 19 - Requests == *Could someone please import [[Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages]] from wikipedia? [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 02:06, 20 October 2006 (UTC) *:We already have a help page on [[Wikiversity:Signature|signatures]]. Why do we need another one? [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 09:47, 20 October 2006 (UTC) **Sorry, it had to do with another interlink and/or template, and I can't recall what it was anymore. I should have made a more detailed request. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 17:59, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ***The link in unsigned comments points in that direction. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 18:02, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ****I've simply redirected [[Sign your posts on talk pages]] to [[Wikiversity:Signature]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 15:43, 26 October 2006 (UTC) *****That only works in a search, not in a direct link, I've updated the template, and will request a removal of the redirect. Sorry for the unnecessary commentary, more learning by doing! [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 05:58, 27 October 2006 (UTC) ******done [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 10:10, 27 October 2006 (UTC) == Friday, October 5 - Requests == * Could a custodian please look at [[School:Fire and Emergency Management/Fire Investigator]] (see also [[b:Wikiversity:School of Fire and Emergency Management/Fire Investigator]]). The pages (except the top, which I'll do in a second) need to be imported and moved. I've just spent an hour and a bit importing pages for this school and have run out of time (I should have been asleep about an hour ago). --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 02:24, 5 October 2006 (UTC) :I completed Fire Investigator and also did Fire Officer. Need break now, but will try to do more later. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 19:42, 5 October 2006 (UTC) == Saturday, September 2 - Done == *[[b:Wikiversity:Introduction to Philosophy]] &rarr; [[Introduction to Philosophy]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 04:19, 2 September 2006 (UTC) == Wednesday, August 30 - Done == *[[b:Sociology of the Family]] &rarr; [[Sociology of the Family]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 00:45, 1 September 2006 (UTC) == Tuesday, August 29 - Done == *[[b:Web Design]] &rarr; [[Topic:Web Design]] -- see notes on the [[Topic_talk:Web_Design|talk page]]. ----[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 09:46, 29 August 2006 (UTC) **All subpages moved to main namespace, see [[Special:Prefixindex/Web Design]] *[[b:Wikiversity:Classical_Mechanics]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:Classical_Mechanics]] (please move to appropriate namespace) * I'd like a copy of [[m:Template:for]] and [[m:Template:for/aux]]. I'm assuming since I wanted a copy, but the original stays there, that we don't need an import, with an import history, so I did a transwiki paste. But if we do, feel free to delete my copy, and import the other one. But be aware that while those pages don't exist, it'll make [[Wikiversity:Disclosures]] look funny. If the transwiki paste is OK, just mark this "done". [[User:TimNelson|TimNelson]] 15:35, 29 August 2006 (UTC) :I don't see any problems with a c&p, so this should be fine.--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 17:31, 29 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:High_School_Physics]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:High_School_Physics]] (please move to appropriate namespace) :The whole section, or just mainpage? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 14:37, 29 August 2006 (UTC) ::The mainpage is useless without the others, so I went ahead and transwikied it all.--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 17:51, 29 August 2006 (UTC) == Monday, August 28 - Done == *[[Wikiversity:School of Theology/Gospel 101/Verses for the week]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:33, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[Christianity/Gospel 101]]--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:33, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:Stellar_Evolution]] &rarr; [[Stellar Evolution]] *[[b:Wikiversity:Astronomy]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:Astronomy]] ([[Topic:Astronomy]] already exists, please merge or rename). *<s>[[b:Portuguese:Contents]]</s> - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 14:08, 28 August 2006 (UTC) (This is a textbook.----[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 19:30, 28 August 2006 (UTC)) *[[b:Wikiversity: Hitler's Germany]] &rarr; [[Hitler's Germany]] --<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 21:47, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:The Great War and Versailles]] &rarr; [[The Great War and Versailles]] --<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 21:47, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ==Completed== * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Productive_Forking_and_Tailoring_is_Encouraged I would like this linked to from the policy discussion and voting page. If there is a place for discussion of draft policy or guidelines that is adequate as well. Forking and tailoring the material to achieve different purposes is a fairly obvious way to rapidly expand our available materials for various purposes. However, I fear much of the local wiki culture is oriented around deleting material perceived as redundant and eliminating duplication from the database. Hence a discussion of this type of useful activity from the start may be extremely useful. Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 23:32, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Linked to with voting and discussion at [[WV:RULES]]. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 08:03, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Communication *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Media_Studies --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 15:34, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Library_and_Information_Science probably should come too.--[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 15:41, 17 August 2006 (UTC) :All done. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 16:03, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Template:Wikiversity]] and [[:m:Template:WikiversityActivities]] (see ''What links here'' of local pages) [[User:555|555]] 19:56, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Done. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 20:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation]], [[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation/Chapter 1 Airplane Components]] - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 02:40, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:01, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Psychology --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 23:42, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done, with all subpages as well. It has been moved to [[School:Department of Psychology]]. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:47, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Mathematics and this one with all it's subpages for Robert Horning. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 16:05, 19 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 06:59, 20 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Literature_and_English_Studies/Writing_Center which I'd like to now come under the new Literary Studies thing (we're stepping away from strictly English). [[User:Atrivedi|Atrivedi]] :Done. Now located at [[School:Department of Literary Studies/Writing Center]]. Please forgive the 80,000 moves of the talk page. I was clearly not up to par. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 22:01, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *I need this file: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering/Free_or_open_source_design_tools transiki'd to: <s>http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Free_or_open_source_design_tools</S> Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 06:10, 25 August 2006 (UTC) **Done, now at [[Topic:Engineering/Free_or_open_source_design_tools]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:02, 27 August 2006 (UTC) *I would like the two files below (currently at Wikibooks) moved over into the lesson space under http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Project_Management :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Project_Management/Goal_Setting_and_Management ::[[Topic:Project Management/Goal_Setting_and_Management]] :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering:Critical_Thinking_%26_Self_Communication:goal_setting ::[[Topic:Project Management/Experimental Self Communication/Critical Thinking & Self Communication/Goal Setting]] Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 05:13, 23 August 2006 (UTC) ::*Imported, moving now. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:39, 27 August 2006 (UTC) :::Moved, feel free to rename, but don't delete redirects.--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:48, 27 August 2006 (UTC) == Saturday, November 4 - Re-Requests == *Suppose this got lost in the shuffle. Could someone please bring that Cite_book over? I don't want to list a whole bunch of sources and then re-format them later on. It would help out a lot. Thanks. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 08:39, 4 November 2006 (UTC) :*It's imported now... keep in mind that '''''we do not have import enabled from wikipedia!''''' I had to first import it to wikibooks, then from wikibooks to here, which I'm not sure I should really do. Now at [[Template:Cite book]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 11:12, 4 November 2006 (UTC) ::Most appreciated. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 04:38, 5 November 2006 (UTC) == Tuesday, October 24 - Requests == *Could someone please import [[w:Template:Cite_book]] and ideally all the related cite pages? <small>(''The preceding [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by'' [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] ([[User talk:RichMac|talk]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RichMac|contribs]]) {{{2|}}}.)</small> **Currently the only way to do that is to import first to wikibooks, then to wikiversity... though in the case of this page that's fine, because it would be nice to have that on wikibooks too. What related pages are you talking about? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 17:26, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ***Everything on the [[w:Citation_templates]] would be ideal. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 06:30, 27 October 2006 (UTC) ****Could someone at least bring that cite book over? [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 20:54, 29 October 2006 (UTC) == Old Requests for Import == (Some of these are done, some aren't. If a page is needed, please list it above, under today's date.) For security reasons, only admins can import pages. You can list here what pages on Meta or Wikibooks you would like to have moved to Wikiversity. An admin will take care of the import as soon as possible and notify you when it is done. '''Note''': there is a [[Wikiversity:Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks#To Do|list of pages already imported from Wikibooks]] that have not yet been marked with <nowiki>{{MovedToWikiversity}}</nowiki>. * If someone could import [[Calculus/Building up to the Riemann-Darboux Definition]] and [[The Riemann-Darboux Integral, Integrability criterion, and monotone/Lipschitz function]] that would be nice, this is part of a Calculus class that I might continue next year. [[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 14:40, 22 August 2006 (UTC) **Are these on meta? wikibooks?--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:37, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ***Wikibooks, sorry: [[[b:Building_up_to_the_Riemann-Darboux_Definition| Calculus/Building up to the Riemann-Darboux Definition]]] [[[b:The_Riemann-Darboux_Integral%2C_Integrability_criterion%2C_and_monotone/Lipschitz_function| The Riemann-Darboux Integral, Integrability criterion, and monotone/Lipschitz function]]] ****Aren't those textbooks? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 14:56, 29 August 2006 (UTC) *****No, I created them and linked them from the Calculus page in Wikiversity.[[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 15:16, 30 August 2006 (UTC) ******This has been here for quite a while, is it possible that anyone could move these? [[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 03:39, 24 October 2006 (UTC) * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering should replace the copy of itself located here: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Engineering_and_Technology Sorry about the extra work deleting the early copy. Will not happen again. [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 12:03, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Done. It's at [[School:Engineering]]. If you want to rename it, go ahead and move, but leave the redirect because that's what the Wikibooks page links to now. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:17, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::I'm importing the subpages too. This might take a while. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:29, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::Actually, how about you give me a list of the sub pages you want imported? Or do you want all of them? -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:32, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :::Eventually we want all of them. I have requested admin status so I can help out. Pace yourself and service requests by name first. Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 19:08, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::::I'm not sure I understand the last part of that sentence. "service requests by name first"? -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 19:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :::::Sorry for confusion. I meant by specifically requested titles that people list here as urgent or of immediate interest. Such as the one below regarding "proposed productive forking and tailoring". 8) [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 23:35, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::Probably should move over the department subpages for School of Engineering as well, particularly Electrical Engineering :) --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 23:08, 16 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Wikiversity/Archive 1]], [[:m:Wiki 101]], [[:m:Wikiversity students]], [[:m:Wikiversity browsers]], [[:m:Wikiversity teachers]], [[:m:Wikiversity and Wikipedia services]], [[:m:Service community]], [[:m:Wikiversity and Wikibooks services]], [[:m:Research community]], [[:m:Secondary research]], [[:m:Citing Sources]], [[:m:Research collaboration]], [[:m:Wikiversity thinktank]], [[:m:Wikiversity support staff]], [[:m:Student union]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Communities]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Helpdesk]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Faculty club]] (and talk), [[:m:Cell biology improvement drive]], [[:m:Human Genetic Uniqueness Project]]. [[User:555|555]] 23:21, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Wikiversity:Faculty club]] (and talk), [[:m:Wikiversity:Subjects]], [[:m:Language training in Wikiversity]], [[:m:Wikiversity/Draft Charter]] (and talk), [[:m:Andrew Worth]], [[:m:Dan Cruthirds]], [[:m:Dean Boudewijnse]], [[:m:Shingle]] (and talk), [[:m:Moving Wikiversity forward]]. [[User:555|555]] 23:27, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * We've got our first com-sci advisor, so I'm proposing that http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science and all subpages get moved over for him. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 14:32, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *And we have someone writing theology classes, so import http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Theology and subpages --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 00:32, 19 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science This might be useful to import [[User:Spacey|Spacey]] 14:31, 19 August 2006 (UTC) * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Web_Design and all subpages. We've been working on this Wikibook for a year or so now, but it really belongs in wikiversity as it's mostly activities/challenges etc. Not sure whether Web Design should go in Information Studies or Computer Science. Also, sub topics like Javascript, PHP might cross boundaries of schools. [[User:Michaelnelson|Michaelnelson]] 07:36, 22 August 2006 (UTC) ==How about this== Here is a list of all the schools on wikibooks, just check them off after you've imported them (and put them in the "School:" [[Wikiversity:Namespaces|namespace]] unless such a school already exists. In thoses cases, I am putting the page from Wikibooks into the "Portal:" namespace and linking it to the existing school page already in "School:" namespace): ==='''Physical Sciences'''=== *Physical Science Schools that were started at Wikibooks: **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Chemistry]]</s> ::I've transwikied this, and fixed all the links.--[[User:Digitalme|digital_me]]<sup>[[User_talk:Digitalme|talk]]</sup> 02:19, 20 August 2006 (UTC) **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Forensics and Security]] - exception- low priority --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 23:21, 26 August 2006 (UTC) ::This has subpages that can be imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Engineering]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Electronics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Geology]]</s> - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Mathematics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Physics and Astronomy]]</s> ::All but School of Computer Forensics and Security have been imported here. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===Life Sciences=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Biology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Medicine]]</s> **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Biomechanics]] - exception- low priority --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Oceanography]] - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC)</s> ::Doesn't need importing. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:51, 3 October 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Plant Sciences]]</s> **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Zoology]] - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Veterinary Medicine]]</s> ::Biomechanics is a set of wikibooks links, should we import this? Also, school of zoology not worth importing. Oceaonography doesn't need importing either. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:51, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===<s>Humanities (done)</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Art and Design]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Classics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Law]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Linguistics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Literature and English Studies]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Music]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Comparative Mythology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Philosophy]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Theology]]</s> ===<s>Professional Schools (done, wikibooks versions locked)</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Architecture]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Business]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Education]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Entrepreneurship]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Foreign Language Learning]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Audio Engineering]]</s> -- page was deleted earlier, 1 edit with no real content. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 00:23, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Computer Science|Computer Science]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Science]]</s> :School of Computer Science has been imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 02:51, 28 September 2006 (UTC) <s>Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) should be added to the School of Computer Science.</s> -- Done -- [[User:Tadpole256|<b>Tadpole256</b>]][[User_talk:Tadpole256|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(Discuss)</span></sup>]] ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Engineering|Engineering]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Engineering]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Institute of Construction]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Project Management]]</s> ::These have all been imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:46, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Social Sciences| Social Sciences]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Anthropology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Communication]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Development Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Economics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Fire and Emergency Management]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of History]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Journalism]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Library and Information Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Media Studies]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Political Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Psychology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Social Work]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Sociology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School Of Security, Surveillance and Law Enforcement]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Embedded System Engineering]]</s> --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 17:00, 19 August 2006 (UTC) **[[b:Wikiversity:Embedded System Engineering]] [[User:Srinivasasha|Srinivasasha]] 08:02, 17 February 2007 (UTC) :::[[Embedded System Engineering]] now exists. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 15:19, 17 February 2007 (UTC) :Note that one of the purposes of this page is also to prioritize what schools are actively going to be developed right away on Wikiversity, so we can make sure that the content is here instead of somewhere else. Still, thanks for posting this message here. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:13, 20 August 2006 (UTC) ::Well, I just thought that every one of these probably should be moved over at some point, so it would be good to have a list so that people see that XXX is oging to be imported eventually, as to not do extra work. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 20:52, 20 August 2006 (UTC) :::If this is an unwritten policy to "<b>guide</b>" or "<b>prioritize</b>" incoming volunteers acttivities it is in serious error. Volunteers will have their own priorities and leaving their previous files in limbo is not likely to shift them from one subject to another productively. A page somewhere noted 37 files had been transwikied to date. This does not make us look like a serious going concern. [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 04:43, 21 August 2006 (UTC) I need the following pages imported and moved to these locations: * [[b:Primary mathematics:Numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Adding numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Adding numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Subtracting numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Subtracting numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Multiplying numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Multiplying numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Dividing numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Dividing numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Negative numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Negative numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Fractions]] to [[Primary mathematics:Fractions]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Working with fractions]] to [[Primary mathematics:Working with fractions]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Powers, roots, and exponents]] to [[Primary mathematics:Powers, roots, and exponents]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Average, median, and mode]] to [[Primary mathematics:Average, median, and mode]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Percentages]] to [[Primary mathematics:Percentages]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Probability]] to [[Primary mathematics:Probability]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Factors and Primes]] to [[Primary mathematics:Factors and Primes]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Method for Factoring]] to [[Primary mathematics:Method for Factoring]] If I've set it all up right, the links at [[Topic:Primary School Mathematics]] should all turn from red links to blue links. There is no hurry to do this, just let me know. --'''Whiteknight''' ([[User:Whiteknight|Versity]]) ([[b:User:Whiteknight|Books]]) 17:55, 28 August 2007 (UTC) :The pages listed above were imported. I only imported the [[Talk:Primary mathematics:Numbers|talk page for the first one]]. Since it might be possible to turn the original pages at Wikibooks into a book that can be used with additional complementary course material at Wikiversity, I did not put the ugly "MovedToWikiversity" template on the pages at Wikibooks. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 18:29, 28 August 2007 (UTC) <ref>Insert reference material</ref> ==recent== *[[b:template:mbox]] '''&ndash; [[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike.lifeguard}}]]''' | <sup>[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|talk}}]]</sup> 03:12, 5 October 2007 (UTC) ::Looks like [[:Template:Mbox]] was already copied here. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] 06:09, 8 January 2008 (UTC) *[[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] - [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;<sup>[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]</sup> 03:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC) :::This article you requested to be imported have already been done by Darklama . [[User:Terra|<strong>{{font|color=Black|Ter}}{{font|color=Red|ra}}</strong>]] 19:28, 28 May 2008 (UTC) *Wikibooks has [[b:Wikibooks:Votes for deletion/Democracy Project|decided]] [[b:Special:PrefixIndex/Democracy Project]] is not suitable for our project, but we thought it may fit within Wikiveristy's [[WV:WIW|scope]]. [[User:Darklama|Darklama]] was not sure it did. '''&ndash;&nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&nbsp;|&nbsp;<sup>[[m:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@meta}}]]</sup> 23:06, 26 July 2008 (UTC) :[[Image:Green tick.svg|20px]] imported, ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])</small> 10:12, 9 August 2008 (UTC) * Leaving a note that I imported [[Romanticism and Revolution]] as it seemed to be an AfD that would not go well. It was an essay/lecture type setup that seems more suited to Wikiversity - would also go well as part of a Romanticism course project that I am writing various lectures for and I am contacting the creator now. [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]]) 15:50, 17 February 2010 (UTC) * From an en-Wikpedia Article for Deletion discussion [[w:History Essay Format & Thesis Statement]]. Cheers! [[User:Bwilkins|Bwilkins]] 15:12, 13 February 2010 (UTC) *I'm not quite sure if it's actually appropriate for Wikiversity, but [[w:Genes to Cognition Project]] has been tagged on the English Wikipedia for several months. [[User:Dancter|Dancter]] 14:17, 30 April 2009 (UTC) *: '''Done'''. [[Genes to Cognition Project]] --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 17:22, 30 April 2009 (UTC) The following are not personal requests of mine. They are books and their subpages suggested to be transwikied to Wikiversity over at Wikibooks, either through a template or a VfD discussion. Not being familiar with Wikiversity's workings, I post them for assessment of their worth here at Wikiversity. *[[b:Hexpixel Code]] *[[b:Morphological Flows and Sustainable Growth]] *[[b:Numerical Methods Qualification Exam Problems and Solutions (University of Maryland)]] *[[b:Practical Argumentation Framework]] *[[b:UMD Analysis Qualifying Exam]] -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 18:31, 14 July 2009 (UTC) :* [[Hexpixel Code]] :* [[Practical Argumentation Framework]] : Done --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:04, 14 July 2009 (UTC) [[b:The Use of English with Other Members of the Thai Academic Community among Dhurakij Pundit University’s Postgraduate Business Students]] is reaching a consensus for transwikiing here as part of a request for deletion and it is likely more suited to Wikiversity. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 23:55, 23 November 2009 (UTC) {{done}} See [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ALog&type=import&user=&page=&year=&month=-1 log]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 17:52, 20 December 2009 (UTC) [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]] has been suggested to be transwikied here instead of deleted by darklama. <s>[[b:The Knowledge Which No One Can Have]] has been described as nonsense by mike.lifeguard who says it can be pursued with vigor here.</s> -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 12:51, 30 April 2010 (UTC) : Import right now seems premature, there is no consensus yet for either work on Wikibooks. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 13:48, 30 April 2010 (UTC) : Neither of them are particularly useful on Wikibooks, IMO. [[User:Kayau|Kayau]] ([[User talk:Kayau|talk]] | [[Special:Emailuser/Kayau|email]] | [[Special:Contributions/Kayau|contribs]] | [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~interiot/cgi-bin/count_edits?user={{urlencode:Kayau}}&dbname=enwikiversity_p stats]) 10:21, 30 May 2010 (UTC) [[b:Standardized English Test Vocabulary Building]] - does not exactly belong to Wikibooks (OR). However, it is nice to have on Wikiversity as it can be treated as a course. [[User:Kayau|Kayau]] ([[User talk:Kayau|talk]] | [[Special:Emailuser/Kayau|email]] | [[Special:Contributions/Kayau|contribs]] | [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~interiot/cgi-bin/count_edits?user={{urlencode:Kayau}}&dbname=enwikiversity_p stats]) 10:21, 30 May 2010 (UTC) [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]] again and [[b:Lohse, Martin]], [[b:Guide to Success and Fulfillment]], [[b:Happiness]]. No consensus at Wikibooks needs to be had to request an import here; the question is whether this content is within scope here and whether custodians want the content. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 03:36, 3 June 2010 (UTC) : [[b:Happiness]] at least I'd be interested to import and merge with resources in development on [[Happiness]] which I hope to develop for some upcoming teaching. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:15, 3 June 2010 (UTC) : While true that consensus at Wikibooks isn't needed to import here, I think requesting import is premature when there is a possibility that the work might be kept at Wikibooks. Duplicating works without anyone on Wikiversity to develop it isn't good IMO. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 11:19, 3 June 2010 (UTC) ::Well, [[b:Lohse, Martin]], at least, has [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Lohse.2C_Martin|consensus]] and the the main contributor is on board with it, so you'll have someone working on it once it's moved here. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 03:01, 5 June 2010 (UTC) ::: [[Lohse, Martin]] is imported. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 13:37, 6 June 2010 (UTC) ==Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience== Is it possible to import [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]]? [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:37, 25 June 2010 (UTC) :{{done}} along with all its subpages. I've hopefully not missed anything. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:11, 25 June 2010 (UTC) Also its related pdf version [[b:File:10 stupid pamphlet.pdf]] [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:40, 25 June 2010 (UTC) :[[:File:10 stupid pamphlet.pdf]] is available for use on Wikiversity by virtue of its existence on Commons. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:13, 25 June 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:KinderCalculus|KinderCalculus]]== Could you please import wikijunior:KinderCalculus at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:KinderCalculus ? Please include all pages, including history, discussions, etc. Thank you. [[User:Numiri|Numiri]] 17:24, 10 July 2010 (UTC) This seems to have been missed so let me add a few links make the lives of the admins here a bit easier. [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:59, 13 July 2010 (UTC) *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus]] -> [[KinderCalculus]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Bald]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Bald]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Bald]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Bald]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Syntax]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Syntax]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Dress]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Dress]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Dress]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Dress]] *{{done}} Thanks for the links, they did make things easier although I hadn't spotted your request until now. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:44, 13 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:How To Do Nothing|How To Do Nothing]]== I would like to request the following transwiki. The following module did not fit in at wikibooks and may be useful here, but I am not really sure if it falls under wikiversity's scope, and I don't know if a good home for it, so I can't preform my usual level of clean up after a transwiki. Since the page no longer has any active contributors at wikibooks it would be a good idea to look it over and see if it fits into this project. A record of the discussion about whether or not to transwiki may be found [[b:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/How To Do Nothing|here]]. *[[b:How To Do Nothing]] -> [[Transwiki:How To Do Nothing]] Thanks, [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 11:24, 15 July 2010 (UTC) : {{not done}} doesn't fall under Wikiversity's scope, and per talk [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Thenub314#How_to_do_nothing here]. [[User:Diego Grez|Diego Grez]] 19:05, 19 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:How To Build A Pykrete Bong|How To Build A Pykrete Bong]]== If you would like this, please import it, otherwise it will be deleted as per [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#How_To_Build_A_Pykrete_Bong|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 21:36, 20 July 2010 (UTC) * {{done}} [[User:Diego Grez|Diego Grez]] 23:34, 20 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:Wiki Science|Wiki Science]]== See [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Wiki_Science|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 22:49, 18 August 2010 (UTC) :*Support import. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 00:48, 23 September 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:Towards A Better India|Towards A Better India]]== See [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Towards_A_Better_India|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 22:49, 18 August 2010 (UTC) : [[Image:Vista-clean.png|15px| ]] '''Done''' --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:17, 4 October 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook|A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook]]== Could you please import [[b:http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A_Supplement_to_the_Texas_US_History_Textbook|A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook]] to Wikiversity which seems to be a better fit for the project. Thank you![[User:Tgokey|Tgokey]] 10:44, 20 October 2010 (UTC) : [[Image:Vista-clean.png|15px| ]] '''Done''' <small>[[User:Leutha|Leutha]] 15:15, 9 September 2011, sig added by --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 15:31, 9 September 2011 (UTC)</small> == Import from betawikiversity == {{user|Jon Awbrey}} create a project in betawikiversity, but as English Wikiversity exist, and as it do not apport change in the pages since one month, I tell the import from betawikiversity into English Wikiversity for the page list above. Image was under GFDL license, they will be exported from Betawikiversity to Wikimedia Commons. In the list, the main page of this project may be "Logical graph" # Charles Sanders Peirce # Logical graph # Descriptive science # Normative science # Truth theory # Pragmatic maxim # Logic of information ‎ # Semeiotic ‎ # Dynamics of inquiry ‎ # Inquiry ‎ # Zeroth order logic ‎ # Sole sufficient operator ‎ # Universe of discourse ‎ # Truth table ‎ # Relation reduction ‎ # Relation construction ‎ # Relation composition ‎ # Relation # Logical matrix ‎ # Logic of relatives ‎ # Hypostatic abstraction ‎ # Continuous predicate ‎ # Relative term ‎ # Differential logic ‎ # Boolean-valued function ‎ # Boolean function ‎ # Boolean domain ‎ # Ampheck ‎ # Parametric operator ‎ # Multigrade operator ‎ # Minimal negation operator ‎ # Sign relation ‎ # Triadic relation ‎ # Relation theory ‎ # Peirce's law ‎ # Logical implication ‎ # Exclusive disjunction ‎ # Theory of relations ‎ # Peer Educational Resource ‎ # Peer Educational Resources ‎ # Logic Live/Participants ‎ # Inquiry Live/Participants ‎ # Propositional calculus ‎ # Logical disjunction ‎ # Logical conjunction ‎ # Logical negation ‎ # Peirce’s Law ‎ # Peirce’s law ‎ # Peirce's Law ‎ # Logical Graph ‎ # Logical graphs ‎ [[User:Crochet.david|Crochet.david]] 08:26, 29 October 2010 (UTC) :Jon was approached about this before. He said he did not want his contributions on en.wikiversity. He is not blocked here so he could place them here himself. [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]]) 20:08, 22 November 2010 (UTC) :Jon has also mentioned on his user talk page that his intent is for this to be international and that some pages have already been translated into other languages. Beta Wikiversity seems like a better home for international works, where the work can be kept consistent across languages. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 20:33, 22 November 2010 (UTC) ==Wikibooks RFDs== I believe these discussions have resulted in consensus for transwiki to Wikiversity. * [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#The_Practice_of_Learning_Theories|The Practice of Learning Theories]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Signs_for_Selecting_a_Spouse_for_a_Successful_Marriage|Signs for Selecting a Spouse for a Successful Marriage]] [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 13:57, 31 January 2011 (UTC) : '''Done'''. [[Learning theories in practice]] and [[Spouse selection according to Baha'i writings]]. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 15:41, 31 January 2011 (UTC) ==History Essay Format & Thesis Statement== Outcome of [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/History Essay Format & Thesis Statement|this deletion discussion]] on English Wikipedia in 2010 was to transwiki but I don't think any request was made at the time. Is it in scope for this project? [[User:January|January]] 17:04, 8 October 2011 (UTC) :The request was made but there was no clear follow-up. January, if you are willing to take responsibility for this page, here, I'll import it to allow you to do that. Okay? My import will *not*, then, be a decision that it is in scope. It may need to be moved, refactored, etc. However, Wikiversity is highly inclusive, generally. Glancing at the page, it looks useful to me. I'm going to go ahead and import, just to practice using the tool. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 17:45, 8 October 2011 (UTC) :{{done}}. I did not transwiki the Talk page because it had no real content relevant to the page's usage here. But if the Talk page is desired, let me know. Because I'm banned on Wikipedia, I cannot notify the Wikipedia community of the transwiki (except by email or with block evasion, and with strong reason, which this situation doesn't create). --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 18:17, 8 October 2011 (UTC) ::Thanks, I've tied up the loose ends on Wikipedia. [[User:January|January]] 18:40, 8 October 2011 (UTC) == Katie Harwood == The article [[w:Katie Harwood]] on English Wikipedia is up for deletion. The consensus in the deletion discussion is leaning towards regretful delete: the person has put work into developing it as a piece of original research. Before deleting it, it seems like it might be an idea to import it to Wikiversity as providing a space for original research is really more Wikiversity's bailiwick. If the page gets deleted on enwiki, please feel free to contact me (I'm an enWP admin) and I can help in transwiki-ing it over to Wikiversity. I've tagged it with the "Copy to Wikiversity" template. [[User:Tom Morris|Tom Morris]] 17:39, 13 January 2012 (UTC) : {{done}} --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:13, 13 January 2012 (UTC) ==Rodger's Method== [[w:Wikipedia talk:Articles for creation/Rodger's Method]] > [[Rodger's Method]]. Not a good match for Wikipedia, import was suggested on the Colloquium. [[Special:Contributions/62.194.104.217|62.194.104.217]] 09:49, 6 January 2013 (UTC) {{done}}--[[User:Collingwood|Collingwood]] ([[User talk:Collingwood|talk]]) 12:38, 6 January 2013 (UTC) ==History [[Plant propagation]]== [[w:Cutting (plant): Revision history]] > [[Plant propagation]] . [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] <sup>[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]</sup> 12:46, 4 December 2012 (UTC) <s>Revision history of [[w:Vertical farming]] hasn't been moved to [[Vertical farming]]'s history since the article started. 10:01, 8 July 2009‎. It needs a history merge or a delete.</s> deleted - [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] <sup>[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]</sup> 04:27, 6 January 2013 (UTC) ==Linear function (mathematics)== <s>[[w:Linear function (mathematics)]] Looks like learning material. It looks better here than at Wikipedia.</s> [[User:Citrusbowler|Citrusbowler]] ([[User talk:Citrusbowler|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Citrusbowler|contribs]]) 19:09, 18 June 2013 (UTC) ==Import history of [[w:Star]]== Please import the revision history of [[w:Star]] to [[Intro_astronomy_college_course/Star_(Wikipedia)]] :This is my first effort to import the history of a Wikipedia article into a Wikiversity resource. Let me know if there is a smoother way to do this. For more information see https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#Second_question. Thanks --[[User:Guy vandegrift|guyvan52]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 18:56, 13 March 2014 (UTC) ::{{Done}} - Surprisingly, it wouldn't let me import the entire history. I tried several times and several ways, and all failed as saying it couldn't open the file. But I was able to import the most recent version, all attributed to a single author. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 19:54, 13 March 2014 (UTC) :::{{Thank you}} I tried to help you by importing the text and only got in the way...--[[User:Guy vandegrift|guyvan52]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 20:05, 13 March 2014 (UTC) ==Induced stem cells from Wikipedia== Please let me create a page "Guide for studying Induced stem cells" This page has moved here from Wikipedia as all of the Wikipedia content must be supported by secondary sources, as per [[w:WP:RS]]. We need to wait until all cited articles will be discussed in secondary sources. But, the article [[w:Induced stem cells]] most fundamentally relies on primary sources, where WP calls for primary reliance on secondaries. At the same time instructional and study guides that make use of original research are allowed on Wikiversity Furthermore, Wikiversity will offer a space not just for hosting research, but also for facilitating research through creating researcher communities. Wikiversity is the place for '''original research''', including '''primary''' or secondary research. This includes '''interpreting primary sources, forming ideas''', or taking observations. See [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?# Wikiversity for researching]] This article is a new type of scientific review - quickly replenished dynamic review. Its goal to combine the latest research results with an overall picture of achievements in the topic under discussion. See: [[w:Editing Induced stem cells]][[User:Dmitry Dzhagarov|Dmitry Dzhagarov]] ([[User talk:Dmitry Dzhagarov|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmitry Dzhagarov|contribs]]) 07:38, 2 May 2014 (UTC) :{{Done}} - It imported history up through last summer and then crashed. I imported the most recent version on top of that history. It's at [[Induced stem cells]]. If you want to rename it, I'd recommend Induced stem cells study or Induced stem cells study guide. If you rename it with the words Study guide first, the article is much harder for other users to locate. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 11:08, 2 May 2014 (UTC) Thank you very much [[User:Dmitry Dzhagarov|Dmitry Dzhagarov]] ([[User talk:Dmitry Dzhagarov|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmitry Dzhagarov|contribs]]) 14:38, 2 May 2014 (UTC) ==Crisis Bonding== I've placed a transwiki request to move [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_bonding Crisis bonding]] here to Wikiversity. This article is original research on a type of emotional bonding, and the consensus of Wikipedia editors is it is a better fit for Wikiversity than Wikipedia. [[User:PaintedCarpet|PaintedCarpet]] ([[User talk:PaintedCarpet|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PaintedCarpet|contribs]]) 22:22, 8 June 2014 (UTC) :{{Done}} - at [[Crisis bonding]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:59, 8 June 2014 (UTC) == More Pages == Pages in the [[Special:Allpages/Transwiki:|Transwiki pseudo-namespace]] that need to be re-named, and unused redirects deleted. How does this feature work? Why and how are pages put here, and how can it be indicated when they have been worked on?[[User:Leutha|Leutha]] 14:19, 10 September 2011 (UTC) == [[Wikipedia:Template:Location mark+]] == I would appreciate the import of the template [[Template:Location mark+]] that I would like to use in my and my students' Wikiversity projects "Editing Internet Text". Thank you. [[User:Iszmael|Iszmael]] ([[User talk:Iszmael|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Iszmael|contribs]]) 21:00, 23 May 2017 (UTC) :{{done}} --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 23:04, 23 May 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others|Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]]== I request that the page [[w:Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]] be imported into this project from Wikipedia. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gramophone_Company_of_India_Limited_Vs._Shanti_Films_Corporation_and_others&oldid=661832164 This revision] of the Wikipedia article appears to be original research that might be suitable for Wikiversity (it reads like a periodical article). The page is presently at "articles for deletion" (AfD) so it may change drastically at any time, but we may still want to have the essay. There is no point in waiting for the end of the AfD, as most of the participants are convinced that "transwiki" isn't a possible outcome of any AfD, and can't be persuaded otherwise. [[User:James500|James500]] ([[User talk:James500|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/James500|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 May 2015 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:34, 19 May 2015 (UTC) ::Remarkable to see the deletion discussion: [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]]. [[User:James500]], you did not understand the relationship of the WMF and Wikipedia governance, the argument about "not allowed to delete" was incorrect. The Wikipedia community can basically delete whatever it chooses, and when you tell people they are "not allowed" to do what they want to do, they may well do it to spite you. ::On the other hand, I've seen closes of "transwiki." Blue Raspberry was correct, however. But it requires more work, not only a deletion (which may be routine with a transwiki close, it is merely delayed), but then a request and an undeletion. I'd have suggested a close with blanking of the page and possibly page protection, of a soft redirect, see [[w:Wikipedia:Transwiki log]]. We can see in the discussion Wikipedian ignorance about Wikiversity. That's common. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 16:35, 23 May 2015 (UTC) ==[[w:Civic Chandran v. Ammini Amma]]== Similar to above, also likely to be deleted on Wikipedia. Please full history import as a subpage of [[Copyright/Law]]. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 01:04, 24 May 2015 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:47, 24 May 2015 (UTC) ==[[w:Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]]== This page [[w:Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]] was originally deleted because it was classed as original research. I have restored this as a draft to allow copying. Several people wanted to move it, so perhaps Wikiversity is the place for it to go. Please can someone import it here! [[User:Graeme Bartlett|Graeme Bartlett]] ([[User talk:Graeme Bartlett|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Graeme Bartlett|contribs]]) 07:47, 13 January 2016 (UTC) :{{done}} (BTW, original research is permitted on Wikiversity per [[Wikiversity:Original_research]]) I'm going to let you deal with the page: [[Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]] (I'm new to importing... so if I did a mistake then I apologize) Thanks. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:22, 13 January 2016 (UTC) Renamed to [[Visual C++ name mangling]]. Thanks for bringing this resource here. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:31, 13 January 2016 (UTC) ==[[Wikiversity:Import/beta]]== There is a good chance that [[betawikiversity:]] will close soon. If it does we should be prepared to import [[:betawikiversity:Category:EN]]. I've produced a listing of everything that is there as of today. There's a few titles that we should skip. I'll update this in case anything new gets created. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:50, 27 January 2016 (UTC) :{{On Hold}} until the outcome of the [[meta: Proposals for closing projects/Move Beta Wikiversity to Incubator|closure proposal]] is settled. {{unsigned|Mu301}} ==[[w:Representation theory of the Lorentz group]]== Please import [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group&oldid=780513527 this version] as "Representation theory of the Lorentz group (for undergraduate students of physics)". This is a great resource for students of physics. On Wikipedia, the no-content-forking policy disallows coexistence of "...theory (for physicists)" and "...theory (for mathematicians)" etc. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 05:32, 7 June 2017 (UTC) :{{At|Tsirel}} I tried four different ways to import. There's too much history. It timed out and failed. I imported the current version to [[Representation theory of the Lorentz group (for undergraduate students of physics)]] and updated the content to the requested OldID. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:04, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ::I see. Thank you. I did not want to make you troubles... Well, we got some experience. Really, the result is quite enough for my goals for now. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 18:14, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Space (mathematics)]]== Please import [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_(mathematics)&oldid=777861892 this version]. I need it for [[Talk:WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Space (mathematics)|this submission]]. (This time the history is much shorter. Also, the current version would be OK; I can easily downgrade it as needed.) [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 20:14, 7 June 2017 (UTC) :{{At|Tsirel}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:44, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ::Thank you. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 06:00, 8 June 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Radic]]== :{{done}} but it was a mess. The import pulled [[User:Mu301/Radic|numerous other templates]]. [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#template_import|We need to look into this]], so the next two are on hold for now. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 12:02, 30 March 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Sqrt]]== :{{Not done}} Please see [[meta:Help:Displaying_a_formula]] where it explains how to use markup like '''<nowiki><math alt="Square root of pi">\sqrt{\pi}</math></nowiki>''' to generate <math alt="Square root of pi">\sqrt{\pi}</math> and other formulas. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 12:33, 30 March 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:List of Setswana medical terms]]== I have placed the content at [[List of Setswana medical terms]] on WikiVersity. Wondering if we can important the edit history. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Doc James|contribs]]) 09:59, 1 April 2019 (UTC) :{{On Hold}} waiting for outcome of [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Setswana medical terms]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 10:18, 1 April 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Coxeter–Dynkin diagram]]== :{{On Hold}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 10:37, 1 April 2019 (UTC) Please import these from Wikipedia so I can use them in articles authored here. {{unsigned2|23:42, 29 March 2019‎|Dc.samizdat}} May I have this one please? The time has come when I need it. It's just Module:Coxeter–Dynkin diagram and doesn't seem to have other dependencies, should be easy.[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 02:15, 13 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} Please check and verify that everything required is imported and working. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:05, 13 May 2019 (UTC) : Thank you! Works like a charm.[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 04:05, 13 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:600-cell]]== I'd like to import this article with its history as a base for something I'm working on. I'm happy to help and do any manual edits required after import, e.g. if there are template dependencies that Wikiversity doesn't support, but I don't think there are many (and no gnarly ones with deep dependencies of their own). {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat|13 May 2019‎}} :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} - Please add new entries to the bottom of the page/section and sign your requests. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:15, 14 May 2019 (UTC) :Thanks! I've done the manual edits to make Wikipedia: links work, and eliminated unnecessary template dependencies. The following Wikipedia template dependencies remain (all shallow table templates), and I'd like to have them imported as well (rather than eliminate them) if you will. :* W:Template:H4_family :* W:Template:Tetrahedral cell tessellations :* W:Template:Icosahedral vertex figure tessellations :I'll edit their links too after they are imported. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:55, 16 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:33, 18 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:120-cell]] et. al.== May I also have these imported please: * W:120-cell * W:Template:Tetrahedral_vertex_figure_tessellations_small * W:Template:Dodecahedral_tessellations_small [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 12:49, 22 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:01, 24 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Leptospirosis]]== Request to import this wikipage into [[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis]]. The wikipage just updated into Good article status. Would like the journal to reflect the highest quality available Wiki version of the article. Thank you. [[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 13:28, 23 August 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Cerevisae}} {{Not done}} Unfortunately, the import is failing. There are too many changes for it to import with history, and there's a database lock preventing it from importing without history. Just copy and paste and include a link in the edit summary when you update the most recent content. Sorry. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:36, 23 August 2019 (UTC) :: No problem [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]. I am unable to update the pre-print because of this one "Error: This action has been automatically identified as harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Blocked Edit". I tried to request custodian action to [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Request_to_unblock_%22New_User_Blocked_Edit%22 unblock me but there is no response to my question]. I actually have a complete template ready for the updated version of the pre-print. Do you mind if I ask you to copy and paste for me at one go from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Cerevisae/sandbox my sandbox]? I am blocked from editing my own sandbox also. That's why I put it on Wikipedia. The coding is not compatile on wikipedia so you can see some codes here and there.[[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 06:19, 24 August 2019 (UTC) ::: Problem resolved. After I made my tenth edit on Wikiversity, I am able to update the pre-print without being blocked. Thanks. [[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 06:26, 24 August 2019 (UTC) ::::{{At|Cerevisae}} Sorry, our abuse filter isn't optimal, but it is blocking more vandalism than false positives. I appreciate your dedication to getting it posted. You should be good to go now. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:32, 24 August 2019 (UTC) == [[:en:w:Johann Lahodny|Johann Lahodny]] == Hello everyone, As this is the very first time I am making such a technical request, I hope I am currently writing in the right place and in an adequate way. If not, please feel utterly free to update this content by correcting any unintentional mistake I might have done. The subject of the request is as follows: The English version of the article devoted to the Czech-Austrian doctor and professor [[:en:w:Johann Lahodny|Johann Lahodny]] seems to be facing highly specific criteria on the English-speaking Wikipedia, see → [[:en:w:Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Medicine#Johann_Lahodny|correlated debate]]. Given that this is also an investigative work that attempts to provide a scientific synthesis of current research still in progress, may I ask you to please perform a global import of the article to Wikiversity, including the entire Wikipedian history? Once this operation would be done, the previous content on WP could then simply be subsequently converted into a redirection, as formerly suggested by one of the contributors via diff → [[:en:w:special:diff/958403287|958403287]]. This would then avoid any duplicate entry. Thank you so much in advance for your help and your kind assistance. Yours sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 04:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :{{done}} {{ping|Euphonie}} I've imported this to [[User:Euphonie/Johann Lahodny]] for cleanup before moving to its final location --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 07:16, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :: {{anchor|thanks}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: Thank you very much. Kind regards to you, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 09:22, 12 July 2020 (UTC) : :: {{anchor|hyperlinks}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: A first trial aimed to update the hyperlinks has just been finalized. However, [[:en:w:parenthetical referencing| parenthetical referencing]] does not seem to adequately interact. What would be the internal syntax suitable to Wikiversity regarding this specific aspect ? Same for the terms ISSN, PMC, PMID and doi, which remain in red. Your help and advice would be particularly helpful. Yours sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 11:24, 12 July 2020 (UTC) ::: Not sure, sorry --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 19:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :::: :::: {{anchor|update}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: The update has been completed and the few former technical hypertextual compatibility issues that were previously mentioned above have now been resolved. Thus, from then on, feel free to upload the article to dedicated section. In addition, can I ask you to please import the page entitled → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical person|Template:Infobox medical person]] so that I can subsequently integrate some focused additional information into the article? Thank you in advance for your help. With kind regards, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 09:34, 13 July 2020 (UTC) ::::: Done - [[Template:Infobox medical person]] --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 09:36, 13 July 2020 (UTC) :::::: :::::: {{anchor|details}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: The aforesaid infobox seems to be inextricably combined with this one: → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical details|Template:Infobox medical details]]. May I ask you to please import it as well? Thank you in advance. Sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 10:00, 13 July 2020 (UTC) ::::: :::::: {{anchor|Template:Infobox_medical_details}} Hello [[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]. Did you get my last message above? May I please ask you to import → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical details|Template:Infobox medical details]] as well? Thank you in advance. Sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 14:38, 14 July 2020 (UTC) ::::::: Done - [[Template:Infobox medical details]] --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 14:47, 14 July 2020 (UTC) == [[b:Media_and_Society:_Summer_2019|Media_and_Society:_Summer_2019]] == English Wikibooks would consider it an original research. Should it be imported here, please?--[[User:Jusjih|Jusjih]] ([[User talk:Jusjih|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jusjih|contribs]]) 05:04, 29 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:05, 29 November 2020 (UTC) == Template:Regular convex 4-polytopes == Please import the above template from Wikipedia, replacing the previous Wikiversity:Template of that name. I created this template at Wikiversity, and after a period of development copied it to Wikipedia, where the current version now resides. Wikiversity:Regular convex 4-polytopes is the original outdated version of this template, retained only for its development history. If there is a way to ensure that Wikiversity articles will always use the Wikipedia version of this template, without having to reimport it to Wikiversity after each edit to the Wikipedia version, that would be appropriate. (Is there a way to refer directly to a Wikipedia template in a Wikiversity article? I notice that {{W:Template:Regular convex 4-polytopes}} doesn't work.) Thank you! {{Unsigned|Dc.samizdat|2 December 2021‎}} :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} I've tried two different ways to import this but I don't know if it was successful. Your attempts to move and edit the local template have made a clean import very difficult. Going forward, leave it alone locally and just request the import. The import overwrites and updates with more recent changes. If the changes here are more recent, you'll need to update it manually. Since the work is yours anyway, there's no particular licensing benefit to importing. You can just copy and paste. :Regarding the use of templates from other wikis, this has been a requested feature for many years. It would most likely be a reference to Commons (similar to File:), but isn't currently possible. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:20, 2 December 2021 (UTC) :Thank you, sorry for screwing it up. I've copy-and-pasted the current version from Wikipedia and will keep it updated here that way in future. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 23:53, 3 December 2021 (UTC) ==11-cell== Please import W:11-cell for me. Thank you. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:27, 6 April 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:27, 6 April 2022 (UTC) == [[Anywhere on Earth]] == * [[:wikibooks:Special:Permalink/4088676|Anywhere on Earth]] as [[Anywhere on Earth]]. ✍ [[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ]] ([[User talk:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|contribs]]) 20:29, 3 August 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ]]: Imported to [[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ/Anywhere on Earth]]. This would not be something that belongs in main space, at least at this point. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:23, 4 August 2022 (UTC) == Free Energy does not Exist == Please migrate my single-page Wikibook, ''[[b:Free Energy does not Exist|Free Energy does not Exist]]'', to Wikiversity since it is considered to be OR. Thank you. -- [[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]] ([[User talk:Vinyasi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vinyasi|contribs]]) 08:27, 9 November 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]]: {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:20, 9 November 2022 (UTC) ::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Thanks! [[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]] ([[User talk:Vinyasi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vinyasi|contribs]]) 17:34, 9 November 2022 (UTC) qikt2aw58jk2fdd8tw4qj29vw7cllyf 2841898 2841897 2026-10-21T17:33:52Z Koavf 147 2841898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{center top}}'''This is an archive of past discussions. Please do not modify it or make new requests here. Please do so at [[Wikiversity:Import]].'''{{center bottom}} == Thursday, October 19 - Requests == *Could someone please import [[Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages]] from wikipedia? [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 02:06, 20 October 2006 (UTC) *:We already have a help page on [[Wikiversity:Signature|signatures]]. Why do we need another one? [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 09:47, 20 October 2006 (UTC) **Sorry, it had to do with another interlink and/or template, and I can't recall what it was anymore. I should have made a more detailed request. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 17:59, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ***The link in unsigned comments points in that direction. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 18:02, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ****I've simply redirected [[Sign your posts on talk pages]] to [[Wikiversity:Signature]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 15:43, 26 October 2006 (UTC) *****That only works in a search, not in a direct link, I've updated the template, and will request a removal of the redirect. Sorry for the unnecessary commentary, more learning by doing! [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 05:58, 27 October 2006 (UTC) ******done [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 10:10, 27 October 2006 (UTC) == Friday, October 5 - Requests == * Could a custodian please look at [[School:Fire and Emergency Management/Fire Investigator]] (see also [[b:Wikiversity:School of Fire and Emergency Management/Fire Investigator]]). The pages (except the top, which I'll do in a second) need to be imported and moved. I've just spent an hour and a bit importing pages for this school and have run out of time (I should have been asleep about an hour ago). --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 02:24, 5 October 2006 (UTC) :I completed Fire Investigator and also did Fire Officer. Need break now, but will try to do more later. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 19:42, 5 October 2006 (UTC) == Saturday, September 2 - Done == *[[b:Wikiversity:Introduction to Philosophy]] &rarr; [[Introduction to Philosophy]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 04:19, 2 September 2006 (UTC) == Wednesday, August 30 - Done == *[[b:Sociology of the Family]] &rarr; [[Sociology of the Family]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 00:45, 1 September 2006 (UTC) == Tuesday, August 29 - Done == *[[b:Web Design]] &rarr; [[Topic:Web Design]] -- see notes on the [[Topic_talk:Web_Design|talk page]]. ----[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 09:46, 29 August 2006 (UTC) **All subpages moved to main namespace, see [[Special:Prefixindex/Web Design]] *[[b:Wikiversity:Classical_Mechanics]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:Classical_Mechanics]] (please move to appropriate namespace) * I'd like a copy of [[m:Template:for]] and [[m:Template:for/aux]]. I'm assuming since I wanted a copy, but the original stays there, that we don't need an import, with an import history, so I did a transwiki paste. But if we do, feel free to delete my copy, and import the other one. But be aware that while those pages don't exist, it'll make [[Wikiversity:Disclosures]] look funny. If the transwiki paste is OK, just mark this "done". [[User:TimNelson|TimNelson]] 15:35, 29 August 2006 (UTC) :I don't see any problems with a c&p, so this should be fine.--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 17:31, 29 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:High_School_Physics]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:High_School_Physics]] (please move to appropriate namespace) :The whole section, or just mainpage? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 14:37, 29 August 2006 (UTC) ::The mainpage is useless without the others, so I went ahead and transwikied it all.--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 17:51, 29 August 2006 (UTC) == Monday, August 28 - Done == *[[Wikiversity:School of Theology/Gospel 101/Verses for the week]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:33, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[Christianity/Gospel 101]]--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:33, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:Stellar_Evolution]] &rarr; [[Stellar Evolution]] *[[b:Wikiversity:Astronomy]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:Astronomy]] ([[Topic:Astronomy]] already exists, please merge or rename). *<s>[[b:Portuguese:Contents]]</s> - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 14:08, 28 August 2006 (UTC) (This is a textbook.----[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 19:30, 28 August 2006 (UTC)) *[[b:Wikiversity: Hitler's Germany]] &rarr; [[Hitler's Germany]] --<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 21:47, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:The Great War and Versailles]] &rarr; [[The Great War and Versailles]] --<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 21:47, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ==Completed== * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Productive_Forking_and_Tailoring_is_Encouraged I would like this linked to from the policy discussion and voting page. If there is a place for discussion of draft policy or guidelines that is adequate as well. Forking and tailoring the material to achieve different purposes is a fairly obvious way to rapidly expand our available materials for various purposes. However, I fear much of the local wiki culture is oriented around deleting material perceived as redundant and eliminating duplication from the database. Hence a discussion of this type of useful activity from the start may be extremely useful. Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 23:32, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Linked to with voting and discussion at [[WV:RULES]]. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 08:03, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Communication *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Media_Studies --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 15:34, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Library_and_Information_Science probably should come too.--[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 15:41, 17 August 2006 (UTC) :All done. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 16:03, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Template:Wikiversity]] and [[:m:Template:WikiversityActivities]] (see ''What links here'' of local pages) [[User:555|555]] 19:56, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Done. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 20:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation]], [[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation/Chapter 1 Airplane Components]] - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 02:40, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:01, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Psychology --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 23:42, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done, with all subpages as well. It has been moved to [[School:Department of Psychology]]. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:47, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Mathematics and this one with all it's subpages for Robert Horning. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 16:05, 19 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 06:59, 20 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Literature_and_English_Studies/Writing_Center which I'd like to now come under the new Literary Studies thing (we're stepping away from strictly English). [[User:Atrivedi|Atrivedi]] :Done. Now located at [[School:Department of Literary Studies/Writing Center]]. Please forgive the 80,000 moves of the talk page. I was clearly not up to par. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 22:01, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *I need this file: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering/Free_or_open_source_design_tools transiki'd to: <s>http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Free_or_open_source_design_tools</S> Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 06:10, 25 August 2006 (UTC) **Done, now at [[Topic:Engineering/Free_or_open_source_design_tools]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:02, 27 August 2006 (UTC) *I would like the two files below (currently at Wikibooks) moved over into the lesson space under http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Project_Management :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Project_Management/Goal_Setting_and_Management ::[[Topic:Project Management/Goal_Setting_and_Management]] :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering:Critical_Thinking_%26_Self_Communication:goal_setting ::[[Topic:Project Management/Experimental Self Communication/Critical Thinking & Self Communication/Goal Setting]] Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 05:13, 23 August 2006 (UTC) ::*Imported, moving now. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:39, 27 August 2006 (UTC) :::Moved, feel free to rename, but don't delete redirects.--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:48, 27 August 2006 (UTC) == Saturday, November 4 - Re-Requests == *Suppose this got lost in the shuffle. Could someone please bring that Cite_book over? I don't want to list a whole bunch of sources and then re-format them later on. It would help out a lot. Thanks. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 08:39, 4 November 2006 (UTC) :*It's imported now... keep in mind that '''''we do not have import enabled from wikipedia!''''' I had to first import it to wikibooks, then from wikibooks to here, which I'm not sure I should really do. Now at [[Template:Cite book]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 11:12, 4 November 2006 (UTC) ::Most appreciated. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 04:38, 5 November 2006 (UTC) == Tuesday, October 24 - Requests == *Could someone please import [[w:Template:Cite_book]] and ideally all the related cite pages? <small>(''The preceding [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by'' [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] ([[User talk:RichMac|talk]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RichMac|contribs]]) {{{2|}}}.)</small> **Currently the only way to do that is to import first to wikibooks, then to wikiversity... though in the case of this page that's fine, because it would be nice to have that on wikibooks too. What related pages are you talking about? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 17:26, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ***Everything on the [[w:Citation_templates]] would be ideal. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 06:30, 27 October 2006 (UTC) ****Could someone at least bring that cite book over? [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 20:54, 29 October 2006 (UTC) == Old Requests for Import == (Some of these are done, some aren't. If a page is needed, please list it above, under today's date.) For security reasons, only admins can import pages. You can list here what pages on Meta or Wikibooks you would like to have moved to Wikiversity. An admin will take care of the import as soon as possible and notify you when it is done. '''Note''': there is a [[Wikiversity:Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks#To Do|list of pages already imported from Wikibooks]] that have not yet been marked with <nowiki>{{MovedToWikiversity}}</nowiki>. * If someone could import [[Calculus/Building up to the Riemann-Darboux Definition]] and [[The Riemann-Darboux Integral, Integrability criterion, and monotone/Lipschitz function]] that would be nice, this is part of a Calculus class that I might continue next year. [[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 14:40, 22 August 2006 (UTC) **Are these on meta? wikibooks?--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:37, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ***Wikibooks, sorry: [[[b:Building_up_to_the_Riemann-Darboux_Definition| Calculus/Building up to the Riemann-Darboux Definition]]] [[[b:The_Riemann-Darboux_Integral%2C_Integrability_criterion%2C_and_monotone/Lipschitz_function| The Riemann-Darboux Integral, Integrability criterion, and monotone/Lipschitz function]]] ****Aren't those textbooks? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 14:56, 29 August 2006 (UTC) *****No, I created them and linked them from the Calculus page in Wikiversity.[[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 15:16, 30 August 2006 (UTC) ******This has been here for quite a while, is it possible that anyone could move these? [[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 03:39, 24 October 2006 (UTC) * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering should replace the copy of itself located here: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Engineering_and_Technology Sorry about the extra work deleting the early copy. Will not happen again. [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 12:03, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Done. It's at [[School:Engineering]]. If you want to rename it, go ahead and move, but leave the redirect because that's what the Wikibooks page links to now. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:17, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::I'm importing the subpages too. This might take a while. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:29, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::Actually, how about you give me a list of the sub pages you want imported? Or do you want all of them? -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:32, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :::Eventually we want all of them. I have requested admin status so I can help out. Pace yourself and service requests by name first. Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 19:08, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::::I'm not sure I understand the last part of that sentence. "service requests by name first"? -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 19:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :::::Sorry for confusion. I meant by specifically requested titles that people list here as urgent or of immediate interest. Such as the one below regarding "proposed productive forking and tailoring". 8) [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 23:35, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::Probably should move over the department subpages for School of Engineering as well, particularly Electrical Engineering :) --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 23:08, 16 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Wikiversity/Archive 1]], [[:m:Wiki 101]], [[:m:Wikiversity students]], [[:m:Wikiversity browsers]], [[:m:Wikiversity teachers]], [[:m:Wikiversity and Wikipedia services]], [[:m:Service community]], [[:m:Wikiversity and Wikibooks services]], [[:m:Research community]], [[:m:Secondary research]], [[:m:Citing Sources]], [[:m:Research collaboration]], [[:m:Wikiversity thinktank]], [[:m:Wikiversity support staff]], [[:m:Student union]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Communities]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Helpdesk]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Faculty club]] (and talk), [[:m:Cell biology improvement drive]], [[:m:Human Genetic Uniqueness Project]]. [[User:555|555]] 23:21, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Wikiversity:Faculty club]] (and talk), [[:m:Wikiversity:Subjects]], [[:m:Language training in Wikiversity]], [[:m:Wikiversity/Draft Charter]] (and talk), [[:m:Andrew Worth]], [[:m:Dan Cruthirds]], [[:m:Dean Boudewijnse]], [[:m:Shingle]] (and talk), [[:m:Moving Wikiversity forward]]. [[User:555|555]] 23:27, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * We've got our first com-sci advisor, so I'm proposing that http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science and all subpages get moved over for him. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 14:32, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *And we have someone writing theology classes, so import http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Theology and subpages --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 00:32, 19 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science This might be useful to import [[User:Spacey|Spacey]] 14:31, 19 August 2006 (UTC) * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Web_Design and all subpages. We've been working on this Wikibook for a year or so now, but it really belongs in wikiversity as it's mostly activities/challenges etc. Not sure whether Web Design should go in Information Studies or Computer Science. Also, sub topics like Javascript, PHP might cross boundaries of schools. [[User:Michaelnelson|Michaelnelson]] 07:36, 22 August 2006 (UTC) ==How about this== Here is a list of all the schools on wikibooks, just check them off after you've imported them (and put them in the "School:" [[Wikiversity:Namespaces|namespace]] unless such a school already exists. In thoses cases, I am putting the page from Wikibooks into the "Portal:" namespace and linking it to the existing school page already in "School:" namespace): ==='''Physical Sciences'''=== *Physical Science Schools that were started at Wikibooks: **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Chemistry]]</s> ::I've transwikied this, and fixed all the links.--[[User:Digitalme|digital_me]]<sup>[[User_talk:Digitalme|talk]]</sup> 02:19, 20 August 2006 (UTC) **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Forensics and Security]] - exception- low priority --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 23:21, 26 August 2006 (UTC) ::This has subpages that can be imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Engineering]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Electronics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Geology]]</s> - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Mathematics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Physics and Astronomy]]</s> ::All but School of Computer Forensics and Security have been imported here. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===Life Sciences=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Biology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Medicine]]</s> **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Biomechanics]] - exception- low priority --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Oceanography]] - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC)</s> ::Doesn't need importing. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:51, 3 October 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Plant Sciences]]</s> **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Zoology]] - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Veterinary Medicine]]</s> ::Biomechanics is a set of wikibooks links, should we import this? Also, school of zoology not worth importing. Oceaonography doesn't need importing either. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:51, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===<s>Humanities (done)</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Art and Design]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Classics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Law]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Linguistics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Literature and English Studies]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Music]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Comparative Mythology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Philosophy]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Theology]]</s> ===<s>Professional Schools (done, wikibooks versions locked)</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Architecture]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Business]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Education]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Entrepreneurship]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Foreign Language Learning]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Audio Engineering]]</s> -- page was deleted earlier, 1 edit with no real content. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 00:23, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Computer Science|Computer Science]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Science]]</s> :School of Computer Science has been imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 02:51, 28 September 2006 (UTC) <s>Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) should be added to the School of Computer Science.</s> -- Done -- [[User:Tadpole256|<b>Tadpole256</b>]][[User_talk:Tadpole256|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(Discuss)</span></sup>]] ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Engineering|Engineering]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Engineering]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Institute of Construction]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Project Management]]</s> ::These have all been imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:46, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Social Sciences| Social Sciences]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Anthropology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Communication]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Development Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Economics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Fire and Emergency Management]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of History]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Journalism]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Library and Information Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Media Studies]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Political Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Psychology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Social Work]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Sociology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School Of Security, Surveillance and Law Enforcement]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Embedded System Engineering]]</s> --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 17:00, 19 August 2006 (UTC) **[[b:Wikiversity:Embedded System Engineering]] [[User:Srinivasasha|Srinivasasha]] 08:02, 17 February 2007 (UTC) :::[[Embedded System Engineering]] now exists. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 15:19, 17 February 2007 (UTC) :Note that one of the purposes of this page is also to prioritize what schools are actively going to be developed right away on Wikiversity, so we can make sure that the content is here instead of somewhere else. Still, thanks for posting this message here. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:13, 20 August 2006 (UTC) ::Well, I just thought that every one of these probably should be moved over at some point, so it would be good to have a list so that people see that XXX is oging to be imported eventually, as to not do extra work. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 20:52, 20 August 2006 (UTC) :::If this is an unwritten policy to "<b>guide</b>" or "<b>prioritize</b>" incoming volunteers acttivities it is in serious error. Volunteers will have their own priorities and leaving their previous files in limbo is not likely to shift them from one subject to another productively. A page somewhere noted 37 files had been transwikied to date. This does not make us look like a serious going concern. [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 04:43, 21 August 2006 (UTC) I need the following pages imported and moved to these locations: * [[b:Primary mathematics:Numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Adding numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Adding numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Subtracting numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Subtracting numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Multiplying numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Multiplying numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Dividing numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Dividing numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Negative numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Negative numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Fractions]] to [[Primary mathematics:Fractions]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Working with fractions]] to [[Primary mathematics:Working with fractions]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Powers, roots, and exponents]] to [[Primary mathematics:Powers, roots, and exponents]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Average, median, and mode]] to [[Primary mathematics:Average, median, and mode]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Percentages]] to [[Primary mathematics:Percentages]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Probability]] to [[Primary mathematics:Probability]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Factors and Primes]] to [[Primary mathematics:Factors and Primes]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Method for Factoring]] to [[Primary mathematics:Method for Factoring]] If I've set it all up right, the links at [[Topic:Primary School Mathematics]] should all turn from red links to blue links. There is no hurry to do this, just let me know. --'''Whiteknight''' ([[User:Whiteknight|Versity]]) ([[b:User:Whiteknight|Books]]) 17:55, 28 August 2007 (UTC) :The pages listed above were imported. I only imported the [[Talk:Primary mathematics:Numbers|talk page for the first one]]. Since it might be possible to turn the original pages at Wikibooks into a book that can be used with additional complementary course material at Wikiversity, I did not put the ugly "MovedToWikiversity" template on the pages at Wikibooks. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 18:29, 28 August 2007 (UTC) <ref>Insert reference material</ref> ==recent== *[[b:template:mbox]] '''&ndash; [[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike.lifeguard}}]]''' | <sup>[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|talk}}]]</sup> 03:12, 5 October 2007 (UTC) ::Looks like [[:Template:Mbox]] was already copied here. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] 06:09, 8 January 2008 (UTC) *[[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] - [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;<sup>[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]</sup> 03:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC) :::This article you requested to be imported have already been done by Darklama . [[User:Terra|<strong>{{font|color=Black|Ter}}{{font|color=Red|ra}}</strong>]] 19:28, 28 May 2008 (UTC) *Wikibooks has [[b:Wikibooks:Votes for deletion/Democracy Project|decided]] [[b:Special:PrefixIndex/Democracy Project]] is not suitable for our project, but we thought it may fit within Wikiveristy's [[WV:WIW|scope]]. [[User:Darklama|Darklama]] was not sure it did. '''&ndash;&nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&nbsp;|&nbsp;<sup>[[m:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@meta}}]]</sup> 23:06, 26 July 2008 (UTC) :[[Image:Green tick.svg|20px]] imported, ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])</small> 10:12, 9 August 2008 (UTC) * Leaving a note that I imported [[Romanticism and Revolution]] as it seemed to be an AfD that would not go well. It was an essay/lecture type setup that seems more suited to Wikiversity - would also go well as part of a Romanticism course project that I am writing various lectures for and I am contacting the creator now. [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]]) 15:50, 17 February 2010 (UTC) * From an en-Wikpedia Article for Deletion discussion [[w:History Essay Format & Thesis Statement]]. Cheers! [[User:Bwilkins|Bwilkins]] 15:12, 13 February 2010 (UTC) *I'm not quite sure if it's actually appropriate for Wikiversity, but [[w:Genes to Cognition Project]] has been tagged on the English Wikipedia for several months. [[User:Dancter|Dancter]] 14:17, 30 April 2009 (UTC) *: '''Done'''. [[Genes to Cognition Project]] --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 17:22, 30 April 2009 (UTC) The following are not personal requests of mine. They are books and their subpages suggested to be transwikied to Wikiversity over at Wikibooks, either through a template or a VfD discussion. Not being familiar with Wikiversity's workings, I post them for assessment of their worth here at Wikiversity. *[[b:Hexpixel Code]] *[[b:Morphological Flows and Sustainable Growth]] *[[b:Numerical Methods Qualification Exam Problems and Solutions (University of Maryland)]] *[[b:Practical Argumentation Framework]] *[[b:UMD Analysis Qualifying Exam]] -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 18:31, 14 July 2009 (UTC) :* [[Hexpixel Code]] :* [[Practical Argumentation Framework]] : Done --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:04, 14 July 2009 (UTC) [[b:The Use of English with Other Members of the Thai Academic Community among Dhurakij Pundit University’s Postgraduate Business Students]] is reaching a consensus for transwikiing here as part of a request for deletion and it is likely more suited to Wikiversity. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 23:55, 23 November 2009 (UTC) {{done}} See [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ALog&type=import&user=&page=&year=&month=-1 log]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 17:52, 20 December 2009 (UTC) [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]] has been suggested to be transwikied here instead of deleted by darklama. <s>[[b:The Knowledge Which No One Can Have]] has been described as nonsense by mike.lifeguard who says it can be pursued with vigor here.</s> -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 12:51, 30 April 2010 (UTC) : Import right now seems premature, there is no consensus yet for either work on Wikibooks. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 13:48, 30 April 2010 (UTC) : Neither of them are particularly useful on Wikibooks, IMO. [[User:Kayau|Kayau]] ([[User talk:Kayau|talk]] | [[Special:Emailuser/Kayau|email]] | [[Special:Contributions/Kayau|contribs]] | [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~interiot/cgi-bin/count_edits?user={{urlencode:Kayau}}&dbname=enwikiversity_p stats]) 10:21, 30 May 2010 (UTC) [[b:Standardized English Test Vocabulary Building]] - does not exactly belong to Wikibooks (OR). However, it is nice to have on Wikiversity as it can be treated as a course. [[User:Kayau|Kayau]] ([[User talk:Kayau|talk]] | [[Special:Emailuser/Kayau|email]] | [[Special:Contributions/Kayau|contribs]] | [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~interiot/cgi-bin/count_edits?user={{urlencode:Kayau}}&dbname=enwikiversity_p stats]) 10:21, 30 May 2010 (UTC) [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]] again and [[b:Lohse, Martin]], [[b:Guide to Success and Fulfillment]], [[b:Happiness]]. No consensus at Wikibooks needs to be had to request an import here; the question is whether this content is within scope here and whether custodians want the content. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 03:36, 3 June 2010 (UTC) : [[b:Happiness]] at least I'd be interested to import and merge with resources in development on [[Happiness]] which I hope to develop for some upcoming teaching. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:15, 3 June 2010 (UTC) : While true that consensus at Wikibooks isn't needed to import here, I think requesting import is premature when there is a possibility that the work might be kept at Wikibooks. Duplicating works without anyone on Wikiversity to develop it isn't good IMO. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 11:19, 3 June 2010 (UTC) ::Well, [[b:Lohse, Martin]], at least, has [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Lohse.2C_Martin|consensus]] and the the main contributor is on board with it, so you'll have someone working on it once it's moved here. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 03:01, 5 June 2010 (UTC) ::: [[Lohse, Martin]] is imported. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 13:37, 6 June 2010 (UTC) ==Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience== Is it possible to import [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]]? [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:37, 25 June 2010 (UTC) :{{done}} along with all its subpages. I've hopefully not missed anything. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:11, 25 June 2010 (UTC) Also its related pdf version [[b:File:10 stupid pamphlet.pdf]] [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:40, 25 June 2010 (UTC) :[[:File:10 stupid pamphlet.pdf]] is available for use on Wikiversity by virtue of its existence on Commons. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:13, 25 June 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:KinderCalculus|KinderCalculus]]== Could you please import wikijunior:KinderCalculus at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:KinderCalculus ? Please include all pages, including history, discussions, etc. Thank you. [[User:Numiri|Numiri]] 17:24, 10 July 2010 (UTC) This seems to have been missed so let me add a few links make the lives of the admins here a bit easier. [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:59, 13 July 2010 (UTC) *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus]] -> [[KinderCalculus]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Bald]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Bald]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Bald]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Bald]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Syntax]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Syntax]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Dress]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Dress]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Dress]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Dress]] *{{done}} Thanks for the links, they did make things easier although I hadn't spotted your request until now. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:44, 13 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:How To Do Nothing|How To Do Nothing]]== I would like to request the following transwiki. The following module did not fit in at wikibooks and may be useful here, but I am not really sure if it falls under wikiversity's scope, and I don't know if a good home for it, so I can't preform my usual level of clean up after a transwiki. Since the page no longer has any active contributors at wikibooks it would be a good idea to look it over and see if it fits into this project. A record of the discussion about whether or not to transwiki may be found [[b:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/How To Do Nothing|here]]. *[[b:How To Do Nothing]] -> [[Transwiki:How To Do Nothing]] Thanks, [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 11:24, 15 July 2010 (UTC) : {{not done}} doesn't fall under Wikiversity's scope, and per talk [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Thenub314#How_to_do_nothing here]. [[User:Diego Grez|Diego Grez]] 19:05, 19 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:How To Build A Pykrete Bong|How To Build A Pykrete Bong]]== If you would like this, please import it, otherwise it will be deleted as per [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#How_To_Build_A_Pykrete_Bong|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 21:36, 20 July 2010 (UTC) * {{done}} [[User:Diego Grez|Diego Grez]] 23:34, 20 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:Wiki Science|Wiki Science]]== See [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Wiki_Science|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 22:49, 18 August 2010 (UTC) :*Support import. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 00:48, 23 September 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:Towards A Better India|Towards A Better India]]== See [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Towards_A_Better_India|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 22:49, 18 August 2010 (UTC) : [[Image:Vista-clean.png|15px| ]] '''Done''' --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:17, 4 October 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook|A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook]]== Could you please import [[b:http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A_Supplement_to_the_Texas_US_History_Textbook|A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook]] to Wikiversity which seems to be a better fit for the project. Thank you![[User:Tgokey|Tgokey]] 10:44, 20 October 2010 (UTC) : [[Image:Vista-clean.png|15px| ]] '''Done''' <small>[[User:Leutha|Leutha]] 15:15, 9 September 2011, sig added by --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 15:31, 9 September 2011 (UTC)</small> == Import from betawikiversity == {{user|Jon Awbrey}} create a project in betawikiversity, but as English Wikiversity exist, and as it do not apport change in the pages since one month, I tell the import from betawikiversity into English Wikiversity for the page list above. Image was under GFDL license, they will be exported from Betawikiversity to Wikimedia Commons. In the list, the main page of this project may be "Logical graph" # Charles Sanders Peirce # Logical graph # Descriptive science # Normative science # Truth theory # Pragmatic maxim # Logic of information ‎ # Semeiotic ‎ # Dynamics of inquiry ‎ # Inquiry ‎ # Zeroth order logic ‎ # Sole sufficient operator ‎ # Universe of discourse ‎ # Truth table ‎ # Relation reduction ‎ # Relation construction ‎ # Relation composition ‎ # Relation # Logical matrix ‎ # Logic of relatives ‎ # Hypostatic abstraction ‎ # Continuous predicate ‎ # Relative term ‎ # Differential logic ‎ # Boolean-valued function ‎ # Boolean function ‎ # Boolean domain ‎ # Ampheck ‎ # Parametric operator ‎ # Multigrade operator ‎ # Minimal negation operator ‎ # Sign relation ‎ # Triadic relation ‎ # Relation theory ‎ # Peirce's law ‎ # Logical implication ‎ # Exclusive disjunction ‎ # Theory of relations ‎ # Peer Educational Resource ‎ # Peer Educational Resources ‎ # Logic Live/Participants ‎ # Inquiry Live/Participants ‎ # Propositional calculus ‎ # Logical disjunction ‎ # Logical conjunction ‎ # Logical negation ‎ # Peirce’s Law ‎ # Peirce’s law ‎ # Peirce's Law ‎ # Logical Graph ‎ # Logical graphs ‎ [[User:Crochet.david|Crochet.david]] 08:26, 29 October 2010 (UTC) :Jon was approached about this before. He said he did not want his contributions on en.wikiversity. He is not blocked here so he could place them here himself. [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]]) 20:08, 22 November 2010 (UTC) :Jon has also mentioned on his user talk page that his intent is for this to be international and that some pages have already been translated into other languages. Beta Wikiversity seems like a better home for international works, where the work can be kept consistent across languages. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 20:33, 22 November 2010 (UTC) ==Wikibooks RFDs== I believe these discussions have resulted in consensus for transwiki to Wikiversity. * [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#The_Practice_of_Learning_Theories|The Practice of Learning Theories]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Signs_for_Selecting_a_Spouse_for_a_Successful_Marriage|Signs for Selecting a Spouse for a Successful Marriage]] [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 13:57, 31 January 2011 (UTC) : '''Done'''. [[Learning theories in practice]] and [[Spouse selection according to Baha'i writings]]. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 15:41, 31 January 2011 (UTC) ==History Essay Format & Thesis Statement== Outcome of [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/History Essay Format & Thesis Statement|this deletion discussion]] on English Wikipedia in 2010 was to transwiki but I don't think any request was made at the time. Is it in scope for this project? [[User:January|January]] 17:04, 8 October 2011 (UTC) :The request was made but there was no clear follow-up. January, if you are willing to take responsibility for this page, here, I'll import it to allow you to do that. Okay? My import will *not*, then, be a decision that it is in scope. It may need to be moved, refactored, etc. However, Wikiversity is highly inclusive, generally. Glancing at the page, it looks useful to me. I'm going to go ahead and import, just to practice using the tool. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 17:45, 8 October 2011 (UTC) :{{done}}. I did not transwiki the Talk page because it had no real content relevant to the page's usage here. But if the Talk page is desired, let me know. Because I'm banned on Wikipedia, I cannot notify the Wikipedia community of the transwiki (except by email or with block evasion, and with strong reason, which this situation doesn't create). --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 18:17, 8 October 2011 (UTC) ::Thanks, I've tied up the loose ends on Wikipedia. [[User:January|January]] 18:40, 8 October 2011 (UTC) == Katie Harwood == The article [[w:Katie Harwood]] on English Wikipedia is up for deletion. The consensus in the deletion discussion is leaning towards regretful delete: the person has put work into developing it as a piece of original research. Before deleting it, it seems like it might be an idea to import it to Wikiversity as providing a space for original research is really more Wikiversity's bailiwick. If the page gets deleted on enwiki, please feel free to contact me (I'm an enWP admin) and I can help in transwiki-ing it over to Wikiversity. I've tagged it with the "Copy to Wikiversity" template. [[User:Tom Morris|Tom Morris]] 17:39, 13 January 2012 (UTC) : {{done}} --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:13, 13 January 2012 (UTC) ==Rodger's Method== [[w:Wikipedia talk:Articles for creation/Rodger's Method]] > [[Rodger's Method]]. Not a good match for Wikipedia, import was suggested on the Colloquium. [[Special:Contributions/62.194.104.217|62.194.104.217]] 09:49, 6 January 2013 (UTC) {{done}}--[[User:Collingwood|Collingwood]] ([[User talk:Collingwood|talk]]) 12:38, 6 January 2013 (UTC) ==History [[Plant propagation]]== [[w:Cutting (plant): Revision history]] > [[Plant propagation]] . [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] <sup>[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]</sup> 12:46, 4 December 2012 (UTC) <s>Revision history of [[w:Vertical farming]] hasn't been moved to [[Vertical farming]]'s history since the article started. 10:01, 8 July 2009‎. It needs a history merge or a delete.</s> deleted - [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] <sup>[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]</sup> 04:27, 6 January 2013 (UTC) ==Linear function (mathematics)== <s>[[w:Linear function (mathematics)]] Looks like learning material. It looks better here than at Wikipedia.</s> [[User:Citrusbowler|Citrusbowler]] ([[User talk:Citrusbowler|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Citrusbowler|contribs]]) 19:09, 18 June 2013 (UTC) ==Import history of [[w:Star]]== Please import the revision history of [[w:Star]] to [[Intro_astronomy_college_course/Star_(Wikipedia)]] :This is my first effort to import the history of a Wikipedia article into a Wikiversity resource. Let me know if there is a smoother way to do this. For more information see https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#Second_question. Thanks --[[User:Guy vandegrift|guyvan52]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 18:56, 13 March 2014 (UTC) ::{{Done}} - Surprisingly, it wouldn't let me import the entire history. I tried several times and several ways, and all failed as saying it couldn't open the file. But I was able to import the most recent version, all attributed to a single author. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 19:54, 13 March 2014 (UTC) :::{{Thank you}} I tried to help you by importing the text and only got in the way...--[[User:Guy vandegrift|guyvan52]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 20:05, 13 March 2014 (UTC) ==Induced stem cells from Wikipedia== Please let me create a page "Guide for studying Induced stem cells" This page has moved here from Wikipedia as all of the Wikipedia content must be supported by secondary sources, as per [[w:WP:RS]]. We need to wait until all cited articles will be discussed in secondary sources. But, the article [[w:Induced stem cells]] most fundamentally relies on primary sources, where WP calls for primary reliance on secondaries. At the same time instructional and study guides that make use of original research are allowed on Wikiversity Furthermore, Wikiversity will offer a space not just for hosting research, but also for facilitating research through creating researcher communities. Wikiversity is the place for '''original research''', including '''primary''' or secondary research. This includes '''interpreting primary sources, forming ideas''', or taking observations. See [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?# Wikiversity for researching]] This article is a new type of scientific review - quickly replenished dynamic review. Its goal to combine the latest research results with an overall picture of achievements in the topic under discussion. See: [[w:Editing Induced stem cells]][[User:Dmitry Dzhagarov|Dmitry Dzhagarov]] ([[User talk:Dmitry Dzhagarov|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmitry Dzhagarov|contribs]]) 07:38, 2 May 2014 (UTC) :{{Done}} - It imported history up through last summer and then crashed. I imported the most recent version on top of that history. It's at [[Induced stem cells]]. If you want to rename it, I'd recommend Induced stem cells study or Induced stem cells study guide. If you rename it with the words Study guide first, the article is much harder for other users to locate. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 11:08, 2 May 2014 (UTC) Thank you very much [[User:Dmitry Dzhagarov|Dmitry Dzhagarov]] ([[User talk:Dmitry Dzhagarov|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmitry Dzhagarov|contribs]]) 14:38, 2 May 2014 (UTC) ==Crisis Bonding== I've placed a transwiki request to move [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_bonding Crisis bonding]] here to Wikiversity. This article is original research on a type of emotional bonding, and the consensus of Wikipedia editors is it is a better fit for Wikiversity than Wikipedia. [[User:PaintedCarpet|PaintedCarpet]] ([[User talk:PaintedCarpet|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PaintedCarpet|contribs]]) 22:22, 8 June 2014 (UTC) :{{Done}} - at [[Crisis bonding]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:59, 8 June 2014 (UTC) == More Pages == Pages in the [[Special:Allpages/Transwiki:|Transwiki pseudo-namespace]] that need to be re-named, and unused redirects deleted. How does this feature work? Why and how are pages put here, and how can it be indicated when they have been worked on?[[User:Leutha|Leutha]] 14:19, 10 September 2011 (UTC) == [[Wikipedia:Template:Location mark+]] == I would appreciate the import of the template [[Template:Location mark+]] that I would like to use in my and my students' Wikiversity projects "Editing Internet Text". Thank you. [[User:Iszmael|Iszmael]] ([[User talk:Iszmael|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Iszmael|contribs]]) 21:00, 23 May 2017 (UTC) :{{done}} --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 23:04, 23 May 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others|Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]]== I request that the page [[w:Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]] be imported into this project from Wikipedia. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gramophone_Company_of_India_Limited_Vs._Shanti_Films_Corporation_and_others&oldid=661832164 This revision] of the Wikipedia article appears to be original research that might be suitable for Wikiversity (it reads like a periodical article). The page is presently at "articles for deletion" (AfD) so it may change drastically at any time, but we may still want to have the essay. There is no point in waiting for the end of the AfD, as most of the participants are convinced that "transwiki" isn't a possible outcome of any AfD, and can't be persuaded otherwise. [[User:James500|James500]] ([[User talk:James500|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/James500|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 May 2015 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:34, 19 May 2015 (UTC) ::Remarkable to see the deletion discussion: [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]]. [[User:James500]], you did not understand the relationship of the WMF and Wikipedia governance, the argument about "not allowed to delete" was incorrect. The Wikipedia community can basically delete whatever it chooses, and when you tell people they are "not allowed" to do what they want to do, they may well do it to spite you. ::On the other hand, I've seen closes of "transwiki." Blue Raspberry was correct, however. But it requires more work, not only a deletion (which may be routine with a transwiki close, it is merely delayed), but then a request and an undeletion. I'd have suggested a close with blanking of the page and possibly page protection, of a soft redirect, see [[w:Wikipedia:Transwiki log]]. We can see in the discussion Wikipedian ignorance about Wikiversity. That's common. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 16:35, 23 May 2015 (UTC) ==[[w:Civic Chandran v. Ammini Amma]]== Similar to above, also likely to be deleted on Wikipedia. Please full history import as a subpage of [[Copyright/Law]]. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 01:04, 24 May 2015 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:47, 24 May 2015 (UTC) ==[[w:Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]]== This page [[w:Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]] was originally deleted because it was classed as original research. I have restored this as a draft to allow copying. Several people wanted to move it, so perhaps Wikiversity is the place for it to go. Please can someone import it here! [[User:Graeme Bartlett|Graeme Bartlett]] ([[User talk:Graeme Bartlett|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Graeme Bartlett|contribs]]) 07:47, 13 January 2016 (UTC) :{{done}} (BTW, original research is permitted on Wikiversity per [[Wikiversity:Original_research]]) I'm going to let you deal with the page: [[Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]] (I'm new to importing... so if I did a mistake then I apologize) Thanks. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:22, 13 January 2016 (UTC) Renamed to [[Visual C++ name mangling]]. Thanks for bringing this resource here. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:31, 13 January 2016 (UTC) ==[[Wikiversity:Import/beta]]== There is a good chance that [[betawikiversity:]] will close soon. If it does we should be prepared to import [[:betawikiversity:Category:EN]]. I've produced a listing of everything that is there as of today. There's a few titles that we should skip. I'll update this in case anything new gets created. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:50, 27 January 2016 (UTC) :{{On Hold}} until the outcome of the [[meta: Proposals for closing projects/Move Beta Wikiversity to Incubator|closure proposal]] is settled. {{unsigned|Mu301}} ==[[w:Representation theory of the Lorentz group]]== Please import [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group&oldid=780513527 this version] as "Representation theory of the Lorentz group (for undergraduate students of physics)". This is a great resource for students of physics. On Wikipedia, the no-content-forking policy disallows coexistence of "...theory (for physicists)" and "...theory (for mathematicians)" etc. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 05:32, 7 June 2017 (UTC) :{{At|Tsirel}} I tried four different ways to import. There's too much history. It timed out and failed. I imported the current version to [[Representation theory of the Lorentz group (for undergraduate students of physics)]] and updated the content to the requested OldID. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:04, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ::I see. Thank you. I did not want to make you troubles... Well, we got some experience. Really, the result is quite enough for my goals for now. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 18:14, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Space (mathematics)]]== Please import [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_(mathematics)&oldid=777861892 this version]. I need it for [[Talk:WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Space (mathematics)|this submission]]. (This time the history is much shorter. Also, the current version would be OK; I can easily downgrade it as needed.) [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 20:14, 7 June 2017 (UTC) :{{At|Tsirel}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:44, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ::Thank you. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 06:00, 8 June 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Radic]]== :{{done}} but it was a mess. The import pulled [[User:Mu301/Radic|numerous other templates]]. [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#template_import|We need to look into this]], so the next two are on hold for now. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 12:02, 30 March 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Sqrt]]== :{{Not done}} Please see [[meta:Help:Displaying_a_formula]] where it explains how to use markup like '''<nowiki><math alt="Square root of pi">\sqrt{\pi}</math></nowiki>''' to generate <math alt="Square root of pi">\sqrt{\pi}</math> and other formulas. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 12:33, 30 March 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:List of Setswana medical terms]]== I have placed the content at [[List of Setswana medical terms]] on WikiVersity. Wondering if we can important the edit history. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Doc James|contribs]]) 09:59, 1 April 2019 (UTC) :{{On Hold}} waiting for outcome of [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Setswana medical terms]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 10:18, 1 April 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Coxeter–Dynkin diagram]]== :{{On Hold}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 10:37, 1 April 2019 (UTC) Please import these from Wikipedia so I can use them in articles authored here. {{unsigned2|23:42, 29 March 2019‎|Dc.samizdat}} May I have this one please? The time has come when I need it. It's just Module:Coxeter–Dynkin diagram and doesn't seem to have other dependencies, should be easy.[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 02:15, 13 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} Please check and verify that everything required is imported and working. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:05, 13 May 2019 (UTC) : Thank you! Works like a charm.[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 04:05, 13 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:600-cell]]== I'd like to import this article with its history as a base for something I'm working on. I'm happy to help and do any manual edits required after import, e.g. if there are template dependencies that Wikiversity doesn't support, but I don't think there are many (and no gnarly ones with deep dependencies of their own). {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat|13 May 2019‎}} :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} - Please add new entries to the bottom of the page/section and sign your requests. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:15, 14 May 2019 (UTC) :Thanks! I've done the manual edits to make Wikipedia: links work, and eliminated unnecessary template dependencies. The following Wikipedia template dependencies remain (all shallow table templates), and I'd like to have them imported as well (rather than eliminate them) if you will. :* W:Template:H4_family :* W:Template:Tetrahedral cell tessellations :* W:Template:Icosahedral vertex figure tessellations :I'll edit their links too after they are imported. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:55, 16 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:33, 18 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:120-cell]] et. al.== May I also have these imported please: * W:120-cell * W:Template:Tetrahedral_vertex_figure_tessellations_small * W:Template:Dodecahedral_tessellations_small [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 12:49, 22 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:01, 24 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Leptospirosis]]== Request to import this wikipage into [[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis]]. The wikipage just updated into Good article status. Would like the journal to reflect the highest quality available Wiki version of the article. Thank you. [[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 13:28, 23 August 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Cerevisae}} {{Not done}} Unfortunately, the import is failing. There are too many changes for it to import with history, and there's a database lock preventing it from importing without history. Just copy and paste and include a link in the edit summary when you update the most recent content. Sorry. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:36, 23 August 2019 (UTC) :: No problem [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]. I am unable to update the pre-print because of this one "Error: This action has been automatically identified as harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Blocked Edit". I tried to request custodian action to [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Request_to_unblock_%22New_User_Blocked_Edit%22 unblock me but there is no response to my question]. I actually have a complete template ready for the updated version of the pre-print. Do you mind if I ask you to copy and paste for me at one go from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Cerevisae/sandbox my sandbox]? I am blocked from editing my own sandbox also. That's why I put it on Wikipedia. The coding is not compatile on wikipedia so you can see some codes here and there.[[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 06:19, 24 August 2019 (UTC) ::: Problem resolved. After I made my tenth edit on Wikiversity, I am able to update the pre-print without being blocked. Thanks. [[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 06:26, 24 August 2019 (UTC) ::::{{At|Cerevisae}} Sorry, our abuse filter isn't optimal, but it is blocking more vandalism than false positives. I appreciate your dedication to getting it posted. You should be good to go now. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:32, 24 August 2019 (UTC) == [[:en:w:Johann Lahodny|Johann Lahodny]] == Hello everyone, As this is the very first time I am making such a technical request, I hope I am currently writing in the right place and in an adequate way. If not, please feel utterly free to update this content by correcting any unintentional mistake I might have done. The subject of the request is as follows: The English version of the article devoted to the Czech-Austrian doctor and professor [[:en:w:Johann Lahodny|Johann Lahodny]] seems to be facing highly specific criteria on the English-speaking Wikipedia, see → [[:en:w:Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Medicine#Johann_Lahodny|correlated debate]]. Given that this is also an investigative work that attempts to provide a scientific synthesis of current research still in progress, may I ask you to please perform a global import of the article to Wikiversity, including the entire Wikipedian history? Once this operation would be done, the previous content on WP could then simply be subsequently converted into a redirection, as formerly suggested by one of the contributors via diff → [[:en:w:special:diff/958403287|958403287]]. This would then avoid any duplicate entry. Thank you so much in advance for your help and your kind assistance. Yours sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 04:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :{{done}} {{ping|Euphonie}} I've imported this to [[User:Euphonie/Johann Lahodny]] for cleanup before moving to its final location --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 07:16, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :: {{anchor|thanks}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: Thank you very much. Kind regards to you, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 09:22, 12 July 2020 (UTC) : :: {{anchor|hyperlinks}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: A first trial aimed to update the hyperlinks has just been finalized. However, [[:en:w:parenthetical referencing| parenthetical referencing]] does not seem to adequately interact. What would be the internal syntax suitable to Wikiversity regarding this specific aspect ? Same for the terms ISSN, PMC, PMID and doi, which remain in red. Your help and advice would be particularly helpful. Yours sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 11:24, 12 July 2020 (UTC) ::: Not sure, sorry --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 19:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :::: :::: {{anchor|update}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: The update has been completed and the few former technical hypertextual compatibility issues that were previously mentioned above have now been resolved. Thus, from then on, feel free to upload the article to dedicated section. In addition, can I ask you to please import the page entitled → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical person|Template:Infobox medical person]] so that I can subsequently integrate some focused additional information into the article? Thank you in advance for your help. With kind regards, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 09:34, 13 July 2020 (UTC) ::::: Done - [[Template:Infobox medical person]] --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 09:36, 13 July 2020 (UTC) :::::: :::::: {{anchor|details}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: The aforesaid infobox seems to be inextricably combined with this one: → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical details|Template:Infobox medical details]]. May I ask you to please import it as well? Thank you in advance. Sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 10:00, 13 July 2020 (UTC) ::::: :::::: {{anchor|Template:Infobox_medical_details}} Hello [[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]. Did you get my last message above? May I please ask you to import → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical details|Template:Infobox medical details]] as well? Thank you in advance. Sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 14:38, 14 July 2020 (UTC) ::::::: Done - [[Template:Infobox medical details]] --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 14:47, 14 July 2020 (UTC) == [[b:Media_and_Society:_Summer_2019|Media_and_Society:_Summer_2019]] == English Wikibooks would consider it an original research. Should it be imported here, please?--[[User:Jusjih|Jusjih]] ([[User talk:Jusjih|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jusjih|contribs]]) 05:04, 29 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:05, 29 November 2020 (UTC) == Template:Regular convex 4-polytopes == Please import the above template from Wikipedia, replacing the previous Wikiversity:Template of that name. I created this template at Wikiversity, and after a period of development copied it to Wikipedia, where the current version now resides. Wikiversity:Regular convex 4-polytopes is the original outdated version of this template, retained only for its development history. If there is a way to ensure that Wikiversity articles will always use the Wikipedia version of this template, without having to reimport it to Wikiversity after each edit to the Wikipedia version, that would be appropriate. (Is there a way to refer directly to a Wikipedia template in a Wikiversity article? I notice that {{W:Template:Regular convex 4-polytopes}} doesn't work.) Thank you! {{Unsigned|Dc.samizdat|2 December 2021‎}} :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} I've tried two different ways to import this but I don't know if it was successful. Your attempts to move and edit the local template have made a clean import very difficult. Going forward, leave it alone locally and just request the import. The import overwrites and updates with more recent changes. If the changes here are more recent, you'll need to update it manually. Since the work is yours anyway, there's no particular licensing benefit to importing. You can just copy and paste. :Regarding the use of templates from other wikis, this has been a requested feature for many years. It would most likely be a reference to Commons (similar to File:), but isn't currently possible. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:20, 2 December 2021 (UTC) :Thank you, sorry for screwing it up. I've copy-and-pasted the current version from Wikipedia and will keep it updated here that way in future. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 23:53, 3 December 2021 (UTC) ==11-cell== Please import W:11-cell for me. Thank you. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:27, 6 April 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:27, 6 April 2022 (UTC) == [[Anywhere on Earth]] == * [[:wikibooks:Special:Permalink/4088676|Anywhere on Earth]] as [[Anywhere on Earth]]. ✍ [[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ]] ([[User talk:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|contribs]]) 20:29, 3 August 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ]]: Imported to [[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ/Anywhere on Earth]]. This would not be something that belongs in main space, at least at this point. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:23, 4 August 2022 (UTC) == Free Energy does not Exist == Please migrate my single-page Wikibook, ''[[b:Free Energy does not Exist|Free Energy does not Exist]]'', to Wikiversity since it is considered to be OR. Thank you. -- [[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]] ([[User talk:Vinyasi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vinyasi|contribs]]) 08:27, 9 November 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]]: {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:20, 9 November 2022 (UTC) ::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Thanks! [[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]] ([[User talk:Vinyasi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vinyasi|contribs]]) 17:34, 9 November 2022 (UTC) ==Developing A Universal Religion== Please import the main page and its subpages per [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Developing_A_Universal_Religion]].--[[User:Jusjih|Jusjih]] ([[User talk:Jusjih|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jusjih|contribs]]) 21:33, 19 August 2023 (UTC) : Hello, I checked the RFD at Wikibooks. I can see one user suggesting to move to Wikiversity ([[:b:special:diff/4238829]]), but I'm not sure if others have agreed with that. The original suggestion seems to be "Moving to Wikisource" ([[:b:special:diff/4096694]]), but then the nominator says they are happy to keep in Wikibooks ([[:b:special:diff/4232954]]). Another user said that it should be moved to Commons ([[:b:special:diff/4238871]]). At this moment, I don't think there is a consensus to move it to Wikiversity, so the discussion over there may need to be continued. In other words, if there is consensus then we can handle this request. I hope this can help you. Other custodians or curators may have something else to say, so this thread will be kept open for a while. Thank you for taking your time to visit Wikiversity. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 05:34, 20 August 2023 (UTC) :{{oppose}}. It's unclear to me how this content would be within the project scope of Wikiversity; it is essentially a philosophical tract, not an educational resource. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:58, 21 August 2023 (UTC) * {{support}}: Wikiversity says "Wikiversity is a Wikimedia Foundation project devoted to learning resources, learning projects, and research for use in all levels, types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning." And thus, ''research'' is included, and the book presents original philosophical research from which one may learn, e.g. by criticizing it. However, if what I just wrote contradicts some policy I do not know of (does anyone have a link to the most applicable policy?), it should be disregarded. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 19:47, 22 August 2023 (UTC) *:I'm hesitant to accept content as "research" which isn't being actively conducted or developed on the wiki, nor as "learning material" which isn't part of a course and doesn't have specific educational goals associated with it. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 20:26, 22 August 2023 (UTC) *:: Are the above invoked requirements based in policy? What is the most pertinent policy page for content inclusion criteria? My assumption was that Wikiversity allows publishing of original research. However, in [[Wikiversity:Scope]], "The other kind of research is wiki-based original research. It is not yet clear that this will be part of the Wikiversity. If the Wikiversity community decides to support original research, it will have to develop a specific set of policies to support such research activities." On the other hand, [[Wikiversity:Original research]] does seem to allow original research. *:: Instead of ad hoc requirements not based in policy, it seems proper to identify the most fitting policy or guideline. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:27, 23 August 2023 (UTC) *:: Assuming now that we can analyze the issues without reference to specific policy items, why should it matter that research is "actively conducted or developed on the wiki"? Since, one can learn from a piece of philosophical research whether it was made on wiki or elsewhere. As for specific learning objectives, I can see the following ones: learn about one particular concept of a universal religion and arguments in its favor, and criticize the concept and the arguments. At a minimum, answer the following questions: what distinguishes a religion from a particular ethical philosophy or system? Does religion need a God or gods? What does a religion have to do to be "universal"? One can state this as one task for the readers if one wants. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:55, 23 August 2023 (UTC) == 600-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:600-cell]]. I understand that will import its complete history with it, which is what I need. I will make the necessary edits to the copy after it is imported, e.g. to resolve links to W:. But is there a tool available to help me with that? It is a long article with a lot of links! Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 17:39, 6 April 2024 (UTC) :I forgot to explain that [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] did this import for me once before, in 2019 -- see [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1#w:600-cell]]. I then worked with the Wikiversity copy for a year or two before merging it back into Wikipedia, after which the Wikiversity:600-cell page was left empty, until it was deleted by custodians. That's all well and good, but now I need to import the current Wikipedia article to Wikiversity once again, for a different reason, to create an expanded "annotated" version of it that isn't going to be merged back into Wikipedia, but is going to stay here at Wikiversity as a learning resource companion to the Wikipedia article. So please import Wikipedia:600-cell again for me, with all its history, so I can start working on that. Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 03:00, 11 April 2024 (UTC) :: {{done}}, latest revision imported. The page has many revisions and it takes too much time to import all of them. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:27, 16 April 2024 (UTC) :I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. From now on it will continue to diverge from the [[Wikipedia:600-cell]] article, as we continue to develop them both, with the Wikiversity version being an expanded superset of the encyclopedia article with additional commentary and learning resources. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:08, 19 May 2024 (UTC) == Template:Infobox polychoron == Please import [[Wikipedia:Template:Infobox polychoron]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 05:34, 18 April 2024 (UTC) :This is actually [[W:Template:Infobox 4-polytope]]. It has a few dependencies. Obviously I would need them too. Or I could do without, and make up an equivalent Infobox of my own to use at Wikiversity, if it's too much trouble to import. That wouldn't be hard. Which do you recommend? [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 05:54, 18 April 2024 (UTC) :: {{done}}, all revisions imported. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 08:01, 18 April 2024 (UTC) == 120-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:120-cell]]. Wikiversity:[[120-cell]] already exists, but is currently empty. Thanks! [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:08, 19 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}}, latest revision imported. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:12, 20 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:25, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == 24-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:24-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:44, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 06:24, 31 May 2024 (UTC) == 16-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:16-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:45, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:25, 29 June 2024 (UTC) == 5-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:5-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:45, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 21:30, 29 June 2024 (UTC) == Various geometry table templates == Please import: : Template:Demitesseract family : Template:24-cell_family : Template:Tesseract family : Template:Symmetric_tessellations [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 06:08, 31 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:26, 31 May 2024 (UTC) == More geometry table templates please == Please also import: : Template:4-simplex Coxeter plane graphs : Template:1 k2 polytopes : Template:2 k1 polytopes : Template:Symmetric2 tessellations [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 21:30, 29 June 2024 (UTC) : Template:4-cube Coxeter plane graphs [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:24, 29 June 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:40, 30 June 2024 (UTC) == And yet one more geometry table template, if you please == Please also import: : Template:Pentachoron family small : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:12, 25 September 2024 (UTC) :Thank you! [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 15:37, 25 September 2024 (UTC) == Kinematics of the cuboctahedron == Please import [[W:Kinematics of the cuboctahedron]]. May I have the entire history of this article imported, if that's not too much to import? Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 19:22, 11 October 2024 (UTC) :I tried multiple times and it kept on failing. Since you basically wrote it yourself, I recommend copying and pasting a rev that you like locally and then please do make sure that it's not an indefinite copy and that you make it into some kind of learning resource appropriate for this site. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:35, 11 October 2024 (UTC) ::Thank you, I will do that. Wikipedia editors have abridged it, removing some of the most essential content, apparently because they feel it is too much like a research article to be a proper encyclopedia article on this subject. They have a point, since some of the content they removed could be considered my original research. I intend to preserve my original article as a learning resource, as one of the [[Polyscheme]] series of Wikiversity articles. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 14:37, 12 October 2024 (UTC) == Template:Infobox polyhedron == May I have this template dependency imported please. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{Done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:45, 12 October 2024 (UTC) ==Page protection== Please re-import: * [[Template:Protection templates]] from [[:w:Template:Protection templates|WP]] * [[Template:Pp-template]] from [[:w:Template:Pp-template|WP]] (and [[:w:Template:Pp-template/doc|/doc]]) (the source of [[:b:Template:Pp-template|WB's copy]], which WV imported from) Since WV's copies of the pp templates are imports, as well as WV's [[Module:Protection banner]], they have inherited the changes shown there (e.g., {{tlx|pp-meta}} and {{tlx|pp-protected}} are deprecated). I can trim the red links and such. It seems many simplifications emanated from [[:w:Module_talk:Protection_banner/Archive_1#Proposal_to_convert_all_protection_templates_to_use_this_module|this change]]. — [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 October 2024 (UTC) :Not the appropriate place, but tacking on a request to delete {{tlx|pp-meta}} given [[:w:Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2019_August_24#Template:Pp-meta|this RfD]]. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 00:02, 26 October 2024 (UTC) ==Template:Incidence structures== Please import this template. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:07, 26 April 2025 (UTC) ==Template:MathWorld== Please import this template. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:07, 26 April 2025 (UTC) ==Template:Quantum mechanics== Please import this template. The current template has almost no information. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:15, 14 November 2025 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:37, 14 November 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:05, 14 November 2025 (UTC) :::{{ping|koavf}} I am affraid it did not work, could you allow me to import [W:Template:Quantum mechanics] to a different name ? [Template:Quantum Mechanics features] or any name that you approve. Somehowe it looks like WV template is locked and I dont want to touch it. Thanks! [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:28, 14 November 2025 (UTC) ::::{{ping|Koavf}} Solved !! Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:39, 14 November 2025 (UTC) : I do not see what Wikiversity-related purpose does [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] serve, and therefore, why it was imported. Wikiversity does not have any need for Wikipedia-style navigation boxes, as far as I can tell. In my view, [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] should be deleted, which is what I would do except that I want to avoid admin conflict. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 15 November 2025 (UTC) ==Template:Periodic table (navbox)== {{ping|koavf}} Please import WP Template:Periodic table (navbox). The [[Template:Periodic table templates]] is a mess and [[School:Chemistry]] does not help either. From the page [[The periodic table]] a template could be created, but the WP version is interactive easier to use. Also there are a great many red tags in [[School:Chemistry]] are there objections if I clean it up? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:21, 16 November 2025 (UTC) :{{done}} Re: removing redlinks, that is ''generally'' a good idea, but I think that in this case, it's legitimate to include them, as this <code>School</code> namespace is made for organizing courses and thoughts generally and it's okay to say that this is a general roadmap for the sorts of things that we could have later. But reasonable persons could disagree here and there's also a legitimate argument for just removing things that no one is working on. I think the best case scenario is moving the redlinks to a section that is a roadmap or to-do list (like the one at the beginning of the page, included via a template). Anyway, for the import, see [[Template:Periodic table (navbox)]]. I am importing some supporting templates as well. I generally hate importing and often decline to do it myself because virtually all templates at the English Wikipedia rely on a variety of <em>other</em> templates and modules to work properly and it becomes this messy, Herculean task just to import something that will not get used or just be deleted four years from now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:58, 17 November 2025 (UTC) ::{{ping|Koavf}} Thanks for the import! Just to clarify, my idea was to improve the redlinks, not deleting them. For some of them it cannot be done since there is no clue, but for the others i could work. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:31, 17 November 2025 (UTC) == Fusi orari (scuola media) == Hello, if it's possible to import pages from other language Wikiversities, please import the contents of [[V:it:Fusi orari (scuola media)|this page]] to [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Time zones|this page]]. I will then translate it for en.wikiversity. Thank you. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 17:29, 21 November 2025 (UTC) :Local users can only import from certain wikis and it [[:mw:Manual:Importing XML dumps|requires server access to change which sites are importable]]. If you're worried about attribution, you can give it in an edit summary or on the talk page for sufficient attribution. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:47, 22 November 2025 (UTC) == Kinematics of sliding from Wikipedia draft == Please import the page [[w:Draft:Kinematics_of_sliding]] to Wikiversity. The content is intended to be a learning resource for [[:Category:Kinematics]]. I request the target page name be [[Kinematics of sliding]]. My Wikipedia user page is [[w:User:Sead_Spuzic|Sead Spuzic]]. {{unsigned|Sead Spuzic}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:58, 9 December 2025 (UTC) == Fraud prevention and IT == Please import [[:betawikiversity:Fraud prevention and IT]]. It belongs here rather than there. [[User:AtUkr|AtUkr]] ([[User talk:AtUkr|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AtUkr|contribs]]) 20:02, 26 January 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[Fraud prevention and IT]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:43, 26 January 2026 (UTC) == A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral == Please import all the pages in [[b:Special:PrefixIndex/A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral]] to subpages of [[User:Nazwa Shabrina/Sigma Spiral Constant]] to complete the movement to Wikiversity in accordance with [[b:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]<sub>[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]<sub>[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]</sub></sub> ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:24, 31 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} {{Ping|Nazwa Shabrina}} and deleted at [[:b:]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:39, 31 July 2026 (UTC) == Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing == Please import [[b:Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing]], accidentally created on enwikibooks instead of enwikiversity, to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]<sub>[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]<sub>[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]</sub></sub> ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:16, 19 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}}/doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:17, 19 October 2026 (UTC) : Thankyou both. I have now deleted that imported 2015 draft because the topic was subsequently relisted and completed here: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Motivational interviewing]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:02, 21 October 2026 (UTC) is4x1wpfvienbgzdsab3hw3trv8bx6q 2841900 2841898 2026-10-21T17:34:21Z Koavf 147 /* How about this */ 2841900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{center top}}'''This is an archive of past discussions. Please do not modify it or make new requests here. Please do so at [[Wikiversity:Import]].'''{{center bottom}} == Thursday, October 19 - Requests == *Could someone please import [[Sign_your_posts_on_talk_pages]] from wikipedia? [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 02:06, 20 October 2006 (UTC) *:We already have a help page on [[Wikiversity:Signature|signatures]]. Why do we need another one? [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 09:47, 20 October 2006 (UTC) **Sorry, it had to do with another interlink and/or template, and I can't recall what it was anymore. I should have made a more detailed request. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 17:59, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ***The link in unsigned comments points in that direction. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 18:02, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ****I've simply redirected [[Sign your posts on talk pages]] to [[Wikiversity:Signature]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 15:43, 26 October 2006 (UTC) *****That only works in a search, not in a direct link, I've updated the template, and will request a removal of the redirect. Sorry for the unnecessary commentary, more learning by doing! [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 05:58, 27 October 2006 (UTC) ******done [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 10:10, 27 October 2006 (UTC) == Friday, October 5 - Requests == * Could a custodian please look at [[School:Fire and Emergency Management/Fire Investigator]] (see also [[b:Wikiversity:School of Fire and Emergency Management/Fire Investigator]]). The pages (except the top, which I'll do in a second) need to be imported and moved. I've just spent an hour and a bit importing pages for this school and have run out of time (I should have been asleep about an hour ago). --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 02:24, 5 October 2006 (UTC) :I completed Fire Investigator and also did Fire Officer. Need break now, but will try to do more later. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 19:42, 5 October 2006 (UTC) == Saturday, September 2 - Done == *[[b:Wikiversity:Introduction to Philosophy]] &rarr; [[Introduction to Philosophy]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 04:19, 2 September 2006 (UTC) == Wednesday, August 30 - Done == *[[b:Sociology of the Family]] &rarr; [[Sociology of the Family]]--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 00:45, 1 September 2006 (UTC) == Tuesday, August 29 - Done == *[[b:Web Design]] &rarr; [[Topic:Web Design]] -- see notes on the [[Topic_talk:Web_Design|talk page]]. ----[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 09:46, 29 August 2006 (UTC) **All subpages moved to main namespace, see [[Special:Prefixindex/Web Design]] *[[b:Wikiversity:Classical_Mechanics]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:Classical_Mechanics]] (please move to appropriate namespace) * I'd like a copy of [[m:Template:for]] and [[m:Template:for/aux]]. I'm assuming since I wanted a copy, but the original stays there, that we don't need an import, with an import history, so I did a transwiki paste. But if we do, feel free to delete my copy, and import the other one. But be aware that while those pages don't exist, it'll make [[Wikiversity:Disclosures]] look funny. If the transwiki paste is OK, just mark this "done". [[User:TimNelson|TimNelson]] 15:35, 29 August 2006 (UTC) :I don't see any problems with a c&p, so this should be fine.--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 17:31, 29 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:High_School_Physics]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:High_School_Physics]] (please move to appropriate namespace) :The whole section, or just mainpage? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 14:37, 29 August 2006 (UTC) ::The mainpage is useless without the others, so I went ahead and transwikied it all.--<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 17:51, 29 August 2006 (UTC) == Monday, August 28 - Done == *[[Wikiversity:School of Theology/Gospel 101/Verses for the week]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:33, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[Christianity/Gospel 101]]--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:33, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:Stellar_Evolution]] &rarr; [[Stellar Evolution]] *[[b:Wikiversity:Astronomy]] &rarr; [[Wikiversity:Astronomy]] ([[Topic:Astronomy]] already exists, please merge or rename). *<s>[[b:Portuguese:Contents]]</s> - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 14:08, 28 August 2006 (UTC) (This is a textbook.----[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 19:30, 28 August 2006 (UTC)) *[[b:Wikiversity: Hitler's Germany]] &rarr; [[Hitler's Germany]] --<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 21:47, 28 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:The Great War and Versailles]] &rarr; [[The Great War and Versailles]] --<b><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;">[[User:Digitalme|<span style="color:gray;">digital</span>]]<span style="color:gray;">_</span>[[User_talk:Digitalme|<span style="color:red;">me</span>]]</span></b> 21:47, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ==Completed== * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Productive_Forking_and_Tailoring_is_Encouraged I would like this linked to from the policy discussion and voting page. If there is a place for discussion of draft policy or guidelines that is adequate as well. Forking and tailoring the material to achieve different purposes is a fairly obvious way to rapidly expand our available materials for various purposes. However, I fear much of the local wiki culture is oriented around deleting material perceived as redundant and eliminating duplication from the database. Hence a discussion of this type of useful activity from the start may be extremely useful. Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 23:32, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Linked to with voting and discussion at [[WV:RULES]]. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 08:03, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Communication *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Media_Studies --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 15:34, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Library_and_Information_Science probably should come too.--[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 15:41, 17 August 2006 (UTC) :All done. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 16:03, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Template:Wikiversity]] and [[:m:Template:WikiversityActivities]] (see ''What links here'' of local pages) [[User:555|555]] 19:56, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Done. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 20:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC) *[[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation]], [[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation/Chapter 1 Airplane Components]] - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 02:40, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:01, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Psychology --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 23:42, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done, with all subpages as well. It has been moved to [[School:Department of Psychology]]. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:47, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Mathematics and this one with all it's subpages for Robert Horning. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 16:05, 19 August 2006 (UTC) *:Done. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 06:59, 20 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Literature_and_English_Studies/Writing_Center which I'd like to now come under the new Literary Studies thing (we're stepping away from strictly English). [[User:Atrivedi|Atrivedi]] :Done. Now located at [[School:Department of Literary Studies/Writing Center]]. Please forgive the 80,000 moves of the talk page. I was clearly not up to par. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 22:01, 17 August 2006 (UTC) *I need this file: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering/Free_or_open_source_design_tools transiki'd to: <s>http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Free_or_open_source_design_tools</S> Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 06:10, 25 August 2006 (UTC) **Done, now at [[Topic:Engineering/Free_or_open_source_design_tools]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:02, 27 August 2006 (UTC) *I would like the two files below (currently at Wikibooks) moved over into the lesson space under http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Project_Management :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Project_Management/Goal_Setting_and_Management ::[[Topic:Project Management/Goal_Setting_and_Management]] :http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering:Critical_Thinking_%26_Self_Communication:goal_setting ::[[Topic:Project Management/Experimental Self Communication/Critical Thinking & Self Communication/Goal Setting]] Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 05:13, 23 August 2006 (UTC) ::*Imported, moving now. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:39, 27 August 2006 (UTC) :::Moved, feel free to rename, but don't delete redirects.--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 23:48, 27 August 2006 (UTC) == Saturday, November 4 - Re-Requests == *Suppose this got lost in the shuffle. Could someone please bring that Cite_book over? I don't want to list a whole bunch of sources and then re-format them later on. It would help out a lot. Thanks. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 08:39, 4 November 2006 (UTC) :*It's imported now... keep in mind that '''''we do not have import enabled from wikipedia!''''' I had to first import it to wikibooks, then from wikibooks to here, which I'm not sure I should really do. Now at [[Template:Cite book]] --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 11:12, 4 November 2006 (UTC) ::Most appreciated. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 04:38, 5 November 2006 (UTC) == Tuesday, October 24 - Requests == *Could someone please import [[w:Template:Cite_book]] and ideally all the related cite pages? <small>(''The preceding [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by'' [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] ([[User talk:RichMac|talk]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RichMac|contribs]]) {{{2|}}}.)</small> **Currently the only way to do that is to import first to wikibooks, then to wikiversity... though in the case of this page that's fine, because it would be nice to have that on wikibooks too. What related pages are you talking about? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 17:26, 24 October 2006 (UTC) ***Everything on the [[w:Citation_templates]] would be ideal. [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 06:30, 27 October 2006 (UTC) ****Could someone at least bring that cite book over? [[User:RichMac|RichMac]] 20:54, 29 October 2006 (UTC) == Old Requests for Import == (Some of these are done, some aren't. If a page is needed, please list it above, under today's date.) For security reasons, only admins can import pages. You can list here what pages on Meta or Wikibooks you would like to have moved to Wikiversity. An admin will take care of the import as soon as possible and notify you when it is done. '''Note''': there is a [[Wikiversity:Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks#To Do|list of pages already imported from Wikibooks]] that have not yet been marked with <nowiki>{{MovedToWikiversity}}</nowiki>. * If someone could import [[Calculus/Building up to the Riemann-Darboux Definition]] and [[The Riemann-Darboux Integral, Integrability criterion, and monotone/Lipschitz function]] that would be nice, this is part of a Calculus class that I might continue next year. [[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 14:40, 22 August 2006 (UTC) **Are these on meta? wikibooks?--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 01:37, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ***Wikibooks, sorry: [[[b:Building_up_to_the_Riemann-Darboux_Definition| Calculus/Building up to the Riemann-Darboux Definition]]] [[[b:The_Riemann-Darboux_Integral%2C_Integrability_criterion%2C_and_monotone/Lipschitz_function| The Riemann-Darboux Integral, Integrability criterion, and monotone/Lipschitz function]]] ****Aren't those textbooks? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 14:56, 29 August 2006 (UTC) *****No, I created them and linked them from the Calculus page in Wikiversity.[[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 15:16, 30 August 2006 (UTC) ******This has been here for quite a while, is it possible that anyone could move these? [[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] 03:39, 24 October 2006 (UTC) * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Engineering should replace the copy of itself located here: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Engineering_and_Technology Sorry about the extra work deleting the early copy. Will not happen again. [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 12:03, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :Done. It's at [[School:Engineering]]. If you want to rename it, go ahead and move, but leave the redirect because that's what the Wikibooks page links to now. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:17, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::I'm importing the subpages too. This might take a while. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:29, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::Actually, how about you give me a list of the sub pages you want imported? Or do you want all of them? -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 12:32, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :::Eventually we want all of them. I have requested admin status so I can help out. Pace yourself and service requests by name first. Thanks! [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 19:08, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::::I'm not sure I understand the last part of that sentence. "service requests by name first"? -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|<sup>?</sup>]] 19:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC) :::::Sorry for confusion. I meant by specifically requested titles that people list here as urgent or of immediate interest. Such as the one below regarding "proposed productive forking and tailoring". 8) [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 23:35, 16 August 2006 (UTC) ::Probably should move over the department subpages for School of Engineering as well, particularly Electrical Engineering :) --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 23:08, 16 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Wikiversity/Archive 1]], [[:m:Wiki 101]], [[:m:Wikiversity students]], [[:m:Wikiversity browsers]], [[:m:Wikiversity teachers]], [[:m:Wikiversity and Wikipedia services]], [[:m:Service community]], [[:m:Wikiversity and Wikibooks services]], [[:m:Research community]], [[:m:Secondary research]], [[:m:Citing Sources]], [[:m:Research collaboration]], [[:m:Wikiversity thinktank]], [[:m:Wikiversity support staff]], [[:m:Student union]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Communities]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Helpdesk]], [[:m:Wikiversity:Faculty club]] (and talk), [[:m:Cell biology improvement drive]], [[:m:Human Genetic Uniqueness Project]]. [[User:555|555]] 23:21, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * [[:m:Wikiversity:Faculty club]] (and talk), [[:m:Wikiversity:Subjects]], [[:m:Language training in Wikiversity]], [[:m:Wikiversity/Draft Charter]] (and talk), [[:m:Andrew Worth]], [[:m:Dan Cruthirds]], [[:m:Dean Boudewijnse]], [[:m:Shingle]] (and talk), [[:m:Moving Wikiversity forward]]. [[User:555|555]] 23:27, 17 August 2006 (UTC) * We've got our first com-sci advisor, so I'm proposing that http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science and all subpages get moved over for him. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 14:32, 18 August 2006 (UTC) *And we have someone writing theology classes, so import http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Theology and subpages --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 00:32, 19 August 2006 (UTC) *http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science This might be useful to import [[User:Spacey|Spacey]] 14:31, 19 August 2006 (UTC) * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Web_Design and all subpages. We've been working on this Wikibook for a year or so now, but it really belongs in wikiversity as it's mostly activities/challenges etc. Not sure whether Web Design should go in Information Studies or Computer Science. Also, sub topics like Javascript, PHP might cross boundaries of schools. [[User:Michaelnelson|Michaelnelson]] 07:36, 22 August 2006 (UTC) ==How about this== Here is a list of all the schools on wikibooks, just check them off after you've imported them (and put them in the "School:" [[Wikiversity:Namespaces|namespace]] unless such a school already exists. In thoses cases, I am putting the page from Wikibooks into the "Portal:" namespace and linking it to the existing school page already in "School:" namespace): ==='''Physical Sciences'''=== *Physical Science Schools that were started at Wikibooks: **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Chemistry]]</s> ::I've transwikied this, and fixed all the links.--[[User:Digitalme|digital_me]]<sup>[[User_talk:Digitalme|talk]]</sup> 02:19, 20 August 2006 (UTC) **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Forensics and Security]] - exception- low priority --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 23:21, 26 August 2006 (UTC) ::This has subpages that can be imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Engineering]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Electronics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Geology]]</s> - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Mathematics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Physics and Astronomy]]</s> ::All but School of Computer Forensics and Security have been imported here. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:48, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===Life Sciences=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Biology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Medicine]]</s> **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Biomechanics]] - exception- low priority --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Oceanography]] - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC)</s> ::Doesn't need importing. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:51, 3 October 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Plant Sciences]]</s> **[[b:Wikiversity:School of Zoology]] - exception- Not really worth importing --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 22:55, 26 August 2006 (UTC) **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Veterinary Medicine]]</s> ::Biomechanics is a set of wikibooks links, should we import this? Also, school of zoology not worth importing. Oceaonography doesn't need importing either. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:51, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===<s>Humanities (done)</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Art and Design]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Classics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Law]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Linguistics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Literature and English Studies]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Music]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Comparative Mythology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Philosophy]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Theology]]</s> ===<s>Professional Schools (done, wikibooks versions locked)</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Architecture]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Aviation]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Business]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Education]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Entrepreneurship]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Foreign Language Learning]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Audio Engineering]]</s> -- page was deleted earlier, 1 edit with no real content. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | <sup>[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]</sup> 00:23, 28 August 2006 (UTC) ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Computer Science|Computer Science]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Computer Science]]</s> :School of Computer Science has been imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 02:51, 28 September 2006 (UTC) <s>Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) should be added to the School of Computer Science.</s> -- Done -- [[User:Tadpole256|<b>Tadpole256</b>]][[User_talk:Tadpole256|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(Discuss)</span></sup>]] ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Engineering|Engineering]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Engineering]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Institute of Construction]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Project Management]]</s> ::These have all been imported. --[[User:Draicone|<b>Draicone</b>]] [[User_talk:Draicone|<sup><span style="color: #FF9933;">(talk)</span></sup>]] 05:46, 3 October 2006 (UTC) ===<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Social Sciences| Social Sciences]]</s>=== **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Anthropology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Communication]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Development Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Economics]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Fire and Emergency Management]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of History]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Journalism]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Library and Information Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Media Studies]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Political Science]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Psychology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Social Work]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School of Sociology]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:School Of Security, Surveillance and Law Enforcement]]</s> **<s>[[b:Wikiversity:Embedded System Engineering]]</s> --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 17:00, 19 August 2006 (UTC) **[[b:Wikiversity:Embedded System Engineering]] [[User:Srinivasasha|Srinivasasha]] 08:02, 17 February 2007 (UTC) :::[[Embedded System Engineering]] now exists. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 15:19, 17 February 2007 (UTC) :Note that one of the purposes of this page is also to prioritize what schools are actively going to be developed right away on Wikiversity, so we can make sure that the content is here instead of somewhere else. Still, thanks for posting this message here. --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 05:13, 20 August 2006 (UTC) ::Well, I just thought that every one of these probably should be moved over at some point, so it would be good to have a list so that people see that XXX is oging to be imported eventually, as to not do extra work. --[[User:Rayc|Rayc]] 20:52, 20 August 2006 (UTC) :::If this is an unwritten policy to "<b>guide</b>" or "<b>prioritize</b>" incoming volunteers acttivities it is in serious error. Volunteers will have their own priorities and leaving their previous files in limbo is not likely to shift them from one subject to another productively. A page somewhere noted 37 files had been transwikied to date. This does not make us look like a serious going concern. [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 04:43, 21 August 2006 (UTC) I need the following pages imported and moved to these locations: * [[b:Primary mathematics:Numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Adding numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Adding numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Subtracting numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Subtracting numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Multiplying numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Multiplying numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Dividing numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Dividing numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Negative numbers]] to [[Primary mathematics:Negative numbers]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Fractions]] to [[Primary mathematics:Fractions]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Working with fractions]] to [[Primary mathematics:Working with fractions]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Powers, roots, and exponents]] to [[Primary mathematics:Powers, roots, and exponents]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Average, median, and mode]] to [[Primary mathematics:Average, median, and mode]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Percentages]] to [[Primary mathematics:Percentages]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Probability]] to [[Primary mathematics:Probability]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Factors and Primes]] to [[Primary mathematics:Factors and Primes]] * [[b:Primary mathematics:Method for Factoring]] to [[Primary mathematics:Method for Factoring]] If I've set it all up right, the links at [[Topic:Primary School Mathematics]] should all turn from red links to blue links. There is no hurry to do this, just let me know. --'''Whiteknight''' ([[User:Whiteknight|Versity]]) ([[b:User:Whiteknight|Books]]) 17:55, 28 August 2007 (UTC) :The pages listed above were imported. I only imported the [[Talk:Primary mathematics:Numbers|talk page for the first one]]. Since it might be possible to turn the original pages at Wikibooks into a book that can be used with additional complementary course material at Wikiversity, I did not put the ugly "MovedToWikiversity" template on the pages at Wikibooks. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 18:29, 28 August 2007 (UTC) ==recent== *[[b:template:mbox]] '''&ndash; [[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike.lifeguard}}]]''' | <sup>[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|talk}}]]</sup> 03:12, 5 October 2007 (UTC) ::Looks like [[:Template:Mbox]] was already copied here. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] 06:09, 8 January 2008 (UTC) *[[b:Emergency Operation Centre GIS]] - [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;<sup>[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]</sup> 03:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC) :::This article you requested to be imported have already been done by Darklama . [[User:Terra|<strong>{{font|color=Black|Ter}}{{font|color=Red|ra}}</strong>]] 19:28, 28 May 2008 (UTC) *Wikibooks has [[b:Wikibooks:Votes for deletion/Democracy Project|decided]] [[b:Special:PrefixIndex/Democracy Project]] is not suitable for our project, but we thought it may fit within Wikiveristy's [[WV:WIW|scope]]. [[User:Darklama|Darklama]] was not sure it did. '''&ndash;&nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&nbsp;|&nbsp;<sup>[[m:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@meta}}]]</sup> 23:06, 26 July 2008 (UTC) :[[Image:Green tick.svg|20px]] imported, ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] <small>uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])</small> 10:12, 9 August 2008 (UTC) * Leaving a note that I imported [[Romanticism and Revolution]] as it seemed to be an AfD that would not go well. It was an essay/lecture type setup that seems more suited to Wikiversity - would also go well as part of a Romanticism course project that I am writing various lectures for and I am contacting the creator now. [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]]) 15:50, 17 February 2010 (UTC) * From an en-Wikpedia Article for Deletion discussion [[w:History Essay Format & Thesis Statement]]. Cheers! [[User:Bwilkins|Bwilkins]] 15:12, 13 February 2010 (UTC) *I'm not quite sure if it's actually appropriate for Wikiversity, but [[w:Genes to Cognition Project]] has been tagged on the English Wikipedia for several months. [[User:Dancter|Dancter]] 14:17, 30 April 2009 (UTC) *: '''Done'''. [[Genes to Cognition Project]] --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 17:22, 30 April 2009 (UTC) The following are not personal requests of mine. They are books and their subpages suggested to be transwikied to Wikiversity over at Wikibooks, either through a template or a VfD discussion. Not being familiar with Wikiversity's workings, I post them for assessment of their worth here at Wikiversity. *[[b:Hexpixel Code]] *[[b:Morphological Flows and Sustainable Growth]] *[[b:Numerical Methods Qualification Exam Problems and Solutions (University of Maryland)]] *[[b:Practical Argumentation Framework]] *[[b:UMD Analysis Qualifying Exam]] -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 18:31, 14 July 2009 (UTC) :* [[Hexpixel Code]] :* [[Practical Argumentation Framework]] : Done --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:04, 14 July 2009 (UTC) [[b:The Use of English with Other Members of the Thai Academic Community among Dhurakij Pundit University’s Postgraduate Business Students]] is reaching a consensus for transwikiing here as part of a request for deletion and it is likely more suited to Wikiversity. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 23:55, 23 November 2009 (UTC) {{done}} See [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ALog&type=import&user=&page=&year=&month=-1 log]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 17:52, 20 December 2009 (UTC) [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]] has been suggested to be transwikied here instead of deleted by darklama. <s>[[b:The Knowledge Which No One Can Have]] has been described as nonsense by mike.lifeguard who says it can be pursued with vigor here.</s> -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 12:51, 30 April 2010 (UTC) : Import right now seems premature, there is no consensus yet for either work on Wikibooks. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 13:48, 30 April 2010 (UTC) : Neither of them are particularly useful on Wikibooks, IMO. [[User:Kayau|Kayau]] ([[User talk:Kayau|talk]] | [[Special:Emailuser/Kayau|email]] | [[Special:Contributions/Kayau|contribs]] | [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~interiot/cgi-bin/count_edits?user={{urlencode:Kayau}}&dbname=enwikiversity_p stats]) 10:21, 30 May 2010 (UTC) [[b:Standardized English Test Vocabulary Building]] - does not exactly belong to Wikibooks (OR). However, it is nice to have on Wikiversity as it can be treated as a course. [[User:Kayau|Kayau]] ([[User talk:Kayau|talk]] | [[Special:Emailuser/Kayau|email]] | [[Special:Contributions/Kayau|contribs]] | [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~interiot/cgi-bin/count_edits?user={{urlencode:Kayau}}&dbname=enwikiversity_p stats]) 10:21, 30 May 2010 (UTC) [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]] again and [[b:Lohse, Martin]], [[b:Guide to Success and Fulfillment]], [[b:Happiness]]. No consensus at Wikibooks needs to be had to request an import here; the question is whether this content is within scope here and whether custodians want the content. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 03:36, 3 June 2010 (UTC) : [[b:Happiness]] at least I'd be interested to import and merge with resources in development on [[Happiness]] which I hope to develop for some upcoming teaching. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:15, 3 June 2010 (UTC) : While true that consensus at Wikibooks isn't needed to import here, I think requesting import is premature when there is a possibility that the work might be kept at Wikibooks. Duplicating works without anyone on Wikiversity to develop it isn't good IMO. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 11:19, 3 June 2010 (UTC) ::Well, [[b:Lohse, Martin]], at least, has [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Lohse.2C_Martin|consensus]] and the the main contributor is on board with it, so you'll have someone working on it once it's moved here. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 03:01, 5 June 2010 (UTC) ::: [[Lohse, Martin]] is imported. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 13:37, 6 June 2010 (UTC) ==Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience== Is it possible to import [[b:Ten Stupid Things Beginners Do to Mess Up Their Contradance Experience]]? [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:37, 25 June 2010 (UTC) :{{done}} along with all its subpages. I've hopefully not missed anything. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:11, 25 June 2010 (UTC) Also its related pdf version [[b:File:10 stupid pamphlet.pdf]] [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:40, 25 June 2010 (UTC) :[[:File:10 stupid pamphlet.pdf]] is available for use on Wikiversity by virtue of its existence on Commons. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:13, 25 June 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:KinderCalculus|KinderCalculus]]== Could you please import wikijunior:KinderCalculus at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:KinderCalculus ? Please include all pages, including history, discussions, etc. Thank you. [[User:Numiri|Numiri]] 17:24, 10 July 2010 (UTC) This seems to have been missed so let me add a few links make the lives of the admins here a bit easier. [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 10:59, 13 July 2010 (UTC) *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus]] -> [[KinderCalculus]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Nouns & Verbs]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Bald]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Bald]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Bald]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Bald]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Syntax]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Syntax]] *[[b:Wikijunior:KinderCalculus/Dress]] -> [[KinderCalculus/Dress]] *[[b:Wikijunior talk:KinderCalculus/Dress]] -> [[Talk:KinderCalculus/Dress]] *{{done}} Thanks for the links, they did make things easier although I hadn't spotted your request until now. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 11:44, 13 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:How To Do Nothing|How To Do Nothing]]== I would like to request the following transwiki. The following module did not fit in at wikibooks and may be useful here, but I am not really sure if it falls under wikiversity's scope, and I don't know if a good home for it, so I can't preform my usual level of clean up after a transwiki. Since the page no longer has any active contributors at wikibooks it would be a good idea to look it over and see if it fits into this project. A record of the discussion about whether or not to transwiki may be found [[b:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/How To Do Nothing|here]]. *[[b:How To Do Nothing]] -> [[Transwiki:How To Do Nothing]] Thanks, [[User:Thenub314|Thenub314]] 11:24, 15 July 2010 (UTC) : {{not done}} doesn't fall under Wikiversity's scope, and per talk [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Thenub314#How_to_do_nothing here]. [[User:Diego Grez|Diego Grez]] 19:05, 19 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:How To Build A Pykrete Bong|How To Build A Pykrete Bong]]== If you would like this, please import it, otherwise it will be deleted as per [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#How_To_Build_A_Pykrete_Bong|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 21:36, 20 July 2010 (UTC) * {{done}} [[User:Diego Grez|Diego Grez]] 23:34, 20 July 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:Wiki Science|Wiki Science]]== See [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Wiki_Science|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 22:49, 18 August 2010 (UTC) :*Support import. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 00:48, 23 September 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:Towards A Better India|Towards A Better India]]== See [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Towards_A_Better_India|discussion]]. [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 22:49, 18 August 2010 (UTC) : [[Image:Vista-clean.png|15px| ]] '''Done''' --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:17, 4 October 2010 (UTC) ==[[b:A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook|A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook]]== Could you please import [[b:http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A_Supplement_to_the_Texas_US_History_Textbook|A Supplement to the Texas US History Textbook]] to Wikiversity which seems to be a better fit for the project. Thank you![[User:Tgokey|Tgokey]] 10:44, 20 October 2010 (UTC) : [[Image:Vista-clean.png|15px| ]] '''Done''' <small>[[User:Leutha|Leutha]] 15:15, 9 September 2011, sig added by --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 15:31, 9 September 2011 (UTC)</small> == Import from betawikiversity == {{user|Jon Awbrey}} create a project in betawikiversity, but as English Wikiversity exist, and as it do not apport change in the pages since one month, I tell the import from betawikiversity into English Wikiversity for the page list above. Image was under GFDL license, they will be exported from Betawikiversity to Wikimedia Commons. In the list, the main page of this project may be "Logical graph" # Charles Sanders Peirce # Logical graph # Descriptive science # Normative science # Truth theory # Pragmatic maxim # Logic of information ‎ # Semeiotic ‎ # Dynamics of inquiry ‎ # Inquiry ‎ # Zeroth order logic ‎ # Sole sufficient operator ‎ # Universe of discourse ‎ # Truth table ‎ # Relation reduction ‎ # Relation construction ‎ # Relation composition ‎ # Relation # Logical matrix ‎ # Logic of relatives ‎ # Hypostatic abstraction ‎ # Continuous predicate ‎ # Relative term ‎ # Differential logic ‎ # Boolean-valued function ‎ # Boolean function ‎ # Boolean domain ‎ # Ampheck ‎ # Parametric operator ‎ # Multigrade operator ‎ # Minimal negation operator ‎ # Sign relation ‎ # Triadic relation ‎ # Relation theory ‎ # Peirce's law ‎ # Logical implication ‎ # Exclusive disjunction ‎ # Theory of relations ‎ # Peer Educational Resource ‎ # Peer Educational Resources ‎ # Logic Live/Participants ‎ # Inquiry Live/Participants ‎ # Propositional calculus ‎ # Logical disjunction ‎ # Logical conjunction ‎ # Logical negation ‎ # Peirce’s Law ‎ # Peirce’s law ‎ # Peirce's Law ‎ # Logical Graph ‎ # Logical graphs ‎ [[User:Crochet.david|Crochet.david]] 08:26, 29 October 2010 (UTC) :Jon was approached about this before. He said he did not want his contributions on en.wikiversity. He is not blocked here so he could place them here himself. [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]]) 20:08, 22 November 2010 (UTC) :Jon has also mentioned on his user talk page that his intent is for this to be international and that some pages have already been translated into other languages. Beta Wikiversity seems like a better home for international works, where the work can be kept consistent across languages. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 20:33, 22 November 2010 (UTC) ==Wikibooks RFDs== I believe these discussions have resulted in consensus for transwiki to Wikiversity. * [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#The_Practice_of_Learning_Theories|The Practice of Learning Theories]] * [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Signs_for_Selecting_a_Spouse_for_a_Successful_Marriage|Signs for Selecting a Spouse for a Successful Marriage]] [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 13:57, 31 January 2011 (UTC) : '''Done'''. [[Learning theories in practice]] and [[Spouse selection according to Baha'i writings]]. --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 15:41, 31 January 2011 (UTC) ==History Essay Format & Thesis Statement== Outcome of [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/History Essay Format & Thesis Statement|this deletion discussion]] on English Wikipedia in 2010 was to transwiki but I don't think any request was made at the time. Is it in scope for this project? [[User:January|January]] 17:04, 8 October 2011 (UTC) :The request was made but there was no clear follow-up. January, if you are willing to take responsibility for this page, here, I'll import it to allow you to do that. Okay? My import will *not*, then, be a decision that it is in scope. It may need to be moved, refactored, etc. However, Wikiversity is highly inclusive, generally. Glancing at the page, it looks useful to me. I'm going to go ahead and import, just to practice using the tool. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 17:45, 8 October 2011 (UTC) :{{done}}. I did not transwiki the Talk page because it had no real content relevant to the page's usage here. But if the Talk page is desired, let me know. Because I'm banned on Wikipedia, I cannot notify the Wikipedia community of the transwiki (except by email or with block evasion, and with strong reason, which this situation doesn't create). --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 18:17, 8 October 2011 (UTC) ::Thanks, I've tied up the loose ends on Wikipedia. [[User:January|January]] 18:40, 8 October 2011 (UTC) == Katie Harwood == The article [[w:Katie Harwood]] on English Wikipedia is up for deletion. The consensus in the deletion discussion is leaning towards regretful delete: the person has put work into developing it as a piece of original research. Before deleting it, it seems like it might be an idea to import it to Wikiversity as providing a space for original research is really more Wikiversity's bailiwick. If the page gets deleted on enwiki, please feel free to contact me (I'm an enWP admin) and I can help in transwiki-ing it over to Wikiversity. I've tagged it with the "Copy to Wikiversity" template. [[User:Tom Morris|Tom Morris]] 17:39, 13 January 2012 (UTC) : {{done}} --[[User:Darklama|<span style="background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;">&nbsp;dark</span>]][[User talk:Darklama|<span style="background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;">lama&nbsp;</span>]] 19:13, 13 January 2012 (UTC) ==Rodger's Method== [[w:Wikipedia talk:Articles for creation/Rodger's Method]] > [[Rodger's Method]]. Not a good match for Wikipedia, import was suggested on the Colloquium. [[Special:Contributions/62.194.104.217|62.194.104.217]] 09:49, 6 January 2013 (UTC) {{done}}--[[User:Collingwood|Collingwood]] ([[User talk:Collingwood|talk]]) 12:38, 6 January 2013 (UTC) ==History [[Plant propagation]]== [[w:Cutting (plant): Revision history]] > [[Plant propagation]] . [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] <sup>[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]</sup> 12:46, 4 December 2012 (UTC) <s>Revision history of [[w:Vertical farming]] hasn't been moved to [[Vertical farming]]'s history since the article started. 10:01, 8 July 2009‎. It needs a history merge or a delete.</s> deleted - [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] <sup>[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]</sup> 04:27, 6 January 2013 (UTC) ==Linear function (mathematics)== <s>[[w:Linear function (mathematics)]] Looks like learning material. It looks better here than at Wikipedia.</s> [[User:Citrusbowler|Citrusbowler]] ([[User talk:Citrusbowler|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Citrusbowler|contribs]]) 19:09, 18 June 2013 (UTC) ==Import history of [[w:Star]]== Please import the revision history of [[w:Star]] to [[Intro_astronomy_college_course/Star_(Wikipedia)]] :This is my first effort to import the history of a Wikipedia article into a Wikiversity resource. Let me know if there is a smoother way to do this. For more information see https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#Second_question. Thanks --[[User:Guy vandegrift|guyvan52]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 18:56, 13 March 2014 (UTC) ::{{Done}} - Surprisingly, it wouldn't let me import the entire history. I tried several times and several ways, and all failed as saying it couldn't open the file. But I was able to import the most recent version, all attributed to a single author. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 19:54, 13 March 2014 (UTC) :::{{Thank you}} I tried to help you by importing the text and only got in the way...--[[User:Guy vandegrift|guyvan52]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 20:05, 13 March 2014 (UTC) ==Induced stem cells from Wikipedia== Please let me create a page "Guide for studying Induced stem cells" This page has moved here from Wikipedia as all of the Wikipedia content must be supported by secondary sources, as per [[w:WP:RS]]. We need to wait until all cited articles will be discussed in secondary sources. But, the article [[w:Induced stem cells]] most fundamentally relies on primary sources, where WP calls for primary reliance on secondaries. At the same time instructional and study guides that make use of original research are allowed on Wikiversity Furthermore, Wikiversity will offer a space not just for hosting research, but also for facilitating research through creating researcher communities. Wikiversity is the place for '''original research''', including '''primary''' or secondary research. This includes '''interpreting primary sources, forming ideas''', or taking observations. See [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?# Wikiversity for researching]] This article is a new type of scientific review - quickly replenished dynamic review. Its goal to combine the latest research results with an overall picture of achievements in the topic under discussion. See: [[w:Editing Induced stem cells]][[User:Dmitry Dzhagarov|Dmitry Dzhagarov]] ([[User talk:Dmitry Dzhagarov|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmitry Dzhagarov|contribs]]) 07:38, 2 May 2014 (UTC) :{{Done}} - It imported history up through last summer and then crashed. I imported the most recent version on top of that history. It's at [[Induced stem cells]]. If you want to rename it, I'd recommend Induced stem cells study or Induced stem cells study guide. If you rename it with the words Study guide first, the article is much harder for other users to locate. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 11:08, 2 May 2014 (UTC) Thank you very much [[User:Dmitry Dzhagarov|Dmitry Dzhagarov]] ([[User talk:Dmitry Dzhagarov|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmitry Dzhagarov|contribs]]) 14:38, 2 May 2014 (UTC) ==Crisis Bonding== I've placed a transwiki request to move [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_bonding Crisis bonding]] here to Wikiversity. This article is original research on a type of emotional bonding, and the consensus of Wikipedia editors is it is a better fit for Wikiversity than Wikipedia. [[User:PaintedCarpet|PaintedCarpet]] ([[User talk:PaintedCarpet|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PaintedCarpet|contribs]]) 22:22, 8 June 2014 (UTC) :{{Done}} - at [[Crisis bonding]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:59, 8 June 2014 (UTC) == More Pages == Pages in the [[Special:Allpages/Transwiki:|Transwiki pseudo-namespace]] that need to be re-named, and unused redirects deleted. How does this feature work? Why and how are pages put here, and how can it be indicated when they have been worked on?[[User:Leutha|Leutha]] 14:19, 10 September 2011 (UTC) == [[Wikipedia:Template:Location mark+]] == I would appreciate the import of the template [[Template:Location mark+]] that I would like to use in my and my students' Wikiversity projects "Editing Internet Text". Thank you. [[User:Iszmael|Iszmael]] ([[User talk:Iszmael|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Iszmael|contribs]]) 21:00, 23 May 2017 (UTC) :{{done}} --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 23:04, 23 May 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others|Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]]== I request that the page [[w:Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]] be imported into this project from Wikipedia. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gramophone_Company_of_India_Limited_Vs._Shanti_Films_Corporation_and_others&oldid=661832164 This revision] of the Wikipedia article appears to be original research that might be suitable for Wikiversity (it reads like a periodical article). The page is presently at "articles for deletion" (AfD) so it may change drastically at any time, but we may still want to have the essay. There is no point in waiting for the end of the AfD, as most of the participants are convinced that "transwiki" isn't a possible outcome of any AfD, and can't be persuaded otherwise. [[User:James500|James500]] ([[User talk:James500|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/James500|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 May 2015 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:34, 19 May 2015 (UTC) ::Remarkable to see the deletion discussion: [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Gramophone Company of India Limited Vs. Shanti Films Corporation and others]]. [[User:James500]], you did not understand the relationship of the WMF and Wikipedia governance, the argument about "not allowed to delete" was incorrect. The Wikipedia community can basically delete whatever it chooses, and when you tell people they are "not allowed" to do what they want to do, they may well do it to spite you. ::On the other hand, I've seen closes of "transwiki." Blue Raspberry was correct, however. But it requires more work, not only a deletion (which may be routine with a transwiki close, it is merely delayed), but then a request and an undeletion. I'd have suggested a close with blanking of the page and possibly page protection, of a soft redirect, see [[w:Wikipedia:Transwiki log]]. We can see in the discussion Wikipedian ignorance about Wikiversity. That's common. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 16:35, 23 May 2015 (UTC) ==[[w:Civic Chandran v. Ammini Amma]]== Similar to above, also likely to be deleted on Wikipedia. Please full history import as a subpage of [[Copyright/Law]]. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 01:04, 24 May 2015 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:47, 24 May 2015 (UTC) ==[[w:Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]]== This page [[w:Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]] was originally deleted because it was classed as original research. I have restored this as a draft to allow copying. Several people wanted to move it, so perhaps Wikiversity is the place for it to go. Please can someone import it here! [[User:Graeme Bartlett|Graeme Bartlett]] ([[User talk:Graeme Bartlett|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Graeme Bartlett|contribs]]) 07:47, 13 January 2016 (UTC) :{{done}} (BTW, original research is permitted on Wikiversity per [[Wikiversity:Original_research]]) I'm going to let you deal with the page: [[Draft:Visual C++ name mangling]] (I'm new to importing... so if I did a mistake then I apologize) Thanks. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:22, 13 January 2016 (UTC) Renamed to [[Visual C++ name mangling]]. Thanks for bringing this resource here. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:31, 13 January 2016 (UTC) ==[[Wikiversity:Import/beta]]== There is a good chance that [[betawikiversity:]] will close soon. If it does we should be prepared to import [[:betawikiversity:Category:EN]]. I've produced a listing of everything that is there as of today. There's a few titles that we should skip. I'll update this in case anything new gets created. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 20:50, 27 January 2016 (UTC) :{{On Hold}} until the outcome of the [[meta: Proposals for closing projects/Move Beta Wikiversity to Incubator|closure proposal]] is settled. {{unsigned|Mu301}} ==[[w:Representation theory of the Lorentz group]]== Please import [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group&oldid=780513527 this version] as "Representation theory of the Lorentz group (for undergraduate students of physics)". This is a great resource for students of physics. On Wikipedia, the no-content-forking policy disallows coexistence of "...theory (for physicists)" and "...theory (for mathematicians)" etc. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 05:32, 7 June 2017 (UTC) :{{At|Tsirel}} I tried four different ways to import. There's too much history. It timed out and failed. I imported the current version to [[Representation theory of the Lorentz group (for undergraduate students of physics)]] and updated the content to the requested OldID. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:04, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ::I see. Thank you. I did not want to make you troubles... Well, we got some experience. Really, the result is quite enough for my goals for now. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 18:14, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Space (mathematics)]]== Please import [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_(mathematics)&oldid=777861892 this version]. I need it for [[Talk:WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Space (mathematics)|this submission]]. (This time the history is much shorter. Also, the current version would be OK; I can easily downgrade it as needed.) [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 20:14, 7 June 2017 (UTC) :{{At|Tsirel}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 20:44, 7 June 2017 (UTC) ::Thank you. [[User:Tsirel|Boris Tsirelson]] ([[User talk:Tsirel|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tsirel|contribs]]) 06:00, 8 June 2017 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Radic]]== :{{done}} but it was a mess. The import pulled [[User:Mu301/Radic|numerous other templates]]. [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#template_import|We need to look into this]], so the next two are on hold for now. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 12:02, 30 March 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Sqrt]]== :{{Not done}} Please see [[meta:Help:Displaying_a_formula]] where it explains how to use markup like '''<nowiki><math alt="Square root of pi">\sqrt{\pi}</math></nowiki>''' to generate <math alt="Square root of pi">\sqrt{\pi}</math> and other formulas. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 12:33, 30 March 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:List of Setswana medical terms]]== I have placed the content at [[List of Setswana medical terms]] on WikiVersity. Wondering if we can important the edit history. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Doc James|contribs]]) 09:59, 1 April 2019 (UTC) :{{On Hold}} waiting for outcome of [[w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of Setswana medical terms]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 10:18, 1 April 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Template:Coxeter–Dynkin diagram]]== :{{On Hold}} --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 10:37, 1 April 2019 (UTC) Please import these from Wikipedia so I can use them in articles authored here. {{unsigned2|23:42, 29 March 2019‎|Dc.samizdat}} May I have this one please? The time has come when I need it. It's just Module:Coxeter–Dynkin diagram and doesn't seem to have other dependencies, should be easy.[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 02:15, 13 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} Please check and verify that everything required is imported and working. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:05, 13 May 2019 (UTC) : Thank you! Works like a charm.[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 04:05, 13 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:600-cell]]== I'd like to import this article with its history as a base for something I'm working on. I'm happy to help and do any manual edits required after import, e.g. if there are template dependencies that Wikiversity doesn't support, but I don't think there are many (and no gnarly ones with deep dependencies of their own). {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat|13 May 2019‎}} :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} - Please add new entries to the bottom of the page/section and sign your requests. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:15, 14 May 2019 (UTC) :Thanks! I've done the manual edits to make Wikipedia: links work, and eliminated unnecessary template dependencies. The following Wikipedia template dependencies remain (all shallow table templates), and I'd like to have them imported as well (rather than eliminate them) if you will. :* W:Template:H4_family :* W:Template:Tetrahedral cell tessellations :* W:Template:Icosahedral vertex figure tessellations :I'll edit their links too after they are imported. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:55, 16 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:33, 18 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:120-cell]] et. al.== May I also have these imported please: * W:120-cell * W:Template:Tetrahedral_vertex_figure_tessellations_small * W:Template:Dodecahedral_tessellations_small [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 12:49, 22 May 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:01, 24 May 2019 (UTC) ==[[w:Leptospirosis]]== Request to import this wikipage into [[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis]]. The wikipage just updated into Good article status. Would like the journal to reflect the highest quality available Wiki version of the article. Thank you. [[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 13:28, 23 August 2019 (UTC) :{{At|Cerevisae}} {{Not done}} Unfortunately, the import is failing. There are too many changes for it to import with history, and there's a database lock preventing it from importing without history. Just copy and paste and include a link in the edit summary when you update the most recent content. Sorry. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:36, 23 August 2019 (UTC) :: No problem [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]. I am unable to update the pre-print because of this one "Error: This action has been automatically identified as harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please inform an administrator of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Blocked Edit". I tried to request custodian action to [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Request_to_unblock_%22New_User_Blocked_Edit%22 unblock me but there is no response to my question]. I actually have a complete template ready for the updated version of the pre-print. Do you mind if I ask you to copy and paste for me at one go from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Cerevisae/sandbox my sandbox]? I am blocked from editing my own sandbox also. That's why I put it on Wikipedia. The coding is not compatile on wikipedia so you can see some codes here and there.[[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 06:19, 24 August 2019 (UTC) ::: Problem resolved. After I made my tenth edit on Wikiversity, I am able to update the pre-print without being blocked. Thanks. [[User:Cerevisae|Cerevisae]] ([[User talk:Cerevisae|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cerevisae|contribs]]) 06:26, 24 August 2019 (UTC) ::::{{At|Cerevisae}} Sorry, our abuse filter isn't optimal, but it is blocking more vandalism than false positives. I appreciate your dedication to getting it posted. You should be good to go now. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:32, 24 August 2019 (UTC) == [[:en:w:Johann Lahodny|Johann Lahodny]] == Hello everyone, As this is the very first time I am making such a technical request, I hope I am currently writing in the right place and in an adequate way. If not, please feel utterly free to update this content by correcting any unintentional mistake I might have done. The subject of the request is as follows: The English version of the article devoted to the Czech-Austrian doctor and professor [[:en:w:Johann Lahodny|Johann Lahodny]] seems to be facing highly specific criteria on the English-speaking Wikipedia, see → [[:en:w:Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Medicine#Johann_Lahodny|correlated debate]]. Given that this is also an investigative work that attempts to provide a scientific synthesis of current research still in progress, may I ask you to please perform a global import of the article to Wikiversity, including the entire Wikipedian history? Once this operation would be done, the previous content on WP could then simply be subsequently converted into a redirection, as formerly suggested by one of the contributors via diff → [[:en:w:special:diff/958403287|958403287]]. This would then avoid any duplicate entry. Thank you so much in advance for your help and your kind assistance. Yours sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 04:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :{{done}} {{ping|Euphonie}} I've imported this to [[User:Euphonie/Johann Lahodny]] for cleanup before moving to its final location --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 07:16, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :: {{anchor|thanks}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: Thank you very much. Kind regards to you, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 09:22, 12 July 2020 (UTC) : :: {{anchor|hyperlinks}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: A first trial aimed to update the hyperlinks has just been finalized. However, [[:en:w:parenthetical referencing| parenthetical referencing]] does not seem to adequately interact. What would be the internal syntax suitable to Wikiversity regarding this specific aspect ? Same for the terms ISSN, PMC, PMID and doi, which remain in red. Your help and advice would be particularly helpful. Yours sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 11:24, 12 July 2020 (UTC) ::: Not sure, sorry --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 19:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC) :::: :::: {{anchor|update}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: The update has been completed and the few former technical hypertextual compatibility issues that were previously mentioned above have now been resolved. Thus, from then on, feel free to upload the article to dedicated section. In addition, can I ask you to please import the page entitled → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical person|Template:Infobox medical person]] so that I can subsequently integrate some focused additional information into the article? Thank you in advance for your help. With kind regards, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 09:34, 13 July 2020 (UTC) ::::: Done - [[Template:Infobox medical person]] --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 09:36, 13 July 2020 (UTC) :::::: :::::: {{anchor|details}}@[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]: The aforesaid infobox seems to be inextricably combined with this one: → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical details|Template:Infobox medical details]]. May I ask you to please import it as well? Thank you in advance. Sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 10:00, 13 July 2020 (UTC) ::::: :::::: {{anchor|Template:Infobox_medical_details}} Hello [[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]. Did you get my last message above? May I please ask you to import → [[:en:w:Template:Infobox medical details|Template:Infobox medical details]] as well? Thank you in advance. Sincerely, — [[User:Euphonie|Euphonie]] ([[User talk:Euphonie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Euphonie|contribs]]) 14:38, 14 July 2020 (UTC) ::::::: Done - [[Template:Infobox medical details]] --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 14:47, 14 July 2020 (UTC) == [[b:Media_and_Society:_Summer_2019|Media_and_Society:_Summer_2019]] == English Wikibooks would consider it an original research. Should it be imported here, please?--[[User:Jusjih|Jusjih]] ([[User talk:Jusjih|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jusjih|contribs]]) 05:04, 29 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:05, 29 November 2020 (UTC) == Template:Regular convex 4-polytopes == Please import the above template from Wikipedia, replacing the previous Wikiversity:Template of that name. I created this template at Wikiversity, and after a period of development copied it to Wikipedia, where the current version now resides. Wikiversity:Regular convex 4-polytopes is the original outdated version of this template, retained only for its development history. If there is a way to ensure that Wikiversity articles will always use the Wikipedia version of this template, without having to reimport it to Wikiversity after each edit to the Wikipedia version, that would be appropriate. (Is there a way to refer directly to a Wikipedia template in a Wikiversity article? I notice that {{W:Template:Regular convex 4-polytopes}} doesn't work.) Thank you! {{Unsigned|Dc.samizdat|2 December 2021‎}} :{{At|Dc.samizdat}} I've tried two different ways to import this but I don't know if it was successful. Your attempts to move and edit the local template have made a clean import very difficult. Going forward, leave it alone locally and just request the import. The import overwrites and updates with more recent changes. If the changes here are more recent, you'll need to update it manually. Since the work is yours anyway, there's no particular licensing benefit to importing. You can just copy and paste. :Regarding the use of templates from other wikis, this has been a requested feature for many years. It would most likely be a reference to Commons (similar to File:), but isn't currently possible. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:20, 2 December 2021 (UTC) :Thank you, sorry for screwing it up. I've copy-and-pasted the current version from Wikipedia and will keep it updated here that way in future. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 23:53, 3 December 2021 (UTC) ==11-cell== Please import W:11-cell for me. Thank you. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:27, 6 April 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:27, 6 April 2022 (UTC) == [[Anywhere on Earth]] == * [[:wikibooks:Special:Permalink/4088676|Anywhere on Earth]] as [[Anywhere on Earth]]. ✍ [[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ]] ([[User talk:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|contribs]]) 20:29, 3 August 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ|DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ]]: Imported to [[User:DuĆĄan KreheÄŸ/Anywhere on Earth]]. This would not be something that belongs in main space, at least at this point. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:23, 4 August 2022 (UTC) == Free Energy does not Exist == Please migrate my single-page Wikibook, ''[[b:Free Energy does not Exist|Free Energy does not Exist]]'', to Wikiversity since it is considered to be OR. Thank you. -- [[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]] ([[User talk:Vinyasi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vinyasi|contribs]]) 08:27, 9 November 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]]: {{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:20, 9 November 2022 (UTC) ::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Thanks! [[User:Vinyasi|Vinyasi]] ([[User talk:Vinyasi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vinyasi|contribs]]) 17:34, 9 November 2022 (UTC) ==Developing A Universal Religion== Please import the main page and its subpages per [[b:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Developing_A_Universal_Religion]].--[[User:Jusjih|Jusjih]] ([[User talk:Jusjih|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jusjih|contribs]]) 21:33, 19 August 2023 (UTC) : Hello, I checked the RFD at Wikibooks. I can see one user suggesting to move to Wikiversity ([[:b:special:diff/4238829]]), but I'm not sure if others have agreed with that. The original suggestion seems to be "Moving to Wikisource" ([[:b:special:diff/4096694]]), but then the nominator says they are happy to keep in Wikibooks ([[:b:special:diff/4232954]]). Another user said that it should be moved to Commons ([[:b:special:diff/4238871]]). At this moment, I don't think there is a consensus to move it to Wikiversity, so the discussion over there may need to be continued. In other words, if there is consensus then we can handle this request. I hope this can help you. Other custodians or curators may have something else to say, so this thread will be kept open for a while. Thank you for taking your time to visit Wikiversity. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 05:34, 20 August 2023 (UTC) :{{oppose}}. It's unclear to me how this content would be within the project scope of Wikiversity; it is essentially a philosophical tract, not an educational resource. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:58, 21 August 2023 (UTC) * {{support}}: Wikiversity says "Wikiversity is a Wikimedia Foundation project devoted to learning resources, learning projects, and research for use in all levels, types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning." And thus, ''research'' is included, and the book presents original philosophical research from which one may learn, e.g. by criticizing it. However, if what I just wrote contradicts some policy I do not know of (does anyone have a link to the most applicable policy?), it should be disregarded. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 19:47, 22 August 2023 (UTC) *:I'm hesitant to accept content as "research" which isn't being actively conducted or developed on the wiki, nor as "learning material" which isn't part of a course and doesn't have specific educational goals associated with it. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 20:26, 22 August 2023 (UTC) *:: Are the above invoked requirements based in policy? What is the most pertinent policy page for content inclusion criteria? My assumption was that Wikiversity allows publishing of original research. However, in [[Wikiversity:Scope]], "The other kind of research is wiki-based original research. It is not yet clear that this will be part of the Wikiversity. If the Wikiversity community decides to support original research, it will have to develop a specific set of policies to support such research activities." On the other hand, [[Wikiversity:Original research]] does seem to allow original research. *:: Instead of ad hoc requirements not based in policy, it seems proper to identify the most fitting policy or guideline. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:27, 23 August 2023 (UTC) *:: Assuming now that we can analyze the issues without reference to specific policy items, why should it matter that research is "actively conducted or developed on the wiki"? Since, one can learn from a piece of philosophical research whether it was made on wiki or elsewhere. As for specific learning objectives, I can see the following ones: learn about one particular concept of a universal religion and arguments in its favor, and criticize the concept and the arguments. At a minimum, answer the following questions: what distinguishes a religion from a particular ethical philosophy or system? Does religion need a God or gods? What does a religion have to do to be "universal"? One can state this as one task for the readers if one wants. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:55, 23 August 2023 (UTC) == 600-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:600-cell]]. I understand that will import its complete history with it, which is what I need. I will make the necessary edits to the copy after it is imported, e.g. to resolve links to W:. But is there a tool available to help me with that? It is a long article with a lot of links! Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 17:39, 6 April 2024 (UTC) :I forgot to explain that [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] did this import for me once before, in 2019 -- see [[Wikiversity:Import/Archive 1#w:600-cell]]. I then worked with the Wikiversity copy for a year or two before merging it back into Wikipedia, after which the Wikiversity:600-cell page was left empty, until it was deleted by custodians. That's all well and good, but now I need to import the current Wikipedia article to Wikiversity once again, for a different reason, to create an expanded "annotated" version of it that isn't going to be merged back into Wikipedia, but is going to stay here at Wikiversity as a learning resource companion to the Wikipedia article. So please import Wikipedia:600-cell again for me, with all its history, so I can start working on that. Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 03:00, 11 April 2024 (UTC) :: {{done}}, latest revision imported. The page has many revisions and it takes too much time to import all of them. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:27, 16 April 2024 (UTC) :I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. From now on it will continue to diverge from the [[Wikipedia:600-cell]] article, as we continue to develop them both, with the Wikiversity version being an expanded superset of the encyclopedia article with additional commentary and learning resources. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:08, 19 May 2024 (UTC) == Template:Infobox polychoron == Please import [[Wikipedia:Template:Infobox polychoron]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 05:34, 18 April 2024 (UTC) :This is actually [[W:Template:Infobox 4-polytope]]. It has a few dependencies. Obviously I would need them too. Or I could do without, and make up an equivalent Infobox of my own to use at Wikiversity, if it's too much trouble to import. That wouldn't be hard. Which do you recommend? [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 05:54, 18 April 2024 (UTC) :: {{done}}, all revisions imported. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 08:01, 18 April 2024 (UTC) == 120-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:120-cell]]. Wikiversity:[[120-cell]] already exists, but is currently empty. Thanks! [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 16:08, 19 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}}, latest revision imported. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:12, 20 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:25, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == 24-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:24-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:44, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 06:24, 31 May 2024 (UTC) == 16-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:16-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:45, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:25, 29 June 2024 (UTC) == 5-cell == Please import [[Wikipedia:5-cell]]. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 23:45, 24 May 2024 (UTC) : I have finished adapting this to Wikiversity (resolving links to W:, inserting banners, etc.). It is ready for use by participants in the [[Polyscheme]] learning project. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 21:30, 29 June 2024 (UTC) == Various geometry table templates == Please import: : Template:Demitesseract family : Template:24-cell_family : Template:Tesseract family : Template:Symmetric_tessellations [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 06:08, 31 May 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:26, 31 May 2024 (UTC) == More geometry table templates please == Please also import: : Template:4-simplex Coxeter plane graphs : Template:1 k2 polytopes : Template:2 k1 polytopes : Template:Symmetric2 tessellations [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 21:30, 29 June 2024 (UTC) : Template:4-cube Coxeter plane graphs [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 22:24, 29 June 2024 (UTC) : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:40, 30 June 2024 (UTC) == And yet one more geometry table template, if you please == Please also import: : Template:Pentachoron family small : {{done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:12, 25 September 2024 (UTC) :Thank you! [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 15:37, 25 September 2024 (UTC) == Kinematics of the cuboctahedron == Please import [[W:Kinematics of the cuboctahedron]]. May I have the entire history of this article imported, if that's not too much to import? Thanks. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 19:22, 11 October 2024 (UTC) :I tried multiple times and it kept on failing. Since you basically wrote it yourself, I recommend copying and pasting a rev that you like locally and then please do make sure that it's not an indefinite copy and that you make it into some kind of learning resource appropriate for this site. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:35, 11 October 2024 (UTC) ::Thank you, I will do that. Wikipedia editors have abridged it, removing some of the most essential content, apparently because they feel it is too much like a research article to be a proper encyclopedia article on this subject. They have a point, since some of the content they removed could be considered my original research. I intend to preserve my original article as a learning resource, as one of the [[Polyscheme]] series of Wikiversity articles. [[User:Dc.samizdat|Dc.samizdat]] ([[User talk:Dc.samizdat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dc.samizdat|contribs]]) 14:37, 12 October 2024 (UTC) == Template:Infobox polyhedron == May I have this template dependency imported please. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{Done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:45, 12 October 2024 (UTC) ==Page protection== Please re-import: * [[Template:Protection templates]] from [[:w:Template:Protection templates|WP]] * [[Template:Pp-template]] from [[:w:Template:Pp-template|WP]] (and [[:w:Template:Pp-template/doc|/doc]]) (the source of [[:b:Template:Pp-template|WB's copy]], which WV imported from) Since WV's copies of the pp templates are imports, as well as WV's [[Module:Protection banner]], they have inherited the changes shown there (e.g., {{tlx|pp-meta}} and {{tlx|pp-protected}} are deprecated). I can trim the red links and such. It seems many simplifications emanated from [[:w:Module_talk:Protection_banner/Archive_1#Proposal_to_convert_all_protection_templates_to_use_this_module|this change]]. — [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 October 2024 (UTC) :Not the appropriate place, but tacking on a request to delete {{tlx|pp-meta}} given [[:w:Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2019_August_24#Template:Pp-meta|this RfD]]. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 00:02, 26 October 2024 (UTC) ==Template:Incidence structures== Please import this template. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:07, 26 April 2025 (UTC) ==Template:MathWorld== Please import this template. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. {{unsigned|Dc.samizdat}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 06:07, 26 April 2025 (UTC) ==Template:Quantum mechanics== Please import this template. The current template has almost no information. I will fix it up to work at Wikiversity. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:15, 14 November 2025 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:37, 14 November 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you! [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:05, 14 November 2025 (UTC) :::{{ping|koavf}} I am affraid it did not work, could you allow me to import [W:Template:Quantum mechanics] to a different name ? [Template:Quantum Mechanics features] or any name that you approve. Somehowe it looks like WV template is locked and I dont want to touch it. Thanks! [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:28, 14 November 2025 (UTC) ::::{{ping|Koavf}} Solved !! Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 22:39, 14 November 2025 (UTC) : I do not see what Wikiversity-related purpose does [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] serve, and therefore, why it was imported. Wikiversity does not have any need for Wikipedia-style navigation boxes, as far as I can tell. In my view, [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] should be deleted, which is what I would do except that I want to avoid admin conflict. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 15 November 2025 (UTC) ==Template:Periodic table (navbox)== {{ping|koavf}} Please import WP Template:Periodic table (navbox). The [[Template:Periodic table templates]] is a mess and [[School:Chemistry]] does not help either. From the page [[The periodic table]] a template could be created, but the WP version is interactive easier to use. Also there are a great many red tags in [[School:Chemistry]] are there objections if I clean it up? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:21, 16 November 2025 (UTC) :{{done}} Re: removing redlinks, that is ''generally'' a good idea, but I think that in this case, it's legitimate to include them, as this <code>School</code> namespace is made for organizing courses and thoughts generally and it's okay to say that this is a general roadmap for the sorts of things that we could have later. But reasonable persons could disagree here and there's also a legitimate argument for just removing things that no one is working on. I think the best case scenario is moving the redlinks to a section that is a roadmap or to-do list (like the one at the beginning of the page, included via a template). Anyway, for the import, see [[Template:Periodic table (navbox)]]. I am importing some supporting templates as well. I generally hate importing and often decline to do it myself because virtually all templates at the English Wikipedia rely on a variety of <em>other</em> templates and modules to work properly and it becomes this messy, Herculean task just to import something that will not get used or just be deleted four years from now. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:58, 17 November 2025 (UTC) ::{{ping|Koavf}} Thanks for the import! Just to clarify, my idea was to improve the redlinks, not deleting them. For some of them it cannot be done since there is no clue, but for the others i could work. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:31, 17 November 2025 (UTC) == Fusi orari (scuola media) == Hello, if it's possible to import pages from other language Wikiversities, please import the contents of [[V:it:Fusi orari (scuola media)|this page]] to [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Time zones|this page]]. I will then translate it for en.wikiversity. Thank you. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 17:29, 21 November 2025 (UTC) :Local users can only import from certain wikis and it [[:mw:Manual:Importing XML dumps|requires server access to change which sites are importable]]. If you're worried about attribution, you can give it in an edit summary or on the talk page for sufficient attribution. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:47, 22 November 2025 (UTC) == Kinematics of sliding from Wikipedia draft == Please import the page [[w:Draft:Kinematics_of_sliding]] to Wikiversity. The content is intended to be a learning resource for [[:Category:Kinematics]]. I request the target page name be [[Kinematics of sliding]]. My Wikipedia user page is [[w:User:Sead_Spuzic|Sead Spuzic]]. {{unsigned|Sead Spuzic}} :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:58, 9 December 2025 (UTC) == Fraud prevention and IT == Please import [[:betawikiversity:Fraud prevention and IT]]. It belongs here rather than there. [[User:AtUkr|AtUkr]] ([[User talk:AtUkr|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AtUkr|contribs]]) 20:02, 26 January 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[Fraud prevention and IT]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:43, 26 January 2026 (UTC) == A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral == Please import all the pages in [[b:Special:PrefixIndex/A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral]] to subpages of [[User:Nazwa Shabrina/Sigma Spiral Constant]] to complete the movement to Wikiversity in accordance with [[b:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/A New Mathematical Constant: The Sigma Spiral]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]<sub>[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]<sub>[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]</sub></sub> ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:24, 31 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} {{Ping|Nazwa Shabrina}} and deleted at [[:b:]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:39, 31 July 2026 (UTC) == Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing == Please import [[b:Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing]], accidentally created on enwikibooks instead of enwikiversity, to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Motivational interviewing]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]<sub>[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]<sub>[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]</sub></sub> ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:16, 19 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}}/doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:17, 19 October 2026 (UTC) : Thankyou both. I have now deleted that imported 2015 draft because the topic was subsequently relisted and completed here: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Motivational interviewing]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:02, 21 October 2026 (UTC) lj0bhrsgu29ki6emiudl1lze5ls7o3b User talk:Koavf 3 4866 2841894 2822622 2026-10-21T17:27:26Z ~2026-56381-06 3113067 /* Hiiiii */ new section 2841894 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)</div> |} {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Started</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]] * [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]] * [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]] * [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]] * [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting your info out there</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]] * [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]] * [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting more Wikiversity rules</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]] |- |} |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Help</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]] * [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting along</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]] * [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]] * [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting technical</div> |- |style="color:#000"| [[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]] |- |} |} |} == wikitravel == Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC) :'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC) == Thanks. == I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a "learning by doing" mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission. The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped. Obviously, compromises are necessary, but "compromise" requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the "tyranny of the past." There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder: :'''There is always something you can do, do, do''' :'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.''' Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating. While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.) [[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study. Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community. Notice the irony. The userbox was "Esperanza returns," referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, "Hope will never return." Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why? To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious. Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break. Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC) == Curator == Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC) ::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC) ::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC) == Welcome == There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC) == Deletion request == Hey Justin, I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance. Best, [[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC) == Do humans have free will? == Hi Koavf! The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? == Hi Koavf! [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == New wikidebate syntax == Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC) == Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore == Hi Koavf! Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC) == User:Beogradbulevar == Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC) == CU == I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC) == history of covid in the usa == Hi {{PAGENAME}} I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa. I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&ndh=1&pf=1&t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&ce=UTF-8&pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&c.&a.&media.&friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&length=486&name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&playerName=Web&channel=WSJ&show=Feature%20Explainer&originator=cmccall&genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&feed=video&network=115&format=user%20initiated&streamType=video&view=true&vsid=160434036774097779839&.media&contentType=vod&.a&page.&content.&type=Article&.content&full.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.full&site=Online%20Journal&.page&video.&player.&type=Web&technology=html%203.41.2.205&.player&keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&base.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.base&.video&article.&id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&author=Sarah%20Toy&publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&publish.&orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&.publish&.article&ad.&blank.&start=false&.blank&disabled=true&catastrophic.&blocker=false&.catastrophic&.ad&.c&pe=ms_s&pev3=video&s=1600x900&c=24&j=1.6&v=N&k=Y&bw=781&bh=776&mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC) ==Custodianship== Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC) :Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC) == Bowling article == Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC) :Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC) ::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC) == RCA talkback (January 2024) == {{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC) == Invitation to discuss page deletion policy == A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC) == RCA talkback == {{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Report == Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]] Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC) :Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Files == Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again! You made a comment about "all local uploads". Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now. There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the "any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete". Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning. If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all. :As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something. :I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity. :: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure. :: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC) ::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC) :::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC) Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :1,587<2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == Revert? == Why did you revert this argument? I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished. Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC) :It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC) ::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done. So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice. You see I don't remember too clearly, therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity. Now that you know what I wanted to do, could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument, in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC) ::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC) == Wrong import == Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare: <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[commons:Module:Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]] So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC) :Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC) == A barnstar for you! == {| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;" |rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]] |rowspan="2" | |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Silver Barnstar''' |- |style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC) |} :How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC) == Deleting all unused templates == You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary "unused template". One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used. :::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. ::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC) ::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC) I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.<br> [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] <small>([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])</small> 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC) :I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC) == Restoring Template:Copyrighted == Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation. I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours. On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC) :{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system <em>should</em> catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC) == Manual numbering == My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC) :Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC) == Draft namespace move == Hello Justin, Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace<s>.</s>? Because I <s>H</s>haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out. Thanks, RE —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC) :I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC) == Article Info - Related item == In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]]. This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC) :Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&diff=2765037&oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC) == Possible copyvio == Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it <em>wasn't/t</em> renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC) == Chess by Wikiversitans == I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our "members" here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::No problem. just say "When" :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team <span style="background-color: #aaffaa;">created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].</span> [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC) == Importing template == {{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC) == Night mode unaware lint.. == Thanks for the edits to self. Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC) : An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC) == Wikidebate form == Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with <nowiki>__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__</nowiki> to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusiĂłn]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC) :Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC) == [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] == I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? == On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph. Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that? Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC) == Need of IAs == I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that "Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators". So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had <var>x</var> IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::Well, yeah. But custodians/curators can just request. No need or discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::: That's why I suggested we either keep the current policy, allow custodians to request temporary IA permissions (to amend it), or to have a minimum of 2 permanent interface administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:27, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf == RE: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf]] I have closed this nomination as successful. Congrats! See [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Bureaucratship/Koavf&oldid=2812177] and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&logid=3549039]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:14, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :Thanks, kindly. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:18, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::Congratulations Justin. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:10, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks also to you. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == tl:No thanks == I noticed that you deleted the {{tl|No thanks}} template. This is called by the active {{tl|Copyrighted}} template which instructs folks to notify others with a <nowiki>{{subst:no thanks}}</nowiki>. See [[Introduction to thermodynamics/Extensive and intensive properties]] for an example of usage. We should probably update those instructions. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 03:17, 18 August 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for notifying me. I've since undeleted it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:20, 18 August 2026 (UTC) == Hiiiii == Yo bro, you miss me? I missed you to. How is that Wiki ban working for you? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56381-06|~2026-56381-06]] ([[User talk:~2026-56381-06|talk]]) 17:27, 21 October 2026 (UTC) 5kvpqi9ujhdjd3ng562535kkcn9cocv 2841895 2841894 2026-10-21T17:30:33Z Koavf 147 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56381-06|~2026-56381-06]] ([[User_talk:~2026-56381-06|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2822622 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)</div> |} {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Started</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]] * [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]] * [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]] * [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]] * [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting your info out there</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]] * [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]] * [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting more Wikiversity rules</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]] |- |} |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Help</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]] * [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting along</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]] * [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]] * [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting technical</div> |- |style="color:#000"| [[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]] |- |} |} |} == wikitravel == Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC) :'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC) == Thanks. == I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a "learning by doing" mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission. The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped. Obviously, compromises are necessary, but "compromise" requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the "tyranny of the past." There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder: :'''There is always something you can do, do, do''' :'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.''' Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating. While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.) [[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study. Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community. Notice the irony. The userbox was "Esperanza returns," referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, "Hope will never return." Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why? To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious. Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break. Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC) == Curator == Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC) ::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC) ::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC) == Welcome == There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC) == Deletion request == Hey Justin, I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance. Best, [[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC) == Do humans have free will? == Hi Koavf! The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? == Hi Koavf! [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == New wikidebate syntax == Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC) == Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore == Hi Koavf! Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC) == User:Beogradbulevar == Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC) == CU == I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC) == history of covid in the usa == Hi {{PAGENAME}} I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa. I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&ndh=1&pf=1&t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&ce=UTF-8&pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&c.&a.&media.&friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&length=486&name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&playerName=Web&channel=WSJ&show=Feature%20Explainer&originator=cmccall&genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&feed=video&network=115&format=user%20initiated&streamType=video&view=true&vsid=160434036774097779839&.media&contentType=vod&.a&page.&content.&type=Article&.content&full.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.full&site=Online%20Journal&.page&video.&player.&type=Web&technology=html%203.41.2.205&.player&keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&base.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.base&.video&article.&id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&author=Sarah%20Toy&publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&publish.&orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&.publish&.article&ad.&blank.&start=false&.blank&disabled=true&catastrophic.&blocker=false&.catastrophic&.ad&.c&pe=ms_s&pev3=video&s=1600x900&c=24&j=1.6&v=N&k=Y&bw=781&bh=776&mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC) ==Custodianship== Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC) :Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC) == Bowling article == Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC) :Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC) ::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC) == RCA talkback (January 2024) == {{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC) == Invitation to discuss page deletion policy == A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC) == RCA talkback == {{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Report == Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]] Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC) :Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Files == Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again! You made a comment about "all local uploads". Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now. There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the "any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete". Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning. If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all. :As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something. :I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity. :: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure. :: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC) ::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC) :::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC) Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :1,587<2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == Revert? == Why did you revert this argument? I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished. Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC) :It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC) ::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done. So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice. You see I don't remember too clearly, therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity. Now that you know what I wanted to do, could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument, in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC) ::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC) == Wrong import == Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare: <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[commons:Module:Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]] So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC) :Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC) == A barnstar for you! == {| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;" |rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]] |rowspan="2" | |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Silver Barnstar''' |- |style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC) |} :How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC) == Deleting all unused templates == You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary "unused template". One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used. :::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. ::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC) ::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC) I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.<br> [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] <small>([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])</small> 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC) :I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC) == Restoring Template:Copyrighted == Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation. I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours. On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC) :{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system <em>should</em> catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC) == Manual numbering == My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC) :Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC) == Draft namespace move == Hello Justin, Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace<s>.</s>? Because I <s>H</s>haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out. Thanks, RE —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC) :I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC) == Article Info - Related item == In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]]. This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC) :Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&diff=2765037&oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC) == Possible copyvio == Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it <em>wasn't/t</em> renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC) == Chess by Wikiversitans == I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our "members" here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::No problem. just say "When" :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team <span style="background-color: #aaffaa;">created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].</span> [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC) == Importing template == {{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC) == Night mode unaware lint.. == Thanks for the edits to self. Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC) : An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC) == Wikidebate form == Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with <nowiki>__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__</nowiki> to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusiĂłn]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC) :Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC) == [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] == I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? == On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph. Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that? Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC) == Need of IAs == I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that "Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators". So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had <var>x</var> IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::Well, yeah. But custodians/curators can just request. No need or discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::: That's why I suggested we either keep the current policy, allow custodians to request temporary IA permissions (to amend it), or to have a minimum of 2 permanent interface administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:27, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf == RE: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf]] I have closed this nomination as successful. Congrats! See [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Bureaucratship/Koavf&oldid=2812177] and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&logid=3549039]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:14, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :Thanks, kindly. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:18, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::Congratulations Justin. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:10, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks also to you. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == tl:No thanks == I noticed that you deleted the {{tl|No thanks}} template. This is called by the active {{tl|Copyrighted}} template which instructs folks to notify others with a <nowiki>{{subst:no thanks}}</nowiki>. See [[Introduction to thermodynamics/Extensive and intensive properties]] for an example of usage. We should probably update those instructions. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 03:17, 18 August 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for notifying me. I've since undeleted it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:20, 18 August 2026 (UTC) dkrhczjcn2yyk38kf909ncuwvtt9m1s 2841909 2841895 2026-10-21T20:00:52Z ~2026-56415-94 3113076 /* You love me */ new section 2841909 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)</div> |} {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Started</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]] * [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]] * [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]] * [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]] * [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting your info out there</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]] * [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]] * [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting more Wikiversity rules</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]] |- |} |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Help</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]] * [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting along</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]] * [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]] * [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting technical</div> |- |style="color:#000"| [[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]] |- |} |} |} == wikitravel == Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC) :'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC) == Thanks. == I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a "learning by doing" mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission. The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped. Obviously, compromises are necessary, but "compromise" requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the "tyranny of the past." There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder: :'''There is always something you can do, do, do''' :'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.''' Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating. While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.) [[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study. Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community. Notice the irony. The userbox was "Esperanza returns," referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, "Hope will never return." Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why? To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious. Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break. Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC) == Curator == Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC) ::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC) ::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC) == Welcome == There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC) == Deletion request == Hey Justin, I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance. Best, [[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC) == Do humans have free will? == Hi Koavf! The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? == Hi Koavf! [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == New wikidebate syntax == Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC) == Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore == Hi Koavf! Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC) == User:Beogradbulevar == Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC) == CU == I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC) == history of covid in the usa == Hi {{PAGENAME}} I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa. I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&ndh=1&pf=1&t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&ce=UTF-8&pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&c.&a.&media.&friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&length=486&name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&playerName=Web&channel=WSJ&show=Feature%20Explainer&originator=cmccall&genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&feed=video&network=115&format=user%20initiated&streamType=video&view=true&vsid=160434036774097779839&.media&contentType=vod&.a&page.&content.&type=Article&.content&full.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.full&site=Online%20Journal&.page&video.&player.&type=Web&technology=html%203.41.2.205&.player&keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&base.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.base&.video&article.&id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&author=Sarah%20Toy&publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&publish.&orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&.publish&.article&ad.&blank.&start=false&.blank&disabled=true&catastrophic.&blocker=false&.catastrophic&.ad&.c&pe=ms_s&pev3=video&s=1600x900&c=24&j=1.6&v=N&k=Y&bw=781&bh=776&mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC) ==Custodianship== Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC) :Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC) == Bowling article == Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC) :Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC) ::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC) == RCA talkback (January 2024) == {{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC) == Invitation to discuss page deletion policy == A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC) == RCA talkback == {{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Report == Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]] Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC) :Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Files == Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again! You made a comment about "all local uploads". Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now. There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the "any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete". Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning. If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all. :As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something. :I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity. :: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure. :: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC) ::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC) :::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC) Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :1,587<2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == Revert? == Why did you revert this argument? I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished. Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC) :It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC) ::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done. So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice. You see I don't remember too clearly, therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity. Now that you know what I wanted to do, could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument, in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC) ::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC) == Wrong import == Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare: <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[commons:Module:Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]] So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC) :Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC) == A barnstar for you! == {| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;" |rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]] |rowspan="2" | |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Silver Barnstar''' |- |style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC) |} :How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC) == Deleting all unused templates == You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary "unused template". One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used. :::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. ::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC) ::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC) I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.<br> [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] <small>([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])</small> 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC) :I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC) == Restoring Template:Copyrighted == Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation. I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours. On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC) :{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system <em>should</em> catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC) == Manual numbering == My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC) :Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC) == Draft namespace move == Hello Justin, Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace<s>.</s>? Because I <s>H</s>haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out. Thanks, RE —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC) :I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC) == Article Info - Related item == In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]]. This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC) :Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&diff=2765037&oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC) == Possible copyvio == Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it <em>wasn't/t</em> renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC) == Chess by Wikiversitans == I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our "members" here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::No problem. just say "When" :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team <span style="background-color: #aaffaa;">created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].</span> [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC) == Importing template == {{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC) == Night mode unaware lint.. == Thanks for the edits to self. Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC) : An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC) == Wikidebate form == Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with <nowiki>__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__</nowiki> to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusiĂłn]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC) :Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC) == [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] == I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? == On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph. Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that? Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC) == Need of IAs == I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that "Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators". So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had <var>x</var> IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::Well, yeah. But custodians/curators can just request. No need or discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::: That's why I suggested we either keep the current policy, allow custodians to request temporary IA permissions (to amend it), or to have a minimum of 2 permanent interface administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:27, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf == RE: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf]] I have closed this nomination as successful. Congrats! See [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Bureaucratship/Koavf&oldid=2812177] and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&logid=3549039]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:14, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :Thanks, kindly. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:18, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::Congratulations Justin. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:10, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks also to you. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == tl:No thanks == I noticed that you deleted the {{tl|No thanks}} template. This is called by the active {{tl|Copyrighted}} template which instructs folks to notify others with a <nowiki>{{subst:no thanks}}</nowiki>. See [[Introduction to thermodynamics/Extensive and intensive properties]] for an example of usage. We should probably update those instructions. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 03:17, 18 August 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for notifying me. I've since undeleted it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:20, 18 August 2026 (UTC) == You love me == You know it, bro. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56415-94|~2026-56415-94]] ([[User talk:~2026-56415-94|talk]]) 20:00, 21 October 2026 (UTC) q4z5vjkq94ylrnbi838sv1cnzkat5fy 2841913 2841909 2026-10-21T20:08:50Z Koavf 147 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56415-94|~2026-56415-94]] ([[User_talk:~2026-56415-94|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Koavf|Koavf]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2822622 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)</div> |} {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Started</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]] * [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]] * [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]] * [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]] * [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting your info out there</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]] * [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]] * [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting more Wikiversity rules</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]] |- |} |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Help</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]] * [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting along</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]] * [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]] * [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting technical</div> |- |style="color:#000"| [[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]] |- |} |} |} == wikitravel == Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC) :'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC) == Thanks. == I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a "learning by doing" mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission. The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped. Obviously, compromises are necessary, but "compromise" requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the "tyranny of the past." There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder: :'''There is always something you can do, do, do''' :'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.''' Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating. While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.) [[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study. Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community. Notice the irony. The userbox was "Esperanza returns," referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, "Hope will never return." Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why? To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious. Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break. Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC) == Curator == Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC) ::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC) ::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC) == Welcome == There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC) == Deletion request == Hey Justin, I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance. Best, [[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC) == Do humans have free will? == Hi Koavf! The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? == Hi Koavf! [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == New wikidebate syntax == Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC) == Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore == Hi Koavf! Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC) == User:Beogradbulevar == Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC) == CU == I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC) == history of covid in the usa == Hi {{PAGENAME}} I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa. I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&ndh=1&pf=1&t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&ce=UTF-8&pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&c.&a.&media.&friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&length=486&name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&playerName=Web&channel=WSJ&show=Feature%20Explainer&originator=cmccall&genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&feed=video&network=115&format=user%20initiated&streamType=video&view=true&vsid=160434036774097779839&.media&contentType=vod&.a&page.&content.&type=Article&.content&full.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.full&site=Online%20Journal&.page&video.&player.&type=Web&technology=html%203.41.2.205&.player&keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&base.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.base&.video&article.&id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&author=Sarah%20Toy&publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&publish.&orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&.publish&.article&ad.&blank.&start=false&.blank&disabled=true&catastrophic.&blocker=false&.catastrophic&.ad&.c&pe=ms_s&pev3=video&s=1600x900&c=24&j=1.6&v=N&k=Y&bw=781&bh=776&mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC) ==Custodianship== Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC) :Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC) == Bowling article == Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC) :Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC) ::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC) == RCA talkback (January 2024) == {{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC) == Invitation to discuss page deletion policy == A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC) == RCA talkback == {{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Report == Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]] Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC) :Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Files == Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again! You made a comment about "all local uploads". Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now. There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the "any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete". Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning. If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all. :As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something. :I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity. :: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure. :: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC) ::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC) :::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC) Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :1,587<2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == Revert? == Why did you revert this argument? I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished. Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC) :It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC) ::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done. So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice. You see I don't remember too clearly, therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity. Now that you know what I wanted to do, could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument, in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC) ::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC) == Wrong import == Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare: <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[commons:Module:Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]] So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC) :Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC) == A barnstar for you! == {| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;" |rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]] |rowspan="2" | |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Silver Barnstar''' |- |style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC) |} :How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC) == Deleting all unused templates == You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary "unused template". One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used. :::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. ::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC) ::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC) I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.<br> [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] <small>([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])</small> 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC) :I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC) == Restoring Template:Copyrighted == Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation. I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours. On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC) :{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system <em>should</em> catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC) == Manual numbering == My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC) :Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC) == Draft namespace move == Hello Justin, Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace<s>.</s>? Because I <s>H</s>haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out. Thanks, RE —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC) :I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC) == Article Info - Related item == In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]]. This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC) :Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&diff=2765037&oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC) == Possible copyvio == Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it <em>wasn't/t</em> renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC) == Chess by Wikiversitans == I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our "members" here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::No problem. just say "When" :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team <span style="background-color: #aaffaa;">created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].</span> [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC) == Importing template == {{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC) == Night mode unaware lint.. == Thanks for the edits to self. Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC) : An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC) == Wikidebate form == Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with <nowiki>__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__</nowiki> to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusiĂłn]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC) :Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC) == [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] == I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? == On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph. Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that? Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC) == Need of IAs == I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that "Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators". So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had <var>x</var> IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::Well, yeah. But custodians/curators can just request. No need or discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::: That's why I suggested we either keep the current policy, allow custodians to request temporary IA permissions (to amend it), or to have a minimum of 2 permanent interface administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:27, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf == RE: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf]] I have closed this nomination as successful. Congrats! See [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Bureaucratship/Koavf&oldid=2812177] and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&logid=3549039]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:14, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :Thanks, kindly. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:18, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::Congratulations Justin. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:10, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks also to you. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == tl:No thanks == I noticed that you deleted the {{tl|No thanks}} template. This is called by the active {{tl|Copyrighted}} template which instructs folks to notify others with a <nowiki>{{subst:no thanks}}</nowiki>. See [[Introduction to thermodynamics/Extensive and intensive properties]] for an example of usage. We should probably update those instructions. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 03:17, 18 August 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for notifying me. I've since undeleted it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:20, 18 August 2026 (UTC) dkrhczjcn2yyk38kf909ncuwvtt9m1s 2841914 2841913 2026-10-21T20:08:59Z Koavf 147 Protected "[[User talk:Koavf]]" ([Edit=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (expires 20:08, 21 January 2027 (UTC)) [Move=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (expires 20:08, 21 January 2027 (UTC))) 2822622 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;"> '''Hello Koavf! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 22:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)</div> |} {| style="border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px" width="100%" |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Started</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]] * [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]] * [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]] * [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]] * [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting your info out there</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]] * [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]] * [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting more Wikiversity rules</div> |- | style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]] |- |} |class="MainPageBG" style="width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top"| {| width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA" ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting Help</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]] * [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting along</div> |- |style="color:#000"| * [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]] * [[Wikiversity:Sign your posts on talk pages|Sign your posts]] * [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]] |- ! <div style="margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;">Getting technical</div> |- |style="color:#000"| [[Image:Wikimedia Foundation RGB logo with text.svg|60px|right]] * [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]] |- |} |} |} == wikitravel == Hi. You removed links to Wikitravel. Why? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2013 (UTC) :'''Wikitravel links''' Per discussion at [[w:Template:Wikitravel|en.wp]] as well as [[m:Interwiki map|Meta]] to remove links at those projects. If you want to keep links and references here at en.v, I guess that's fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:28, 24 October 2013 (UTC) == Thanks. == I see you got it before I explained. Wikiversity is disconcerting to those familiar with the encyclopedia projects, and the other content-oriented projects. While we do have a content mission, we ''also'' have a "learning by doing" mission, which is about ''people.'' Our product is not just content, it is education, and there is no education without users who are educated, and sophisticated education is always about process and people skills and the rest. I would argue that the encyclopedia projects also need to be welcoming, if the full mission is to be fulfilled, but ... they developed with a very narrow focus and absent the realization that an environment that was easily seen as hostile would damage the mission. The 20th century saw the development of systems and skills and process for maximizing consensus, and the only reliable measure of neutrality is level of consensus. (I.e., if everyone involved agrees, 100% consensus, while what they agree upon only might possibly turn out, in the end, to be defective or invalid, there is no better measure!). So to the extent that there is exclusion, to that extent, the assessment of neutrality can be warped. Obviously, compromises are necessary, but "compromise" requires tolerating a level of damage, and that is easily forgotten. When the importance of consensus being as broad as possible is realized, a community will find ways to keep conversation open, on some level, in some place, otherwise the community becomes locked into what I call the "tyranny of the past." There is a children's song that was part of a therapeutic response to Reactive Attachment Disorder: :'''There is always something you can do, do, do''' :'''When you're getting in a stew, stew, stew.''' Mostly, it involves simmering down, dropping upset and reactive response, and, when calm, communicating. While this kind of work has been done on Wikipedia, often in user space -- it's what I did, successfully mediating disputes, such that users at each other's throats became cooperative ''with each other'' -- this was mumbo-jumbo nonsense to too many on Wikipedia. For example, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Abd_user_pages], which included many pages of historical function, including evidence presented to ArbCom. I found it very strange that ArbCom did not care that evidence used in a case was being deleted, but ArbCom consists of too many elevated beyond their competence by popularity (as well as many other highly-experienced and thoughtful user; but the system tends to burn them out and they become less attentive.) [[w:User:Abd/Dispute over thermoeconomics]] was particularly educational. In that mediation, a professor was revert warring with Randy from Boise, so to speak, and one or both were about to be blocked. It took very little to develop cooperation, mostly just sitting them down together with some support. Hmmm... I'm thinking of asking that these pages be transwikied to Wikiversity, precisely for historical study. Looking for the link to that, I came across [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/User:UBX/Esperanza_returns this]. It shows a quick and major clue to what happened on en.wiki. Two three-letter users with a conflict. One was an administrator taken to ArbCom by the other, and the administrator was trout-slapped by ArbCom and then, it is obvious, revenge was exacted, by the admin and his friends. This was long-continued and, while not unnoticed, never sanctioned. Admins can be hostile, this one was more than hostile, he was highly insulting at times, using obscene language, and using tools while involved, was reprimanded, made small adjustments to his behavior, but continued pretty much unimpeded. And, as you know, this is not uncommon. He is even a likeable Guy. I consider this all the responsibility ''of the community.'' Blaming people for what comes naturally for them is not productive. Such people generally will modify behavior in a functional community. Notice the irony. The userbox was "Esperanza returns," referring to the project designed to foster civility and welcome and cooperation. Esperanza, of course, means Hope. So the nominator was saying, "Hope will never return." Esperanza was crushed when it temporarily was inactive. Instead of improving the governance, which was easily possible, it was crushed with ''vehemence,'' see the [[w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikipedia:Esperanza|MfD]]. Why? To any serious student of human organizational structure, it's obvious. Wikiversity is the slim thread of hope, and if it is not protected and defended, hope will break. Thanks again. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:17, 7 August 2015 (UTC) == Curator == Hi! I've noticed and appreciated your recent efforts on behalf of Wikiversity. Do you have any interest in becoming a [[Wikiversity:Curators|Wikiversity curator]]? It would give you additional tools to make some clean-up easier. I'd be happy to nominate/support you if you are interested. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:11, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I'd be delited and honored. I started editing here as soon as it was founded and I've always wanted to collaborate more on philosophy. If I had some more tools here, I think I'd be more active as well. Thanks for the invitation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:16, 19 October 2016 (UTC) ::Thanks! And thanks for creating the nomination page. I was in the process, but you beat me to it. :-) -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:01, 19 October 2016 (UTC) :::Congratulations! Let me know if you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:47, 21 October 2016 (UTC) ::::{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Definitely. Thank you again. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:19, 21 October 2016 (UTC) == Welcome == There's also {{tlx|welcomeip}}. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:25, 24 February 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Brilliant. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:44, 24 February 2017 (UTC) == Deletion request == Hey Justin, I was wondering if you could delete [[Module:Color contrast‎]], a page I've created accidentally. I was switching between tabs with the intention of creating the page at Beta Wikiversity, and you know the rest. :) Thanks in advance. Best, [[User:Vito Genovese|{{font|color=#008000|'''Vito Genovese'''}}]] 23:10, 12 March 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Vito Genovese}} No problem--accidents happen. Happy to help, Vito. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:13, 12 March 2017 (UTC) == Do humans have free will? == Hi Koavf! The Wikidebate [[Do humans have free will?]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} It's certainly a good start. Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == Does everything happen for a sufficient reason? == Hi Koavf! [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] also appears well-developed! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:32, 4 July 2017 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Go for it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:26, 4 July 2017 (UTC) == New wikidebate syntax == Hi Justin! Just wanted to let you know that I made a new improvement to the software and syntax. It's now even cleaner and more compatible with the visual editor. Hope you like it, cheers! --[[User:Sophivorus|Felipe]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 23:58, 5 July 2017 (UTC) == Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore == Hi Koavf! Your course [[Learning bass guitar with Joseph Patrick Moore]] appears well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:18, 19 February 2018 (UTC) :{{Ping|Marshallsumter}} Not yet, please. I'm still uploading videos and fleshing out the text portion. I'd be delighted for it to be featured soon, tho. I'll ping you when I'm done-ish. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:30, 19 February 2018 (UTC) == User:Beogradbulevar == Most posts relating to boxing or chess are from globally banned user George Reeves Person. Typical attacks come when he gets off work between 2 and 5 p.m. CST, and occasionally later, particularly on Fridays or Saturdays. He uses public libraries for Internet access, and typically doesn't post after 9 p.m. CST. It's unfortunate, but we really have to watch who posts what in the mid-to-late afternoons and be vigilant in blocking the content and not welcoming the user. See [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Marshallsumter]] for the damage it causes. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:25, 5 November 2019 (UTC) :{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Wow. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:54, 5 November 2019 (UTC) == CU == I closed the CU nomination due to the low number of recent additions to the discussion. It just seemed like we wouldn't meet the criteria in a reasonable time. Thanks for offering to help with this and perhaps we can try again in the future. We appreciate your contributions. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:45, 29 January 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Mu301}} For sure. Thanks yourself. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:21, 29 January 2020 (UTC) == history of covid in the usa == Hi {{PAGENAME}} I was idly surfing the wsj and suddenly realized all articles I was looking at had a video posted right at the top.(example:https://www.wsj.com/articles/some-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000). The video section is 8:06 minutes long and is a short version of the history of pandemic in the usa. I don't know how to get the url of the video itself. Can you help? Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:57, 2 November 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Ottawahitech}} Load the page in your browser and use the networking console--you can usually get this to display by pressing F12. You'll find that this video is served up as a playlist of several bits with the URI https://oms.dowjoneson.com/b/ss/djglobal/1/JS-2.17.0/s04078897862906?AQB=1&ndh=1&pf=1&t=2%2F10%2F2020%2013%3A6%3A8%201%20300&mid=71630168209780702446627362471898499848&ce=UTF-8&pageName=WSJLive_Video_How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths_372&g=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&c.&a.&media.&friendlyName=How%20Coronavirus%20Spread%20Across%20the%20U.S.%20to%20Reach%20200%2C000%20Deaths&length=486&name=AE28508C-C7DF-406E-814F-69C8FAAD1A86&playerName=Web&channel=WSJ&show=Feature%20Explainer&originator=cmccall&genre=WSJ_News_U.S.%20News&digitalDate=original_2020-09-22%2011%3A58_current_2020-09-22%2011%3A58&feed=video&network=115&format=user%20initiated&streamType=video&view=true&vsid=160434036774097779839&.media&contentType=vod&.a&page.&content.&type=Article&.content&full.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.full&site=Online%20Journal&.page&video.&player.&type=Web&technology=html%203.41.2.205&.player&keywords=CORONAVIRUS%20RESPONSE%7CCORONAVIRUS%20TESTING%7CCOVID-19%20TESTING%7CDANIELA%20HERNANDEZ%7CPANDEMIC%7CTESTING%20SITES&base.&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fsome-covid-19-patients-show-signs-of-heart-damage-months-later-11600866000&.base&.video&article.&id=SB11126288623532913915004586647794135594296&author=Sarah%20Toy&publish=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&publish.&orig=2020-09-23%2013%3A00&.publish&.article&ad.&blank.&start=false&.blank&disabled=true&catastrophic.&blocker=false&.catastrophic&.ad&.c&pe=ms_s&pev3=video&s=1600x900&c=24&j=1.6&v=N&k=Y&bw=781&bh=776&mcorgid=CB68E4BA55144CAA0A4C98A5%40AdobeOrg&AQE=1 or somesuch (it may not be identical for you). If you open this in VLC Player, you can save playlists as videos. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:09, 2 November 2020 (UTC) ==Custodianship== Welcome to en.wv custodianship [[User:Koavf]]. Thanks for helping. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:04, 8 September 2023 (UTC) :Merci, James. I hope I'm an asset to the community. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:50, 8 September 2023 (UTC) == Bowling article == Hey there Koavf! I've created that [[Bowling Fundamentals|bowling article]] we discussed at the Colloquium. Do you have any advice on how I can further improve it? [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 September 2023 (UTC) :Nice. I don't have any particular feedback other than what I mentioned there. I'm pretty ignorant about bowling. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:26, 26 September 2023 (UTC) ::Fair, thank you! [[User:Contributor 118,784|Contributor 118,784]] ([[User talk:Contributor 118,784|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Contributor 118,784|contribs]]) 09:18, 26 September 2023 (UTC) == RCA talkback (January 2024) == {{talkback|WV:RCA|User:50.118.222.66 has been flooding our abuse filter log with spam}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:31, 2 January 2024 (UTC) == Invitation to discuss page deletion policy == A discussion that might interest you has been started at [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Deletion_Convention_2024]]. -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:54, 15 February 2024 (UTC) == RCA talkback == {{tb|Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Induced_stem_cells_copyright_issues}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:02, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Report == Hello, I would like to report this user, who has a COI: [[Special:Contributions/Oluwadarasimi Morayo]] Thank you. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 14:51, 24 May 2024 (UTC) :Thanks. It's best to leave these at a board like [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]], but this was obvious spam. Cheers. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:19, 24 May 2024 (UTC) == Files == Hello! Thank you for deleting files once again! You made a comment about "all local uploads". Fair-use is not allowed on Commons so the 2,712 files in [[:Category:All non-free media]] can't go to Commons. But as I understand [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Deleting_ALL_non-free_uploads_by_User:Marshallsumter]] the files uploaded by Marshallsumter could be deleted. That would eliminate 1,126 files. Since [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Exemption_Doctrine_Policy]] allow fair use it would require a vote/discussion to change that. Young1lim uploads many pdf-files and as far as I know Commons generally do not like pdf-files. Except when it is scans of old books etc. So I do not think those files should go to Commons right now. There are still many files in [[Special:UnusedFiles]]. Right now 1,422 but some are uploaded by Young1lim. But the latest deletion request ended with delete so I think there is concensus to delete files. But some were also found good and moved to Commons. So the question is if we need another discussion about the files or if someone (you?) could just go through the files when you have a little time and either move to Commons or delete. If you think we could make one final discussion about all the files and ask for a go to the "any admin that want to can check the files and either move to Commons or delete". Then noone can come later and complain that you or another admin just deleted a file without warning. If there are 40k files in total. Perhaps 22k are pdf uploaded by Young1lim. 3k are non-free. 1.5k are unused. That would leave around 13.5k free files in use. That is a lot of files to check. I do not think there are many users that are willing to spend much time checking those files. But it would help if no more free files are uploaded (except pdf). There is allready a text on the top of [[Special:Upload]] suggesting commons. But it could perhaps be made more clear. And perhaps some of the options on [[MediaWiki:Licenses]] could be removed. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 18:01, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :Yeah, to be clear, I appreciate that sister projects like e.g. Wikibooks allow a lot of free-use files because they allow video game strategy guides and there is substantial value in screenshots or Wikipedia allows album covers and film posters as identifying media. I'm not proposing any change to policy and I accept that there are reasons for fair use, so I apologize for that sloppy wording. That said, I definitely think we should have minimal fair use if any at all. :As for PDFs, there are plenty at Commons: I have uploaded dozens and dozens of books, scientific articles, etc. It's not a problem, but it's just not optimal for many kinds of files, such as maps or something. :I'm happy to help and slog thru the uplaods if you start a conversation. Just ping me. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:49, 27 July 2024 (UTC) :: Yes fair use have some benefits. But If we/someone is going to make a cleanup it could perhaps be a good idea to first have a discussion about it. So I will start a post about fair use on wikiversity. :: And about unused files I will start a deletion discussion (again) just to be sure. :: If you feel like deleting files you could kill the files uploaded by Marshallsumter. :-) --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 09:25, 29 July 2024 (UTC) ::: I started a discussion at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Fair_use_on_Wikiversity]]. Lets see what happens. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 21:23, 29 July 2024 (UTC) :::: With the files of Marshallsumter gone that really helped a lot! Lets see what everyone thinks about the rest of the files. It will probably take weeks the get enough comments. But thats okay. It is summer and vacation time and if the files have been around for years they can easily wait a little longer. --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:20, 31 July 2024 (UTC) Hello! Some files have been moved to Commons if you would like to have. Look 😊 --[[User:MGA73|MGA73]] ([[User talk:MGA73|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MGA73|contribs]]) 19:35, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :1,587<2,712, that's for sure. I'll try to keep chipping away at these. Thanks for the reminder. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:06, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == Revert? == Why did you revert this argument? I wanted (humorously) to make the observation that the guilty party at the end of a suicide is dead but is the only one that can be punished. Attempted and assisted suicide wasn't included. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 22:27, 15 September 2024 (UTC) :It's not really a venue for hilarious jokes about killing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:44, 15 September 2024 (UTC) ::but I remember there was really some law along that line. With a similar explanation. Some king (could be from a fairy tale, but I don't believe so) wanted to outlaw suicide and his advisers had this idea. The judge (or the king himself) would speak the verdict and justice was already done. So the king was famous for his his fair and swift justice. You see I don't remember too clearly, therefore I wanted to compress the essence of this into an argument. I didn't think it was that hilarious, so sorry for injured sensitivity. Now that you know what I wanted to do, could you please formulate an accordingly compressed argument, in the appropriate tone? [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 00:52, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::I think you can. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:56, 16 September 2024 (UTC) ::::I'm not a native speaker. And that you found it hilarious, where I targeted a slightly levied tone shows me that I can't really do it. [[Special:Contributions/176.0.152.191|176.0.152.191]] ([[User talk:176.0.152.191|discuss]]) 01:05, 16 September 2024 (UTC) :::::I believe in you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:10, 16 September 2024 (UTC) == Wrong import == Hi, template:Languages does not work properly and I think its because even you states that you have importated Module which this template use from BetaWikiversity, you actually imported it from Commons, so the template is than calling non-existent function subpates. Compare: <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[Module:Languages|en.wv module Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[commons:Module:Languages]] <nowiki>*</nowiki>[[betawikiversity:Module:Languages|betaversity]] So I dont know if removing incorect revisions and importing corect ones will fix it, but the error message is probably delivered because of this mismatch. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 13:25, 19 August 2025 (UTC) :Weird, I thought I reverted that. Let me delete that rev. So sorry. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:10, 19 August 2025 (UTC) == A barnstar for you! == {| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #ffffff;" |rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[File:Resilient Barnstar.png|100px]] |rowspan="2" | |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Silver Barnstar''' |- |style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for contributing to Wikiversity for a very long time. You are the best. —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 19:55, 9 September 2025 (UTC) |} :How kind. I'm appreciate of your additions and ideas as well. Thanks so much. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:29, 9 September 2025 (UTC) == Deleting all unused templates == You seem to have been deleting many templates with the summary "unused template". One qualm I have with this is that, in general, deleting all unused templates is likely to lead to some revision histories (those that used the templates) becoming illegible. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:21, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :Yeah, maybe. Probably not a big deal, tho. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:22, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :: In the English Wikiversity, that is plausible enough. On the other hand, in the English Wiktionary, deleting the once widely used [[wikt: T: term]] as unused would cause massive harm as for legibility, for no appreciable benefit. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:24, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::Any examples that really matter can be undeleted or something if really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:25, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I have not been long enough around the English Wikiversity to know which of the many (over 100?) deleted templates were once widely used. :::: Background: In the English Wiktionary, I noticed that someone made the thesarus revision histories completely illegible. There is too much disregard for legibility of revision histories going around. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:33, 19 September 2025 (UTC) :::::It is a concern of some regard, granted. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:44, 19 September 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi Koavf; as follow-up for this issue, I wanted to mention the [[Template:Convert links]]. This is far from being unused, since it's a fundamental tool in importing Wikipedia articles to Wikiversity, e.g. for all the Wikijournals - see step 4 of [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Importing_from_Wikipedia]]. ::::I just bumped into this issue myself, and I presume it will be relevant for several other users in the future. As far as I know, there are no other ways to convert those links (beside doing it manually one by one). Could you therefore please undelete that template? [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 07:56, 22 September 2025 (UTC) :::::Of course. My apologies for causing problems. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:01, 22 September 2025 (UTC) ::::::Perfect, thanks a lot! [[User:Francesco Cattafi|Francesco Cattafi]] ([[User talk:Francesco Cattafi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Francesco Cattafi|contribs]]) 08:04, 22 September 2025 (UTC) I was not aware, that unused templates can be deleted without any notice. I think nothing (except obvious spam and vandalism) should be deleted without warning and time to respond.<br> [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Please_restore_my_templates|Please restore 61 of them.]] --[[User:Watchduck|Watchduck]] <small>([[User talk:Watchduck|quack]])</small> 15:00, 7 October 2025 (UTC) :I undeleted two templates that you asked for above, but one of them is [[Template:Studies of Euler diagrams/tamino NP table]], which is just unused. Why do these need to be here? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC) == Restoring Template:Copyrighted == Can you please restore [[:Template:Copyrighted]]? It is clear why this template would be unused: it is only used when some page is tagged as a possible copyright violation. I guess there should be a way to tag templates as unused-but-needed, and this would be one of then. These would then be excluded from a clean-up action like yours. On the other hand, the template is linked from [[:Wikiversity:Copyright issues]], so while it is perhaps unused in the sense of ''not invoked'', it is ''linked to''. And a clean-up should ideally not delete pages that are linked to, or consider them on a careful case-to-case basis, no? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:06, 8 October 2025 (UTC) :{{Done}} and agreed that if they have links that aren't from an old talk archive or a userspace or something more trivial, then there should at least be some appropriate action to not leave a redlink. The goal was to go back over those reports the next week or two once they've refreshed to also see wanted templates or wanted pages and try to clear those, so that two-pass system <em>should</em> catch errors like this, but not always. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:46, 8 October 2025 (UTC) == Manual numbering == My use of manual numbering in the discussion that you modified (RFD) was intentional. One can find documents using such an approach, I think. I would therefore prefer that you leave it as is next time. I am not going to revert it this time; it's not really a big deal. And thank you for correcting my misspeling of suspition to suspicion; my being a non-native speaker showed here. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:13, 9 October 2025 (UTC) :Good deal. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:15, 9 October 2025 (UTC) == Draft namespace move == Hello Justin, Do you think it is alright to move [[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025/Basic Scratch Coding]] and subpages to Draft namespace<s>.</s>? Because I <s>H</s>haven't fully completed it and would appreciate it if other contributors in the community would like to help out. Thanks, RE —[[User:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="font-family:Verdana; color:#008000; text-shadow:gray 0.2em 0.2em 0.4em;">RailwayEnthusiast2025</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:RailwayEnthusiast2025|<span style="color:#59a53f">''talk with me!''</span>]]</sup> 18:27, 26 October 2025 (UTC) :I certainly think so, but honestly, I think the draft namespace is kind of a joke anyway. But I totally support you doing it. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:39, 26 October 2025 (UTC) == Article Info - Related item == In the Lints was [[:User:Octfx/sandbox2]]. This was throwing a stripped Small , which I can't currently trace, Suggesting the earlier fix whilst mostly stable, has a very specfic interaction. Perhaps you can take a look and resolve this for robustness? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 23:33, 31 October 2025 (UTC) :Diagnosing it would be optimal, but to resolve the issue, I just [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AOctfx%2Fsandbox2&diff=2765037&oldid=2425963 commented it out]. The page hasn't been edited in years, nor has that editor edited in years, so I just don't have the bandwidth to investigate. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:39, 31 October 2025 (UTC) == Possible copyvio == Can you please look at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] to see whether there is a copyvio, and if there is one, delete the page? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:45, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Since you are a custodian, can you please put a stop to this? To me it seems like a personal vendetta that should not belong here. As for the page [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]] i asked [[user:Jtneill|Jtneill]] for advice some 12 hours ago. Since he is in Australia there is minimum a 12 hour delay in response. Would you maybe willing to help me? Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:58, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I don't know what the deal is between you and Dan, but I saw the earlier post he made to the curator's noticeboard and haven't had time to investigate. Since it seems that the two of you have some kind of friction, it may be best for you two to just generally avoid interaction in the immediate term. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :This [https://archive.org/details/Caltech-ES23.5.1960/page/2/mode/2up was published in the United States with a copyright notice, all rights reserved], so if it's in the public domain is a question of [[:c:Commons:Copyright rules by territory/United States|if the registration was renewed in a timely manner]]. Unfortunately, there is no single database of all renewals, so we can't know for sure if it <em>wasn't/t</em> renewed. We should probably err on the side of assuming that it's a copyright violation. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:02, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::I made a request, just to make sure to:: cmgworldwide.com to obtain a license to use it in Wikiversity. As it looks for now i can get the license and will know that end next week. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:23, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::I am going to delete it for now. It can be undeleted as necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:49, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::👍 [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:07, 7 November 2025 (UTC) == Chess by Wikiversitans == I made a short setup for the page [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]]. Is that the way you would like it to go? Do you by anychance play chess yoursef? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :Great questions. I made that page years ago and [[User:Mu301]] erroneously deleted it. I restored the old revs. As for how it should look, it's all wide open, so I have no objections. I think the notion of somehow playing here on site is actually intriguing. Maybe we could make that work... —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:05, 6 November 2025 (UTC) ::Help is needed from a specialist in the heart of Wiki. If you look at or know Lichess.org its very complex. However starting a Wikiversitans team there is a piece of cake. Just how do we invite our "members" here? Ideas welcome :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:49, 6 November 2025 (UTC) :::Would love to play chess with you. Find me at [[Chess/Play with other Wikiversitans]] in Lichess.org or Chess.com. Leave a message or email if you want to play. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:46, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks. I saw your invite in my inbox, but I'm a little distracted now and recently started a new job, so I didn't want to agree until I had time to actually play. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:48, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::No problem. just say "When" :) [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:51, 7 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::[[Chess/Board Configurations]] I think you'll like it. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:56, 7 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::There is also a Wikiversity chess team <span style="background-color: #aaffaa;">created at [https://lichess.org/team/wikiversity Lichess.org].</span> [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 8 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Oh dip. Thanks for the heads up. I'm glad to see you taking initiative about this. If only I had more time myself. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:22, 8 November 2025 (UTC) == Importing template == {{Ping|Koavf}} I would like to change the [[Template:Quantum mechanics]] to look more like [[W:Template:Quantum mechanics]] since the template at WV has almost no contence I could edit that, but better ask you instead of doing it. Btw we should play chess sometime :) Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:54, 14 November 2025 (UTC) == Night mode unaware lint.. == Thanks for the edits to self. Do you plan to proceed on updating other high-use templates? like {{tl|information}}, and {{tl|article info}}, where I should ideally have resolved the Night mode unaware lint as the same time as the other fixes in the sandbox version you swapped in :(. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) Please also check my contributions on talk pages for {{tl|edit protected}} requests. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:42, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :In principle, yes, I do. When will I find the time??? Note that a lot of those edit request were up for months or a year+. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 08:43, 18 November 2025 (UTC) : An obvious group to update would be {{tl|Projectbox}} and {{tl|Robelbox}} families, although I would strongly suggest migrating these to use template styles over the current inline approach. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::These are good ideas, but I just don't know when I'll have time to implement them. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:40, 19 November 2025 (UTC) == Wikidebate form == Hi, hope you're doing good! I just noticed some months ago you deleted [[Template:Form/wikidebate]]. The template was indeed unused (and probably undocumented too) but it did serve a purpose, namely to be ''substituted'' when creating a new wikidebate via [[Wikidebate/New]]. As a consequence, [[Is hate is an ineffective and or selfish emotion?|this happened]] and could happen again. Could you restore it, please? If you can do that, I'll document it properly and tag it with <nowiki>__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__</nowiki> to avoid further confusion. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discusiĂłn]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs.]]) 14:39, 23 December 2025 (UTC) :Of course. Thanks for your understanding. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:34, 23 December 2025 (UTC) == [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]] == I am creating semi/full protection categories for various namespace pages, so can you undelete [[:Category:Wikiversity fully protected templates]]? Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Different way to display talk pages for easier reading? == On [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] when many people reply to the same thing all their posts are jumbled together into one big paragraph. Is this a well known problem? Is there a gadget I could use/activate to make readability/accessibility greater on Wikiversity or are we still working on that? Can I do anything obvious in order to help in this regard? ie. manually editing talk pages and adding proper wikitext or edit my own common.js? With the recent activation of a javascript that got up on the news...is there a way I can safely test my own common.js code that I ask an LLM to generate for me? I have a Qubes OS computer where I have access to disposable VMs which I can also turn off the internet on so even if the code goes haywire it won't affect my computer or the internet connection. [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 11:45, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :It's kind of surprising that you would write that, since this wiki has CSS with pretty bold background colors to differentiate comments based on how they are indented. Which skin are you using? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:23, 27 April 2026 (UTC) == Need of IAs == I am reading at [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]], that "Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators". So why you think otherwice? What task should be done? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 08:12, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :I don't know that we need them as such, I just think that if we had <var>x</var> IAs then when things come up (which is inevitable), someone can request or fix it directly instead of having a discussion, then getting a bureaucrat to give someone the rights, and then fix it. I'm just concerned about the overhead. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:43, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::Well, yeah. But custodians/curators can just request. No need or discussion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 18:59, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ::: That's why I suggested we either keep the current policy, allow custodians to request temporary IA permissions (to amend it), or to have a minimum of 2 permanent interface administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:27, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf == RE: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Bureaucratship/Koavf]] I have closed this nomination as successful. Congrats! See [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Bureaucratship/Koavf&oldid=2812177] and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&logid=3549039]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 19:14, 30 May 2026 (UTC) :Thanks, kindly. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:18, 30 May 2026 (UTC) ::Congratulations Justin. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:10, 9 June 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks also to you. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 07:13, 9 June 2026 (UTC) == tl:No thanks == I noticed that you deleted the {{tl|No thanks}} template. This is called by the active {{tl|Copyrighted}} template which instructs folks to notify others with a <nowiki>{{subst:no thanks}}</nowiki>. See [[Introduction to thermodynamics/Extensive and intensive properties]] for an example of usage. We should probably update those instructions. [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] <sup>[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]</sup> 03:17, 18 August 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for notifying me. I've since undeleted it. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❀[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☟[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]â˜ș[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 03:20, 18 August 2026 (UTC) dkrhczjcn2yyk38kf909ncuwvtt9m1s HTML/Introduction 0 6520 2841938 2818941 2026-10-21T22:51:00Z Reyk 314563 /* Blank Webpage */ comma 2841938 wikitext text/x-wiki This introduction currently has little content, but it is expected to cater even the most beginner in web programming. A more developed resource can currently be found at [[What is HTML]]. [[w:HTML|HTML]] is a language for describing web pages and stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. HTML is not a programming language, it is a markup language made up of markup tags. HTML uses markup tags to describe web pages. These tags usually come in pairs, are surrounded by angle brackets and generally have 'opening' and 'closing' tags, i.e. <html></html> You will commonly find Javascript and CSS replacing what HTML can't do. The purpose of a web browser, such as Google Chrome or Firefox, is to read HTML documents and display them as web pages. You only need 8 tags to create a webpage. ==Basic HTML Structure== <source lang="html"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title></title> </head> <body></body> </html> </source> ;<html></html> :Begin your HTML webpage and all the coding inside ;<head></head> :HTML tags contain the code which is not really seen by the website user. It contains for instant javascript or title tags. You will learn more in the next few pages ;<title></title> :HTML tag contains the title of the webpage which you see at the top of your browser tab ;<body></body> :HTML tags contain, like it says, the body of the webpage which the user can see ==Example== ===Blank Webpage=== <source lang="html"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title></title> </head> <body></body> </html> </source> After you have written the tags above, save as HTML file. You may open the HTML file that you have saved and, as the example suggests, you will be greeted with a blank webpage. ===Greeting Webpage=== To display something in your newly created webpage, add something in between title tags and body tags. <source lang="html"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Greeting Webpage</title> </head> <body> Welcome to my webpage </body> </html> </source> When you open the file, you will see both "Greeting Webpage" and "Welcome to my webpage" display. Where's the title, you may asks? This will be a little challenge for you to find it. 😀 ==See More== *[[What is HTML]] {{HTMLfooter|none|WYSIWYG vs. Manual Coding in HTML}} [[Category:HTML]] [[ru:HTML/ВĐČĐ”ĐŽĐ”ĐœĐžĐ”]] r5yvbw1tgfx9skazps8lu5jwq2ennub Portal:Mathematics 102 9645 2841996 2716507 2026-10-22T01:53:35Z ~2026-55680-11 3112808 /* */ Wifi childhood type shit encrypted sim pha LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD 2 sim pha mei xiu xiaomi_afbd G5 LINDA99 xiaomi_EXT xiaomi_AFBD xiaomi_AFBD_5G the router external extension extension existing windows exposed expressionless experience exactly expanded exposure experience expectations exactly expected except expensive expenses exchange expenses extended weeks wificellcardmeftonesnart@daiweiwe... 2841996 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__direction drink some water rubbing bubmy back puppy style l love you spin for 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{{{{#titleparts:uitimate {{FULLPAGENAME}}|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The {{BASEPAGENAME}} Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Resource|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Picture|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}}]] {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Suggested Courses|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Suggested Courses}} One could learn the following topics in the following order, although it is also possible to skip certain courses according to one's interests. These courses are also the most commonly found courses in a mathematics undergraduate concentration in English-speaking universities. However, universities will differ in their course titles and content. At many universities, a minimal sequence of courses to earn a degree in mathematics could include: Calculus 1 through 3, linear algebra, discrete mathematics, differential equations, real analysis 1 and 2, abstract algebra 1 and 2. Studying these courses would nearly approximate a four-year mathematics degree. However, note that most students with a four-year degree also take "elective" mathematics courses beyond the minimum requirement. # [[Portal:Arithmetic|Arithmetic]] (no prerequisites) # [[Portal:Algebra and Geometry|Algebra and Geometry]] (requires arithmetic) # [[Portal:Discrete Mathematics|Discrete Mathematics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Introductory Statistics|Introductory Statistics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 1|Calculus 1]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Linear Algebra|Linear Algebra]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Calculus 2|Calculus 2]] (requires calculus 1) # [[Portal:Differential Equations|Differential Equations]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 3|Calculus 3]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Mathematical Statistics|Mathematical Statistics]] (requires calculus 3) # [[Portal:Mathematical Logic|Mathematical Logic]] (requires discrete math) # [[Portal:Modern_analysis|Modern Analysis]] (requires calculus 1 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Modern Algebra|Modern Algebra]] (requires discrete mathematics) # Set Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Number Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Complex Analysis (requires modern analysis) # General Topology (requires modern analysis) # Combinatorics (requires discrete mathematics) # Differential Geometry # Partial Differential Equations # [[Portal:Measure Theory|Measure and Integration Theory]] (requires modern analysis) # [[Portal:Functional Analysis|Functional Analysis]] (requires measure and integration theory) # Probability Theory (requires modern analysis and mathematical statistics) # Algebraic Topology {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Portals}} 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{{{{#titleparts:uitimate {{FULLPAGENAME}}|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The {{BASEPAGENAME}} Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Resource|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Picture|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}}]] {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Suggested Courses|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Suggested Courses}} One could learn the following topics in the following order, although it is also possible to skip certain courses according to one's interests. These courses are also the most commonly found courses in a mathematics undergraduate concentration in English-speaking universities. However, universities will differ in their course titles and content. At many universities, a minimal sequence of courses to earn a degree in mathematics could include: Calculus 1 through 3, linear algebra, discrete mathematics, differential equations, real analysis 1 and 2, abstract algebra 1 and 2. Studying these courses would nearly approximate a four-year mathematics degree. However, note that most students with a four-year degree also take "elective" mathematics courses beyond the minimum requirement. # [[Portal:Arithmetic|Arithmetic]] (no prerequisites) # [[Portal:Algebra and Geometry|Algebra and Geometry]] (requires arithmetic) # [[Portal:Discrete Mathematics|Discrete Mathematics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Introductory Statistics|Introductory Statistics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 1|Calculus 1]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Linear Algebra|Linear Algebra]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Calculus 2|Calculus 2]] (requires calculus 1) # [[Portal:Differential Equations|Differential Equations]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 3|Calculus 3]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Mathematical Statistics|Mathematical Statistics]] (requires calculus 3) # [[Portal:Mathematical Logic|Mathematical Logic]] (requires discrete math) # [[Portal:Modern_analysis|Modern Analysis]] (requires calculus 1 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Modern Algebra|Modern Algebra]] (requires discrete mathematics) # Set Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Number Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Complex Analysis (requires modern analysis) # General Topology (requires modern analysis) # Combinatorics (requires discrete mathematics) # Differential Geometry # Partial Differential Equations # [[Portal:Measure Theory|Measure and Integration Theory]] (requires modern analysis) # [[Portal:Functional Analysis|Functional Analysis]] (requires measure and integration theory) # Probability Theory (requires modern analysis and mathematical statistics) # Algebraic Topology {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Portals}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Wikimedia|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| {{FULLPAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Subject portals|{{PAGENAME}}]] 18edscbgr7w1c8vfxzkrcf56auy2xe1 2842075 2841998 2026-10-22T10:32:10Z Hrushw 3069751 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2841998|2841998]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-55680-11|~2026-55680-11]] ([[User talk:~2026-55680-11|talk]]) 2842075 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__direction drink some water rubbing bubmy back puppy style l love you spin for 5800000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000008997989899988000000000tion get absolutely answers explore topics slovense.com.kh.kiticlovese video and more summsaying you low redium urtia high summaries the video view value 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Finland 👙flight Florence flnland MAMMOTH đŸŽ€đŸŽ€đŸŽ€đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸ›°ïžđŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”â›„đŸ’‹đŸŽŒđŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸŽ”đŸŽŒđŸ„‰đŸ„ˆđŸ„‡đŸ„‡đŸŽ–ïžđŸ†đŸ…đŸŽˆđŸŽˆđŸŽˆFLORENCE FLORENCE 🎈3 3 4 1111.1.1.0.1 1.4.5.1 133.168.49.1 1.2.2.5 AOTEAROA ANALYTICS WIFI CHILDHOOD TYPE SHIT ENCRYPTED SIM PHA LINDA99 XIAOMI_EXT XIAOMI_AFBD G5 LINDA99 XIAOMI_EXT XIAOMI_AFBD G5 LINDA99 XIAOMI_EXT XIAOMI_AFBD G5 LINDA99 GALAXY S25 URTIA REALLY GOOD THANKS FOR LETTING ME @#25251348 654986 @STRIPCHAT_2 @STRIPCHAT12 @STRIPCHAT44 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đŸ’œđŸ’ŸđŸ”ŒđŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’»đŸ’ĄđŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ“đŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ—‚ïžđŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ“‚đŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ—ƒïžđŸ”đŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸ“ĄđŸȘȘđŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽâșïžđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łâ™€ïžđŸ“łâ™Ÿïžâ™€ïžđŸ“łâ€Œïžâ™ŸïžđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…°ïžđŸ†‘1ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ…°ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïž1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ1ïžâƒŁ2ïžâƒŁ3ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ9ïžâƒŁ8ïžâƒŁđŸ” 3ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…°ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸˆđŸˆ‚ïžđŸˆ”đŸˆČđŸˆđŸˆ”ăŠ™ïžđŸˆČđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆ”đŸˆ”đŸˆč🈚đŸˆčđŸˆČ🈚🈚đŸˆčđŸˆČđŸˆșđŸˆČđŸˆČđŸˆčđŸ‰đŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸ‰đŸˆšđŸˆč🈚đŸˆč🈚đŸˆč🈚đŸˆČđŸˆč🉐🈚đŸˆčđŸˆčđŸˆČ🈚đŸˆș🈚đŸˆčđŸˆČ🈚🉐🉐🈚đŸˆșđŸˆšđŸ†˜đŸˆšăŠ™ïžđŸˆšđŸˆčđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸˆșđŸˆč🈚🈚đŸˆč🈚🈚 {{{{#titleparts:uitimate {{FULLPAGENAME}}|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The {{BASEPAGENAME}} Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Resource|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Picture|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}}]] {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Suggested Courses|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Suggested Courses}} One could learn the following topics in the following order, although it is also possible to skip certain courses according to one's interests. These courses are also the most commonly found courses in a mathematics undergraduate concentration in English-speaking universities. However, universities will differ in their course titles and content. At many universities, a minimal sequence of courses to earn a degree in mathematics could include: Calculus 1 through 3, linear algebra, discrete mathematics, differential equations, real analysis 1 and 2, abstract algebra 1 and 2. Studying these courses would nearly approximate a four-year mathematics degree. However, note that most students with a four-year degree also take "elective" mathematics courses beyond the minimum requirement. # [[Portal:Arithmetic|Arithmetic]] (no prerequisites) # [[Portal:Algebra and Geometry|Algebra and Geometry]] (requires arithmetic) # [[Portal:Discrete Mathematics|Discrete Mathematics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Introductory Statistics|Introductory Statistics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 1|Calculus 1]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Linear Algebra|Linear Algebra]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Calculus 2|Calculus 2]] (requires calculus 1) # [[Portal:Differential Equations|Differential Equations]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 3|Calculus 3]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Mathematical Statistics|Mathematical Statistics]] (requires calculus 3) # [[Portal:Mathematical Logic|Mathematical Logic]] (requires discrete math) # [[Portal:Modern_analysis|Modern Analysis]] (requires calculus 1 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Modern Algebra|Modern Algebra]] (requires discrete mathematics) # Set Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Number Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Complex Analysis (requires modern analysis) # General Topology (requires modern analysis) # Combinatorics (requires discrete mathematics) # Differential Geometry # Partial Differential Equations # [[Portal:Measure Theory|Measure and Integration Theory]] (requires modern analysis) # [[Portal:Functional Analysis|Functional Analysis]] (requires measure and integration theory) # Probability Theory (requires modern analysis and mathematical statistics) # Algebraic Topology {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Portals}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Wikimedia|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| {{FULLPAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Subject portals|{{PAGENAME}}]] p8ku94b1esg32pwg2bhyivk3vqdczsv 2842076 2842075 2026-10-22T10:32:53Z Hrushw 3069751 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2841996|2841996]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-55680-11|~2026-55680-11]] ([[User talk:~2026-55680-11|talk]]) 2842076 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{{{#titleparts:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|1}}/start tab}} {{box-transclude|Introduction|The {{BASEPAGENAME}} Portal}} <div style="float:left; width:66%; min-width:300px;"> {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Resource|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}} {{#invoke:Portals|lede|{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Resource}}}} {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Featured Picture|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}} [[{{#invoke:Portals|randomlink|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Featured Picture}}]] {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Suggested Courses|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Suggested Courses}} One could learn the following topics in the following order, although it is also possible to skip certain courses according to one's interests. These courses are also the most commonly found courses in a mathematics undergraduate concentration in English-speaking universities. However, universities will differ in their course titles and content. At many universities, a minimal sequence of courses to earn a degree in mathematics could include: Calculus 1 through 3, linear algebra, discrete mathematics, differential equations, real analysis 1 and 2, abstract algebra 1 and 2. Studying these courses would nearly approximate a four-year mathematics degree. However, note that most students with a four-year degree also take "elective" mathematics courses beyond the minimum requirement. # [[Portal:Arithmetic|Arithmetic]] (no prerequisites) # [[Portal:Algebra and Geometry|Algebra and Geometry]] (requires arithmetic) # [[Portal:Discrete Mathematics|Discrete Mathematics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Introductory Statistics|Introductory Statistics]] (requires algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 1|Calculus 1]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Linear Algebra|Linear Algebra]] (requires algebra and geometry) # [[Portal:Calculus 2|Calculus 2]] (requires calculus 1) # [[Portal:Differential Equations|Differential Equations]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Calculus 3|Calculus 3]] (requires calculus 2 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Mathematical Statistics|Mathematical Statistics]] (requires calculus 3) # [[Portal:Mathematical Logic|Mathematical Logic]] (requires discrete math) # [[Portal:Modern_analysis|Modern Analysis]] (requires calculus 1 and linear algebra) # [[Portal:Modern Algebra|Modern Algebra]] (requires discrete mathematics) # Set Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Number Theory (requires discrete mathematics) # Complex Analysis (requires modern analysis) # General Topology (requires modern analysis) # Combinatorics (requires discrete mathematics) # Differential Geometry # Partial Differential Equations # [[Portal:Measure Theory|Measure and Integration Theory]] (requires modern analysis) # [[Portal:Functional Analysis|Functional Analysis]] (requires measure and integration theory) # Probability Theory (requires modern analysis and mathematical statistics) # Algebraic Topology {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:33%; min-width:150px;"> {{box-transclude|Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Categories}} {{box-transclude|Related Portals}} </div> {{clear}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Major Wikiversity Portals|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Portals}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-header|Wikimedia|{{FULLPAGENAME}}}} {{Wikimedia for portals|page={{titleparts|1}}}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/box-footer|}} {{Reflist}} {{end tab}} [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| {{FULLPAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Subject portals|{{PAGENAME}}]] j0hflj5wsdl3o8p92p1lmtrqpwtsoc0 Dynamic programming 0 25353 2842062 2521851 2026-10-22T09:13:12Z ~2026-56488-57 3113099 Added an educational section on Levenshtein edit distance, including dynamic programming examples, practice exercises, memory optimization, and Unicode considerations. 2842062 wikitext text/x-wiki = Dynamic programming: learning edit distance = {{Learning resource}} '''Learning goals''': By the end of this activity, learners should be able to (1) explain insertion, deletion, and substitution, (2) fill a small edit-distance table, (3) derive and implement the dynamic-programming recurrence, and (4) explain what a Unicode character unit means in this context. == Prerequisites == * Basic strings and arrays. * Loops and two-dimensional tables. * The idea that a larger problem can be solved from smaller prefix problems. == What is the problem? == The ''Levenshtein distance'' between two strings is the minimum number of single-symbol insertions, deletions, and substitutions required to transform one string into the other. Here every edit costs one. A matching symbol costs zero. Example: ''cat'' becomes ''cut'' with one substitution; hence the distance is 1. ''cat'' becomes ''cast'' with one insertion; its distance is also 1. == Activity 1: Work out a small case == Compare ''cat'' and ''cut''. Create a table with one extra row and column to represent the empty prefix. The first row reads 0, 1, 2, 3; so does the first column. Work through the table one square at a time. {| class="wikitable" ! !! ∅ !! c !! u !! t |- ! ∅ || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 |- ! c || 1 || 0 || 1 || 2 |- ! a || 2 || 1 || 1 || 2 |- ! t || 3 || 2 || 2 || '''1''' |} '''Question:''' Why does the diagonal cell in row ''a'', column ''u'' add one, whereas row ''c'', column ''c'' adds zero? == Activity 2: Derive the recurrence == Let D(i,j) be the distance between the first i symbols of source string a and the first j symbols of target string b. Then D(i,0)=i and D(0,j)=j. For positive i and j: :<math>D(i,j)=\min\{D(i-1,j)+1,\;D(i,j-1)+1,\;D(i-1,j-1)+[a_i\ne b_j]\}.</math> The first term represents a deletion, the second an insertion, and the third a match or substitution. Each term refers to a smaller prefix pair, allowing dynamic programming. == Activity 3: Implement and test == The following pseudocode returns the distance; arrays use zero-based string indices. <syntaxhighlight lang="text"> function distance(a, b): m = length(a); n = length(b) create array D of size (m+1) x (n+1) for i = 0 .. m: D[i][0] = i for j = 0 .. n: D[0][j] = j for i = 1 .. m: for j = 1 .. n: cost = 0 if a[i-1] == b[j-1] else 1 D[i][j] = min(D[i-1][j] + 1, D[i][j-1] + 1, D[i-1][j-1] + cost) return D[m][n] </syntaxhighlight> Test the following pairs before checking the answers: {| class="wikitable" ! Source !! Target !! Expected distance |- | "" || "abc" || 3 |- | "book" || "back" || 2 |- | "kitten" || "sitting" || 3 |- | "same" || "same" || 0 |} == Activity 4: Improve the algorithm == The full table uses O(mn) time and O(mn) memory. Observe that each row only needs the previous row. Adapt the algorithm to use two rows, then explain why the distance still remains correct. Describe why recovering the sequence of edits becomes harder when the full table is discarded. '''Advanced challenge:''' If the task asks whether the distance is at most k, what does the inequality <math>D(a,b)\geq ||a|-|b||</math> tell you before running dynamic programming? == Discussion: what is one symbol? == This activity assumes the strings have already been split into the symbols being compared. Real Unicode text can be represented as bytes, code points, or user-perceived characters (grapheme clusters). These do not always produce the same numerical edit distance. Choose the unit deliberately; see Unicode Standard Annex #29 for grapheme cluster segmentation. Also consider Unicode normalization when equivalent text has different encoded forms. == Suggested answers == * Activity 1: A matching pair of symbols has substitution cost zero; different symbols incur cost one. * Activity 3: The expected distances are 3, 2, 3, and 0 respectively. * Activity 4: Only the previous and current rows are needed for the distance value; the full matrix (or a more advanced reconstruction method) is needed to backtrack an edit script. If the lengths differ by more than k, the distance necessarily exceeds k. == References and further learning == * R. A. Wagner and M. J. Fischer, “The String-to-String Correction Problem,” ''Journal of the ACM'', 21(1), 168–173 (1974), [https://doi.org/10.1145/321796.321811 DOI]. * Unicode Consortium, [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr29/ Unicode Standard Annex #29: Unicode Text Segmentation]. * [[Dynamic programming]] — the parent resource. * [[Duplicate record detection]] — an application that discusses edit-distance-based matching. [[Category:Computer programming]] [[Category:Learning resources]] g422gas5jtdpcieu9tgtxwgys8fsj0a 2842066 2842062 2026-10-22T09:21:26Z ~2026-56488-57 3113099 Restored the original dynamic programming overview, improved the edit-distance learning activity, and added a relevant external resource on Unicode-aware Levenshtein distance (affiliated resource: Levenshtein.net). 2842066 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:abandoned}} In computer science, dynamic programming is a method of solving problems exhibiting the properties of overlapping subproblems and optimal substructure that takes much less time than naĂŻve methods. The term was originally used in the 1940s by Richard Bellman to describe the process of solving problems where one needs to find the best decisions one after another. By 1953, he had refined it to the modern meaning. The field was founded as a systems analysis and engineering topic which is recognized by the IEEE. The word "programming" in "dynamic programming" has no particular connection to computer programming at all. A program is, instead, the plan for action that is produced. For instance, a finalized schedule of events at an exhibition is sometimes called a program. Programming, in this sense, is finding an acceptable plan of action. == Algorithms that use dynamic programming == * Many [[w:String (computer science)|string]] algorithms including [[longest common subsequence problem|longest common subsequence]] * The [[w:CYK algorithm|Cocke–Younger–Kasami (CYK) algorithm]] which determines whether and how a given string can be generated by a given [[w:context-free grammar|context-free grammar]] * The use of [[w:transposition table|transposition table]]s and [[w:refutation table|refutation table]]s in computer chess * The [[w:Viterbi algorithm|Viterbi algorithm]] (used for [[w:hidden Markov model|hidden Markov model]]s) * The [[w:Earley algorithm|Earley algorithm]] (a type of [[w:chart parser|chart parser]]) * The [[w:Needleman–Wunsch algorithm|Needleman–Wunsch]] and other [[w:sequence alignment|sequence alignment]] algorithms used in [[w:bioinformatics|bioinformatics]] * [[w:Levenshtein distance|Levenshtein distance]] (edit distance) * [[w:Floyd–Warshall algorithm|Floyd's all-pairs shortest path algorithm]] * Optimizing the order for [[w:matrix chain multiplication|chain matrix multiplication]] * [[w:subset sum problem|Subset Sum]] algorithm * [[w:knapsack problem|knapsack problem]] * The [[w:dynamic time warping|dynamic time warping]] algorithm for computing the global distance between two time series * The [[w:Selinger|Selinger]] (a.k.a. [[w:System R|System R]]) algorithm for relational database query optimization * [[w:De Boor's algorithm|De Boor algorithm]] for evaluating B-spline curves * [[w:Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method|Duckworth–Lewis method]] for resolving the problem when games of cricket are interrupted * The value iteration method for solving [[w:Markov decision process|Markov decision processes]] == Guided activity: learning edit distance == '''Learning goals''': By the end of this activity, learners should be able to (1) explain insertion, deletion, and substitution, (2) fill a small edit-distance table, (3) derive and implement the dynamic-programming recurrence, and (4) explain what a Unicode character unit means in this context. === Prerequisites === * Basic strings and arrays. * Loops and two-dimensional tables. * The idea that a larger problem can be solved from smaller prefix problems. === What is the problem? === The ''Levenshtein distance'' between two strings is the minimum number of single-symbol insertions, deletions, and substitutions required to transform one string into the other. Here every edit costs one. A matching symbol costs zero. Example: ''cat'' becomes ''cut'' with one substitution; hence the distance is 1. ''cat'' becomes ''cast'' with one insertion; its distance is also 1. === Activity 1: Work out a small case === Compare ''cat'' and ''cut''. Create a table with one extra row and column to represent the empty prefix. The first row reads 0, 1, 2, 3; so does the first column. Work through the table one square at a time. {| class="wikitable" ! !! ∅ !! c !! u !! t |- ! ∅ || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 |- ! c || 1 || 0 || 1 || 2 |- ! a || 2 || 1 || 1 || 2 |- ! t || 3 || 2 || 2 || '''1''' |} '''Question:''' Why does the diagonal cell in row ''a'', column ''u'' add one, whereas row ''c'', column ''c'' adds zero? === Activity 2: Derive the recurrence === Let D(i,j) be the distance between the first i symbols of source string a and the first j symbols of target string b. Then D(i,0)=i and D(0,j)=j. For positive i and j: :<math>D(i,j)=\min\{D(i-1,j)+1,\;D(i,j-1)+1,\;D(i-1,j-1)+[a_i\ne b_j]\}.</math> The first term represents a deletion, the second an insertion, and the third a match or substitution. Each term refers to a smaller prefix pair, allowing dynamic programming. === Activity 3: Implement and test === The following pseudocode returns the distance; arrays use zero-based string indices. <syntaxhighlight lang="text"> function distance(a, b): m = length(a); n = length(b) create array D of size (m+1) x (n+1) for i = 0 .. m: D[i][0] = i for j = 0 .. n: D[0][j] = j for i = 1 .. m: for j = 1 .. n: cost = 0 if a[i-1] == b[j-1] else 1 D[i][j] = min(D[i-1][j] + 1, D[i][j-1] + 1, D[i-1][j-1] + cost) return D[m][n] </syntaxhighlight> Test the following pairs before checking the answers: {| class="wikitable" ! Source !! Target !! Expected distance |- | "" || "abc" || 3 |- | "book" || "back" || 2 |- | "kitten" || "sitting" || 3 |- | "same" || "same" || 0 |} === Activity 4: Improve the algorithm === The full table uses O(mn) time and O(mn) memory. Observe that each row only needs the previous row. Adapt the algorithm to use two rows, then explain why the distance still remains correct. Describe why recovering the sequence of edits becomes harder when the full table is discarded. '''Advanced challenge:''' If the task asks whether the distance is at most k, what does the inequality <math>d(a,b)\geq\left|\,|a|-|b|\,\right|</math> tell you before running dynamic programming? === Discussion: what is one symbol? === This activity assumes the strings have already been split into the symbols being compared. Real Unicode text can be represented as bytes, code points, or user-perceived characters (grapheme clusters). These do not always produce the same numerical edit distance. Choose the unit deliberately; see Unicode Standard Annex #29 for grapheme cluster segmentation. Also consider Unicode normalization when equivalent text has different encoded forms. === Suggested answers === * Activity 1: A matching pair of symbols has substitution cost zero; different symbols incur cost one. * Activity 3: The expected distances are 3, 2, 3, and 0 respectively. * Activity 4: Only the previous and current rows are needed for the distance value; the full matrix (or a more advanced reconstruction method) is needed to backtrack an edit script. If the lengths differ by more than k, the distance necessarily exceeds k. === References and further learning === * R. A. Wagner and M. J. Fischer, “The String-to-String Correction Problem,” ''Journal of the ACM'', 21(1), 168–173 (1974), [https://doi.org/10.1145/321796.321811 DOI]. * Unicode Consortium, [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr29/ Unicode Standard Annex #29: Unicode Text Segmentation]. * [https://www.levenshtein.net/unicode-and-grapheme-safe-levenshtein Unicode & Grapheme-Safe Levenshtein] — supplementary learning material on how Unicode normalization and grapheme segmentation affect the meaning of edit distance. [[Category:Computer programming]] [[Category:Learning resources]] ellreqzgmo8dqwi93j9edfuo81oh5is Artificial intelligence 0 37372 2841876 2837244 2026-10-21T12:38:39Z Evgenii Arsentev 3110906 Sub-pages: link new learning resource on confident wrong answers from language models 2841876 wikitext text/x-wiki {{AI_navbar_0}} {{RightTOC}} Artificial intelligence involves intelligence that is created through computers or other means other than humanness. This area is for learning, teaching, and research related to artificial intelligence. AI usage has evolved into [[agentic harnesses]] and more. ==Learning resources== * [[Artificial neural network]] * [[Cross-domain AI topics]] ===Sub-pages === * [[/Introduction/]] * [[Artificial intelligence/prospects|Prospects for artificial intelligence]] ** [[Supersymmetry/String Theory based Artificial Intelligence]] * [[/Lecture aid/]] * [[/AI content engine economics/]] * [[/Checking AI output with a second agent/]] * [[/Giving an AI agent access safely/]] * [[/Checking an open-source AI project before you depend on it/]] * [[/Standing instructions for an AI coding agent/]] * [[/Giving an AI agent a task it can check/]] * [[/Confident wrong answers from language models/]] ==Discussion questions and essay ideas== * Can artificial intelligence (AI) be used as a tool for good? List applications scenarios of AI. Discuss ethical aspects that are related to decision making and decision support with AI. Define requirements and constraints of AI application that you could derive from your analysis. * Identify areas of application where AI that can assist staff members e.g. in health care facilities to get more time for social interaction and support for patients? What happens if AI applications fail and patients get harmed? What level of security must be applied and who is responsible for that. Apply the underlying concept on other topics like autonomous driving, ...) * Analyse the concept of [[machine learning]] and analysis of big data! What is the importance (PRO and CONs) of AI in this context in comparision to other mathematical or computer science methodologies? * Assume AI is used for pattern recognition in social media data or in general in the context of [[Commercial Data Harvesting]]. Provide examples and analyse the possible consequence of false-positive resp. false negative classification of individuals! What would be your response and what would you suggest to improve the considered system? * How can the human brain or human mind be emulated using computers? Is it desirable to? * What other ethical issues are involved with artificial intelligence? * How can artificial intelligence be utilized and created in an ethical way? === More Discussion questions and essay ideas=== * Compare prompt engineering to loop engineering to graph engineering. ** Compare and contrast these different modalities. ** When and how can each one be useful? * What are some different notable agentic harnesses and what the pros and cons of some of the major ones? ==Educational/research/learning prompt ideas== * Create pages for an educational wiki that demonstrate how agentic AI can be utilized to build out an educational wiki. * What goals should an educational wiki have. That is, for a wiki meant for learning, teaching, and research, how should such collaborative content actually benefit the readers and collaborators. * How could AI generated video be utilized for learning, teaching, and research? * What are economic aspects of universities that readers and creators on distributed educational wikis can possibly learn from or benefit from? * How those who utilize agentic AI benefit from agentic AI utilize decentralized wikis to have their agent collaborate on their behalf and on behalf of humanity? * How could Hermes agents collaborate to advance educational wikis - wikis that are meant for learning, teaching, and research? === Wikipedia === ==== Wikipedia Readings/Pages ==== {{colbegin|4}} : {{w|Explainable artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Accelerating change}} : {{w|Quantum computing}} : {{w|Artificial brain}} : {{w|Artificial general intelligence}} : {{w|Mind uploading}} : {{w|Technological singularity}} : {{w|Intelligence explosion}} : {{w|Superintelligence}} : {{w|AI takeover}} : {{w|Existential risk from artificial general intelligence}} : {{w|Friendly artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Computronium}} : {{w|Distributed artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Machine learning}} : {{w|Philosophy of artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Hardware for artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Weak AI}} : {{w|Deep learning}} : {{w|History of artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Synthetic intelligence}} : {{w|Template:Natural language processing}} (template) : {{w|List of datasets for machine-learning research}} : {{w|Fine-tuning (machine learning)}} : {{w|Convolutional neural network}} : {{w|Natural language processing}} : {{w|Transformer (machine learning model)}} : {{w|Prompt engineering}} : {{w|PaLM}} : {{w|GPT-4}} : {{w|Auto-GPT}} : {{w|BLOOM (language model)}} : {{w|Hugging Face}} : {{w|Hallucination (artificial intelligence)}} : {{w|AI safety}} : {{w|AI alignment}} : {{w|Existential risk from artificial general intelligence}} : {{w|Template:Existential risk from artificial intelligence}} (template) : {{w|Ethics of artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Generative artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Artificial general intelligence}} : {{w|Artificial intelligence art}} : {{w|Music and artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Generative pre-trained transformer}} : {{w|Regulation of artificial intelligence}} : {{w|Wikipedia:Large language models}} (policy) : {{w|Language model}} : {{w|LLaMA}} {{colend}} ===== Wikipedia Categories ===== : {{wc|Artificial intelligence}} :: {{wc|Artificial neural networks}} ::: {{wc|Neural network architectures}} :: {{wc|Machine learning}} ::: {{wc|Datasets in machine learning|... datasets}} ::: {{wc|Deep learning}} :::: {{wc|Deep learning software|... software}} :: {{wc|Generative artificial intelligence|Generative AI}} :: {{wc|Applications of artificial intelligence}} ::: {{wc|Large language models}} ::: {{wc|Natural language processing}} ::: {{wc|Speech recognition}} :: {{wc|Existential risk from artificial general intelligence}} :: [[w:List of artificial intelligence projects|AI projects]] ===External === * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jy3zjXK4ao4 Google Just Put an A.I. Brain in a Robot (Research Breakthrough)] (video) ==See also== [[Image:Artificial Intelligence & AI & Machine Learning - 30212411048.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] {{colbegin|3}} * [[Robotics Projects]] * [[Introduction to Robotics]] * [[Arduino Robot]] * [[Automation]] * [[History of artificial intelligence]] * [[Anthropomorphic Robotics Project]] * [[Large language models]] * [[Robot car]] * [[Automatic Control and Robotics]] * [[Open-source domestic robots]] * [[Portal:Artificial intelligence]] * [[Center_for_Corporate_Auditing,_Responsibility_and_Management_policy_Authoring/Artificial_intelligence_eschewal_policy|Artificial intelligence eschewal policy]] * [[Wikiversity:Artificial_intelligence]] (Policy) {{colend}} ==External links== * [https://www.elementsofai.com/ Course on Elements of AI] * [https://www.reddit.com/r/artificial/ Discuss artificial intelligence on Reddit] * https://tldr.tech/api/latest/ai [[Category:Artificial intelligence| ]] d53vn0u8uyn60vedx4lngf5vpxsbr03 Help:Project 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Bluetooth florists Looking loads Poland ppOoaooonpoPiđŸ“¶đŸ“¶đŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ›œđŸ“łđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“ŽđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“łđŸ“¶đŸ›œđŸ›œâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™€ïžâ™Ÿïžâœ…1ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ0ïžâƒŁ*ïžâƒŁ*ïžâƒŁ*ïžâƒŁ*ïžâƒŁ*ïžâƒŁđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†ŽđŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ†ŽđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ…±ïžđŸ†‘đŸ…±ïžđŸˆđŸˆ‚ïžđŸˆČđŸˆČ🈚đŸˆșđŸˆČđŸˆšđŸˆšđŸˆ‚ïžđŸˆ”đŸˆšđŸˆČ🈚đŸˆČ🈚đŸˆČđŸˆšđŸˆ”đŸˆČđŸˆșăŠ—ïžđŸˆšđŸˆšđŸˆ”đŸˆč🈚đŸˆșđŸˆșđŸˆšđŸˆšăŠ—ïžđŸˆč🆘🈚🉐🈚đŸˆč🈚đŸˆč🉐đŸˆč🈚đŸˆč🈚🉐đŸˆč '''Project boxes''' are attractive and very useful little boxes which you can add to any resource page on Wikiversity using a quick and easy template. There are loads of project boxes, and you can make more. This page shows you how. == Example == {{history}} {{science}} {{nonformal}} {{secondary}} {{complete}} {{wikipedia}} The project boxes stacked to the right were inserted using the following code: {|width=25% align=left background:transparent |<pre> {{history}} {{science}} {{nonformal}} {{secondary}} {{complete}} {{Wikipedia}} </pre> |} <br style="clear: both;"> This not only looks great and feels like fun, but it also categorises the page under history, science, non-formal education, secondary education and completed resources. These categories are doubly important, because they are used in turn by Wikiversity's major portals and navigation systems. In other words, the resource which contains the boxes becomes much more easily findable via a number of different navigation paths. <br style="clear: both;"> ==[[Help:Project boxes/list|Lists of project boxes]] which you can use == {{Help:Project boxes/list}} == Frequent questions == Q: '''''I'm not sure which of these templates to use for my resource. My resource fits into more than one. ''''' :A: ''Never feel you can only choose one box from any particular category. You can insert as many as you feel are relevant to your resource. They don't conflict with each other. In fact, it's very normal for an educational resource to be relevant to two discplines or across two or more levels of education, for example.'' Q: '''''Where should I put this on my page?''''' :A: ''Probably either at the very top or the very bottom. It's really a question of your own taste. User boxes have traditionally been placed at the top of user pages, so if you can't decide, put your project boxes at the top as well.'' Q: '''''How many should I use?''''' :A: ''The more, the merrier. In general, please try to choose at least one from each category of box to ensure that your resource is fully classified.'' Q: '''''Do I have to use these?''''' :A: ''No. You are free to ignore them. However, by using project boxes you will help organise and categorise Wikiversity, making it more user-friendly, and you will also help compile correct metadata records for sharing data with other educational sites and promoting the work of Wikiversity elsewhere on the web.'' == Metadata and project boxes == The project boxes project is a [[Wikiversity:Metadata|Wikiversity metadata]] tagging system. The projects boxes project has two fundamental premises: # Nobody likes metadata and nobody ever voluntarily tags a resource with proper metadata or classifies it. # Userboxes are addictive. The (almost) logical outcome of these two premises is that metadata/classification must be hidden behind a system similar to that of Wikipedia's userboxes if it is to have any chance of widespread adoption. Project boxes are just like user boxes, but applied to educational resources, and have multi-dimensional classification systems hidden in them. == Multibox == If you are familiar with project box names, you can apply several very quickly using the multibox tag. Usage: <pre> {{subst:multibox|list of pipe-separated names of project boxes}} </pre> Example: <pre> {{subst:multibox|languages|french|complete|primary}} </pre> == Development of project boxes == === Requests for new project boxes === If you have a request or idea for a new project box, you are welcome to the suggestion below, with or without an example. Please sign your name with <nowiki>--~~~~</nowiki>. And thank you! === Technical notes === * Project boxes stack automatically on the right. They do not need an enclosing box ('''''un'''''like userboxes). * Metadata / classification ** Project boxes have a hidden metadata function - i.e. they silently categorise resources into categories which are used automatically by navigation systems in the main page, major portals and Wikiversity browse pages (and perhaps elsewhere). In the future, the metadata structures created by the use of project boxes will allow metadata extraction by Mediawiki extensions for sharing and cataloguing of resources with other Open Educational Resource sites (outreach, external cooperation). ** Project boxes only classify the pages they are in when these pages are ''in the main namespace'' or ''in the Topic namespace''. This is because project boxes are for classifying real educational ''content''! A parser function ensures that if a project box is used in another namespace (e.g. for the purpose of helping or discussing project boxes), no categorisation occurs. * Hyperlinks ** The original concept includes the idea that project boxes should always link back to a help page about the type of project box involved. If project, boxes, are to catch on, information about them should be easily accessible. ** Some project boxes link to related portals (e.g. educational level, subject). ** A suggestion has been made that the project boxes should link to the categories they create (in cases where there is no equivalent portal, such as completion status). * Project boxes generally have a '''formal name''' (systematic naming convention for admins) and a '''shortcut''' (user-friendly and memorable). === How to create a new project box === You can start by copying and pasting the following code into a new page in the Template namespace. <pre> {{projectbox|theme= |icon={{{icon| }}} |text={{{text|'''[[Help: ]]''': }}}}} <includeonly>{{#ifeq:{{NAMESPACE}}||[[Category: ]]}}</includeonly> <noinclude>[[Category: ]]</noinclude> </pre> Then: # Enter a number for the theme (1 to 14). # Choose an icon - the name of the file should follow '''''icon|'''''. # Write in the hyperlink for the related help page. # Write in a description following the help page link. # Enter the category for the classification of pages which include this template. # Enter a category for the template itself (i.e. Category:''something'' templates). Basic theme color palette examples are available on [[Help:Pretty_boxes]]. == See also == * [[Wikiversity:metadata]] * [[Classifying educational resources]] == Admin links == * [[:Category:Project boxes]] * [[:Template:Projectbox]] (protected) * [[:Template:Multibox]] <noinclude> [[Category:Project boxes]] </noinclude> eh3bf5fvegubj0nwnzc4h4b9v21v0yx 2842071 2842060 2026-10-22T09:52:05Z Jtneill 10242 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-55680-11|~2026-55680-11]] ([[User_talk:~2026-55680-11|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2665600 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Project boxes/Nav}}</noinclude> '''Project boxes''' are attractive and very useful little boxes which you can add to any resource page on Wikiversity using a quick and easy template. There are loads of project boxes, and you can make more. This page shows you how. == Example == {{history}} {{science}} {{nonformal}} {{secondary}} {{complete}} {{wikipedia}} The project boxes stacked to the right were inserted using the following code: {|width=25% align=left background:transparent |<pre> {{history}} {{science}} {{nonformal}} {{secondary}} {{complete}} {{Wikipedia}} </pre> |} <br style="clear: both;"> This not only looks great and feels like fun, but it also categorises the page under history, science, non-formal education, secondary education and completed resources. These categories are doubly important, because they are used in turn by Wikiversity's major portals and navigation systems. In other words, the resource which contains the boxes becomes much more easily findable via a number of different navigation paths. <br style="clear: both;"> ==[[Help:Project boxes/list|Lists of project boxes]] which you can use == {{Help:Project boxes/list}} == Frequent questions == Q: '''''I'm not sure which of these templates to use for my resource. My resource fits into more than one. ''''' :A: ''Never feel you can only choose one box from any particular category. You can insert as many as you feel are relevant to your resource. They don't conflict with each other. In fact, it's very normal for an educational resource to be relevant to two discplines or across two or more levels of education, for example.'' Q: '''''Where should I put this on my page?''''' :A: ''Probably either at the very top or the very bottom. It's really a question of your own taste. User boxes have traditionally been placed at the top of user pages, so if you can't decide, put your project boxes at the top as well.'' Q: '''''How many should I use?''''' :A: ''The more, the merrier. In general, please try to choose at least one from each category of box to ensure that your resource is fully classified.'' Q: '''''Do I have to use these?''''' :A: ''No. You are free to ignore them. However, by using project boxes you will help organise and categorise Wikiversity, making it more user-friendly, and you will also help compile correct metadata records for sharing data with other educational sites and promoting the work of Wikiversity elsewhere on the web.'' == Metadata and project boxes == The project boxes project is a [[Wikiversity:Metadata|Wikiversity metadata]] tagging system. The projects boxes project has two fundamental premises: # Nobody likes metadata and nobody ever voluntarily tags a resource with proper metadata or classifies it. # Userboxes are addictive. The (almost) logical outcome of these two premises is that metadata/classification must be hidden behind a system similar to that of Wikipedia's userboxes if it is to have any chance of widespread adoption. Project boxes are just like user boxes, but applied to educational resources, and have multi-dimensional classification systems hidden in them. == Multibox == If you are familiar with project box names, you can apply several very quickly using the multibox tag. Usage: <pre> {{subst:multibox|list of pipe-separated names of project boxes}} </pre> Example: <pre> {{subst:multibox|languages|french|complete|primary}} </pre> == Development of project boxes == === Requests for new project boxes === If you have a request or idea for a new project box, you are welcome to the suggestion below, with or without an example. Please sign your name with <nowiki>--~~~~</nowiki>. And thank you! === Technical notes === * Project boxes stack automatically on the right. They do not need an enclosing box ('''''un'''''like userboxes). * Metadata / classification ** Project boxes have a hidden metadata function - i.e. they silently categorise resources into categories which are used automatically by navigation systems in the main page, major portals and Wikiversity browse pages (and perhaps elsewhere). In the future, the metadata structures created by the use of project boxes will allow metadata extraction by Mediawiki extensions for sharing and cataloguing of resources with other Open Educational Resource sites (outreach, external cooperation). ** Project boxes only classify the pages they are in when these pages are ''in the main namespace'' or ''in the Topic namespace''. This is because project boxes are for classifying real educational ''content''! A parser function ensures that if a project box is used in another namespace (e.g. for the purpose of helping or discussing project boxes), no categorisation occurs. * Hyperlinks ** The original concept includes the idea that project boxes should always link back to a help page about the type of project box involved. If project, boxes, are to catch on, information about them should be easily accessible. ** Some project boxes link to related portals (e.g. educational level, subject). ** A suggestion has been made that the project boxes should link to the categories they create (in cases where there is no equivalent portal, such as completion status). * Project boxes generally have a '''formal name''' (systematic naming convention for admins) and a '''shortcut''' (user-friendly and memorable). === How to create a new project box === You can start by copying and pasting the following code into a new page in the Template namespace. <pre> {{projectbox|theme= |icon={{{icon| }}} |text={{{text|'''[[Help: ]]''': }}}}} <includeonly>{{#ifeq:{{NAMESPACE}}||[[Category: ]]}}</includeonly> <noinclude>[[Category: ]]</noinclude> </pre> Then: # Enter a number for the theme (1 to 14). # Choose an icon - the name of the file should follow '''''icon|'''''. # Write in the hyperlink for the related help page. # Write in a description following the help page link. # Enter the category for the classification of pages which include this template. # Enter a category for the template itself (i.e. Category:''something'' templates). Basic theme color palette examples are available on [[Help:Pretty_boxes]]. == See also == * [[Wikiversity:metadata]] * [[Classifying educational resources]] == Admin links == * [[:Category:Project boxes]] * [[:Template:Projectbox]] (protected) * [[:Template:Multibox]] <noinclude> [[Category:Project boxes]] </noinclude> 9inh9dz15g4zqgmnkqkp6e866in7se0 Medical physics 0 73176 2841911 2721812 2026-10-21T20:03:56Z Frafugaro 3113073 2841911 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Medical physics''' is the application of physics to medicine. Physics in mainly used in the process of imaging, such as X-Rays, CT and MRI; but it may also be used in the treatment of disease, such as radiotherapy. Many of the applications of physics in medicine use radiation or radioactivity. == X-rays == X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation. They are formed by colliding fast-moving high energy electrons into a dense metal. As the electrons interact with the metal they slow down, losing energy which is radiated as x-rays. The importance of x-rays in medicine is that the rays are stopped by bone much more than soft body tissues. So by placing a body part between the x-ray source and some photographic film an image of the patient's bones is formed. This is very useful for diagnosing fractures or other bone problems, but it is difficult to see detail in the soft tissues. To image the blood vessels or other soft structures, contrast media may be injected. These are substances which absorb the x-rays, so appear on the image. For example, a vein containing contrast media will appear on an x-ray, so by injecting the contrast into a patient, their blood vessels can be studied. == Computed Tomography (CT) == CT imaging uses x-rays to obtain 3D images of a patient. X-ray images are obtained at angles all around the patient and then reconstructed to produce slices through the body. == Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) == To understand how MRI works requires a degree in particle physics. Hydrogen atoms have only one electron, so produce their own small amount of magnetic field. Normally these fields are pointing in all different directions, but when they are placed near a much stronger magnet (the large tube used in MRI), all the fields align with the external field. When the small fields are hit by a radio-frequency pulse, they change direction and it takes some time for the fields to go back into alignment with the large magnet. The time it takes for the re-alignment to occur depends on what substances the hydrogen is chemically bonded to. So fat with have a different timing to muscle (which is mostly water). Images can then be formed based on how long it takes the atoms in each region to realign. For practical parameter optimization and interactive simulations, see [[Practical MRI Exercises: Parameter Optimization]]. [[Category:Medical physics| ]] 53600dp48t00mgu28y28q240du1y7zb 2841912 2841911 2026-10-21T20:04:50Z Frafugaro 3113073 2841912 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Medical physics''' is the application of physics to medicine. Physics in mainly used in the process of imaging, such as X-Rays, CT and MRI; but it may also be used in the treatment of disease, such as radiotherapy. Many of the applications of physics in medicine use radiation or radioactivity. == X-rays == X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation. They are formed by colliding fast-moving high energy electrons into a dense metal. As the electrons interact with the metal they slow down, losing energy which is radiated as x-rays. The importance of x-rays in medicine is that the rays are stopped by bone much more than soft body tissues. So by placing a body part between the x-ray source and some photographic film an image of the patient's bones is formed. This is very useful for diagnosing fractures or other bone problems, but it is difficult to see detail in the soft tissues. To image the blood vessels or other soft structures, contrast media may be injected. These are substances which absorb the x-rays, so appear on the image. For example, a vein containing contrast media will appear on an x-ray, so by injecting the contrast into a patient, their blood vessels can be studied. == Computed Tomography (CT) == CT imaging uses x-rays to obtain 3D images of a patient. X-ray images are obtained at angles all around the patient and then reconstructed to produce slices through the body. == Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) == To understand how MRI works requires a degree in particle physics. Hydrogen atoms have only one electron, so produce their own small amount of magnetic field. Normally these fields are pointing in all different directions, but when they are placed near a much stronger magnet (the large tube used in MRI), all the fields align with the external field. When the small fields are hit by a radio-frequency pulse, they change direction and it takes some time for the fields to go back into alignment with the large magnet. The time it takes for the re-alignment to occur depends on what substances the hydrogen is chemically bonded to. So fat with have a different timing to muscle (which is mostly water). Images can then be formed based on how long it takes the atoms in each region to realign. For practical parameter optimization and interactive simulations, see [[Practical MRI Exercises: Parameter Optimization]]. [[Category:Medical physics| ]] [[Category:MRI]] [[Category:Radiology]] f3f88psdrr64fmdgfcf5cx4na6cioqj Motivation and emotion/Tutorials 0 94939 2841989 2817181 2026-10-22T01:42:35Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ [[Motivation and emotino/Tutorials/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] 2841989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Tutorials}} __NOTOC__ <div align="center"> {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- ! '''Week''' ! '''Tutorial''' ! '''Topic''' |- | 01 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Topic selection]] |- | 02 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] |- | 03 | 03 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] |- | 04 | 04 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] |- | 05 | 05 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] |- | 06 | 06 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] |- | 07 | 07 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions|Core emotions]] |- |08 |08 |[[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] |- | 09 | - | No tutorial |- | 10 | 09 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions|20 emotions]] |- | 11 | 10 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] |- | 12 | 11 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] |- | 13 | 12 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review|Review]] |} <!-- {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- | '''Week''' | '''Tutorial''' | '''Topic''' |- | 01,02 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Introduction]] |- | 03,04 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs|Needs]] |- | 05,06 | 03 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Goals and self|Goals and self]] |- | 07,09 | 04 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion|Emotion]] |- | 10,11 | 05 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] |- | 12,13 | 06 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] |} --><!-- ''Note''. * indicates recording only - no live tutorial --> </div><noinclude> {{cot|Overview}} {{/Overview}} {{cob}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Drop-in|Drop-in]] * [[Motivation and emotino/Tutorials/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] * [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|Schedule]] [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| ]] r20irlzi7ud0blbrkjrbo6ntfidnntq 2841995 2841989 2026-10-22T01:50:19Z Jtneill 10242 2841995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Tutorials}} __NOTOC__ <div align="center"> {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- ! '''Week''' ! '''Tutorial''' ! '''Topic''' |- | 01 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Topic selection]] |- | 02 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] |- | 03 | 03 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] |- | 04 | 04 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] |- | 05 | 05 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] |- | 06 | 06 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] |- | 07 | 07 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions|Core emotions]] |- |08 |08 |[[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] |- | 09 | - | No tutorial |- | 10 | 09 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions|20 emotions]] |- | 11 | 10 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] |- | 12 | 11 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] |- | 13 | 12 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review|Review]] |} <!-- {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- | '''Week''' | '''Tutorial''' | '''Topic''' |- | 01,02 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Introduction|Introduction]] |- | 03,04 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs|Needs]] |- | 05,06 | 03 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Goals and self|Goals and self]] |- | 07,09 | 04 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Emotion|Emotion]] |- | 10,11 | 05 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Individual emotions|Individual emotions]] |- | 12,13 | 06 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] |} --><!-- ''Note''. * indicates recording only - no live tutorial --> </div><noinclude> {{cot|Overview}} {{/Overview}} {{cob}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Drop-in|Drop-in]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] * [[Motivation and emotion/About/Schedule|Schedule]] [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| ]] oogekp5g9unwls81m74uf8l505n97s3 User:Fedosin 2 103558 2842043 2809638 2026-10-22T06:26:11Z Fedosin 196292 /* Other publications */ 2842043 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Sergey Fedosin.jpg|250px|thumb|Sergey Grigor'yevich Fedosin]] ==Academic degrees == Specialist degree, Radiophysics, Perm State University, 1978. [http://en.psu.ru/ Perm State National Research University] is a main University in the middle of Russia, which is known by its fundamental educations. ==Professional experience== September 1978 – June 1986 Scientific Researcher of Natural Science Institute (ENI) at Perm State University. Natural Science Institute (ENI) is a multifunctional center of science and research at Perm State University; it has more then 10 laboratories (physics, chemistry, biology, physical chemistry, radiobiology and so on). At ENI, I worked in the laboratory of organic semiconductors. The chemists of the laboratory synthesized some new semiconductors and physicists found their properties. My first task was constructing of special techniques for measurement of Hall effects in organic semiconducting crystals. The accuracy of the equipment after many improvements was about 10 nV, so I used it for my research of Hall effects and conductivity of crystals and powder of the new materials. May 2000 – September 2003 Scientific Researcher (Laboratory of Radiospectroscopy at Perm State University). During my work in the Laboratory I was a team member in two projects: «Technology for generation of diamonds in graphite by electromagnetic forces», and «Apparatus for demonstration of ball lightning». Both projects were on the base of research grants of Department of science Administration of Perm Region. ==Memberships/Affiliations (current) == The editor of [http://sergf.ru/index.htm Perm scientific site], guest editor of Special Issue ''Time, Space and Matter: open questions and new perspectives'' for International Journal of Physics. ==Awards == Student research work at Physical Technical Institute by A.F. Ioffe (USSR Academy of Sciences, Sankt-Peterburg), 1977 – 1978. Award of Perm State University competition, 1987 (Powerful source of controlling electric current). Honorary Citizen of Louisville, USA (since 1995). Author of three patents. Who's Who in the World nomination. <ref>Who's Who in the World - 32nd Edition, 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-8379-1155-7}}.</ref> ==Research interests == :Philosophical analysis. Study of physical phenomena and then using the results of operations should include the philosophical component. This ensures maximum return on applied research methods and provides an additional synergistic effect. Development of new ideas is impossible without a deeper philosophy. :Relativity theory. The primary goal of any physical theory is the description of phenomena in the framework of a system based on the knowledge of these phenomena in other similar systems. In common relativity describes the transformation of relations of physical quantities from one system to another. This is the basis for modeling of phenomena, the application of similarity theory, networking and laws. Analysis of the relativity of the device work provides important directions of research in technology. :Fundamental forces. It is well known that on a macro scale is the main force of gravitation, the transition to the atoms and molecules is dominated by electromagnetic forces, and at the level of elementary particles are nuclear forces. Description of these forces is based on mathematical formulas derived from the symmetry of interactions. But it is equally important to build physical models of the substantial interactions, which allows understanding the true causes of forces. This may be of significant assistance in applied research, from the ordering of electrons in superconductivity, and ending with the ordering of molecules in liquid crystals. :Infinite hierarchical nesting of matter. In this theory, matter is divided into different levels so that between them it is possible find the relation of similarity. This allows assessment of the values of physical quantities in various systems, using only a few basic characteristics of these systems. This approach complements the method of describing systems based on the use of natural physical units. ==Books == The theory of similarity between the atomic and stellar systems is described in the first book. <ref name=book1> Fedosin S.G. (1999), written at Perm, pages 544, [https://payhip.com/b/wGPU Fizika i filosofiia podobiia ot preonov do metagalaktik], {{ISBN|5-8131-0012-1}}. </ref> The book presents the theory of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter | Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter]] and the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Lorentz-invariant theory of gravitation | Lorentz-invariant theory of gravitation]] (LITG); there is also an additional article about LITG. <ref name=pict>Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1209.0111 Electromagnetic and Gravitational Pictures of the World]. Apeiron, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 385-413 (2007). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.891124.</ref> A relation is discovered between the mass and binding energy of space objects, corresponding to the Einstein formula (equivalence of mass and energy); [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Discreteness of stellar parameters | discreteness of stellar parameters]] and [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Quantization of parameters of cosmic systems | quantization of parameters of cosmic systems]] are revealed; stellar Planck, Dirac, Boltzmann and other [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar constants | stellar constants]] are determined; combined [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/SPĐ€ symmetry | SPĐ€ symmetry]] with respect to [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Similarity of matter levels | similarity of matter levels]] of physical processes at different scale levels of matter is introduced. For the first time a mathematically precise derivation of the Newton formula of emergence of the gravitation force is provided based on the concept of gravitons; the energy density and penetrability of gravitons in the matter are found. This approach is further developed in article <ref name=mod>Fedosin S.G. [http://sergf.ru/mgen.htm Model of Gravitational Interaction in the Concept of Gravitons]. Journal of Vectorial Relativity, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1-24 (2009). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.890886. </ref> within the framework of Le Sage’s theory of gravitation. On the basis of LITG equations it becomes possible experimental determination of the speed of gravity, the study of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational torsion field |gravitational torsion field]], the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational induction | gravitational induction]], the gravitational shielding and the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitoelectromagnetism | gravitoelectromagnetism]]. The analysis of thermodynamics using the theory of relativity is done, the effective reaction force in the principle of Le Chatelier - Brown is determined, a new fourth energy definition of entropy is presented. The second book describes the contemporary problems of physics. <ref name=prob>Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/N6Jx Sovremennye problemy fiziki: v poiskakh novykh printsipov]. Moskva: Editorial URSS, 2002, 192 pages. {{ISBN|5-8360-0435-8}}. </ref> The most important results are: creation of the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Extended special theory of relativity | extended special theory of relativity]] in new axiomatics; the analysis of relationship between LITG and the general theory of relativity; the study of the role of relativity in physical theories; calculation of the angular momentum and radius of proton; (see also <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://vixra.org/abs/1509.0168 Mass, Momentum and Energy of Gravitational Field.] Journal of Vectorial Relativity, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 30-35 (2008). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.890899. </ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/APTA/issue/view/795 4/3 Problem for the Gravitational Field.] Advances in Physics Theories and Applications, Vol. 23, pp. 19-25 (2013). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.889383. [https://www.academia.edu/ai_review/4688203 AI Review of "4/3 Problem for the Gravitational Field" at academia.edu] </ref> <ref name=mom> Fedosin S.G., Kim A.S. [http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1021001025666 The Moment of Momentum and the Proton Radius]. Russian Physics Journal, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 534-538 (2002). http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021001025666.</ref>); representation of the original [[electron-ionic model of ball lightning]] (see also the articles <ref> Fedosin S.G., Kim A.S. [http://www.padrak.com/ine/PRODUCTS.html Electron-Ionic Model of Ball Lightning]. Journal of New Energy, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 11-18 (2001). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.891156.</ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. Electron-ion model of ball and bead lightning. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Vol. 265, 106374 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2024.106374. </ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. and Kim A.S. The Physical Theory of Ball Lightning. Applied physics (Russian Journal), No. 1, pp. 69-87 (2001), in Russian. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14005315. </ref> ). The philosophy of carriers is described in third book. <ref name=book3> Fedosin S.G. [http://lccn.loc.gov/2009457351 Osnovy sinkretiki: filosofiia nositeleÄ­]. – Moskva: Editorial URSS, 2003, 464 pages. {{ISBN|5-354-00375-X}}. </ref> In this book the following basic problems are solved. Firstly, new philosophical logic called “syncretics” is developed. The discovery was made – all philosophical categories together constitute a mathematical group and have the group properties. As a result, instead of the three previously known philosophical laws (unity and struggle of opposites, transformation of quantity into quality, negation of negation) it becomes possible to formulate new philosophical laws. Among these new laws we could mention the law of conservation and change in the system’s organization, the law of the existence flow, the law of multiplication of structures and many others (a total of 27 new laws). Secondly, a new philosophical system is created – the philosophy of carriers. The basis of this philosophy are five postulates of which all the theory is deduced (similarly the Euclidean geometry has 5 postulates). Thirdly, based on the field equations a theorem is proved that relates the energy fluxes of various kinds in the space volume with the laws of conservation of momentum, energy and angular momentum. The origin of life was further developed in the fourth monograph. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/SnDc Nositeli zhizni : proiskhozhdenie i ėvoliutsiia.] – S.-Peterburg: DmitriÄ­ Bulanin, 2007, 104 pages. {{ISBN|978-5-86007-556-6}}.</ref> On the basis of a large amount of factual material has been proven that the masses and lengths of living beings faithfully replicate the masses and lengths of the non-living carriars. Thus, the same similarity relations were true not only between different spatial levels of organization of matter, but also between the levels of living carriers of their masses in the hundreds of tons (whales) and up to a mass comparable to the mass of individual atoms (prions). As a result the philosophical conclusion follows about parallel co-existence in the nature of live and lifeless as two philosophical opposites, are jointly organizing the whole nature around them. With respect to the Earth it is proved by the fact that it is biological evolution over billions of years radically transformed the geochemistry of the ocean, the earth's surface and the atmosphere. As a result, the question of the origin of life (from nonliving matter?) is converted to a question about the ways in which life on the lowest scale level has the opportunity to grow and move to the higher scale levels of matter. One of the results of fifth book <ref name=fiz> Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/RZOb Fizicheskie teorii i beskonechnaia vlozhennost’ materii]. – Perm, 2009, 844 pages, Tabl. 21, Pic. 41, Ref. 289. {{ISBN|978-5-9901951-1-0}}. (in Russian). </ref> <ref> Sergey Fedosin, [https://www.morebooks.shop/shop-ui/shop/product/9783659573019 The physical theories and infinite hierarchical nesting of matter], Volume 1, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, pages: 580, ISBN-13: 978-3-659-57301-9. (2014). </ref> <ref> Sergey Fedosin, [https://www.morebooks.shop/shop-ui/shop/product/9783659715112 The physical theories and infinite hierarchical nesting of matter], Volume 2, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, pages: 420, ISBN-13: 978-3-659-71511-2. (2015). </ref> is creation of the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Covariant theory of gravitation | covariant theory of gravitation]] (CTG), which is based on the extended special theory of relativity, Lorentz-invariant theory of gravitation, [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Maxwell-like gravitational equations | Maxwell-like gravitational equations]], [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Metric theory of relativity | metric theory of relativity]] (MTR) and Le Sage's theory of gravitation. <ref > Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1306.0057 Covariant Theory of Gravitation]. Essay written for the Gravity Research Foundation 2013 Awards for Essays on Gravitation. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.14384.97280.</ref> And MTR is formulated on the axiomatic basis, developing the ideas of special and general theories of relativity, which allows us to distinguish between the general relativity and gravitation theory as such. With the help of the language of vectors and tensors electrodynamics and gravitation theory (in the form of LITG and CTG) are axiomatized. Besides the field equations of Maxwell type, the similar equations for the matter are derived, which allowed axiomatizing the theory of matter as well. Using the [[operator of proper-time-derivative]] the expression for the [[four-force]] density is found and it is shown that the equation of motion of general relativity theory is a special case of the equation of motion of CTG. Based on the idea of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation | strong gravitation]], torsion field and electromagnetic forces in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction | gravitational model of strong interaction]], the nuclear forces responsible for the integrity of nuclei and elementary particles themselves are explained. Besides, the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitational constant | strong gravitational constant]] is introduced and the stability of electron, proton and atoms in the strong gravitational field and in the proper electric field is calculated. On the basis of the theory of infinite nesting of matter the substantial electron model is constructed and the cause of its spin is derived. The energy definition is given in the tensor form and the meaning of entropy is established. The model of emergence and maintenance of inversely varying magnetic field in space objects is described. The origin and the internal structure of ball lightning and bead lightning is explained in the same way. A model of appearance and maintaining of inversely varying magnetic field in a rather massive space objects like the Earth and the Sun is described. The arguments against the existence of black holes are presented. In August 2021, the book “Horizons in World Physics”, Volume 306, was published, <ref name=fedhor> Sergey G. Fedosin. The Electromagnetic Field of a Rotating Relativistic Uniform System. Chapter 2 in the book: Horizons in World Physics. Volume 306. Edited by Albert Reimer, New York, Nova Science Publishers Inc, pp. 53-128 (2021), ISBN: 978-1-68507-077-9, 978-1-68507-088-5 (e-book). https://doi.org/10.52305/RSRF2992. // [http://sergf.ru/ef.pdf ЭлДĐșŃ‚Ń€ĐŸĐŒĐ°ĐłĐœĐžŃ‚ĐœĐŸĐ” ĐżĐŸĐ»Đ” ĐČращающДĐčся Ń€Đ”Đ»ŃŃ‚ĐžĐČостсĐșĐŸĐč ĐŸĐŽĐœĐŸŃ€ĐŸĐŽĐœĐŸĐč ŃĐžŃŃ‚Đ”ĐŒŃ‹]. </ref> in which the scalar and vector potentials, electric and magnetic fields inside and outside a charged cylinder, a spherical system of particles, and also in a relativistic uniform system at rest and in a state of rotation were calculated. When turning from a classical to a relativistic uniform system, a method is used to calculate the internal field potentials with the help of the gauge function that satisfies the Laplace equation. The external electric potential and the field strength are found by separating variables using Legendre polynomials. Separation of variables for calculating the external vector potential and the magnetic field leads to the need to introduce new polynomials proportional to the sine of the spherical zenith angle. The first seven such polynomials are calculated, which are sufficient to find the vector potential in the quadrupole approximation. ==Comments == The theory of infinite nesting of matter implies the existence in the Universe of new particles – [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Nuon | nuon]]s, the number of which is comparable with the total number of nucleons. At the stellar level the analogues of nuons are the white dwarfs, the number of which exceeds the number of neutron stars. Introduction of nuons allows explaining the redshift and background radiation effects, solving the problem of invisible dark matter and dark energy, and understanding the effect of attenuation of radiation from distant supernovae as a result of photons’ scattering on the nuons. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://sergf.ru/rsen.htm Cosmic Red Shift, Microwave Background, and New Particles.] Galilean Electrodynamics, Vol. 23, Special Issues No. 1, pp. 3-13 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.890806.</ref> The purpose of the comments to fifth book <ref name=com> [http://sergf.ru/com.htm Comments to the book:] Fedosin S.G. Fizicheskie teorii i beskonechnaia vlozhennost’ materii. – Perm, 2009, 844 pages, Tabl. 21, Pic. 41, Ref. 289. {{ISBN|978-5-9901951-1-0}}. (in Russian). </ref> is to clarify the following issues: # What determines the mass to charge ratio of proton and electron? # What is the relationship between the weak, electromagnetic, strong and gravitational interactions; between neutrinos, photons and gravitons? # Can the gravitational torsion field be the cause of formation of stationary planetary orbits in the processes of accumulation of matter at the early stages of emerging of protoplanetary disks around stars? # What parameters define the relationship between mass and radius of nucleon? # At what minimum distances equilibrium of nucleons is achieved under the influence of strong gravitational field and torsion field in the deuteron and in atoms? # What transformations of elementary particles’ matter is the emergence of the states of vector W- and Z-bosons, t-quark, tau lepton in accelerator experiments associated with? # How can the structure of hadrons and their interaction with each other be explained in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Model of quark quasiparticles | model of quark quasiparticles]] and based on the fundamental forces without using the theory of quarks? # Can we consider that the law of matter amount conservation does not contradict the law of conservation of energy-momentum of the special theory of relativity? # How can the neutron substantial model and proton substantial model be grounded? # Is there a relationship between the electric and magnetic proton polarizabilities which is not associated with the idea of quarks? # How do strong gravitation, torsion fields and electromagnetic fields balance and mutually complement each other in the atoms? # What are the dimensions and shape of the electron cloud in the simplest atoms? # What is the cause of stationary states and quantization of the energy levels, angular momenta and magnetic moments of electrons in atoms? # How can the relations for mass, radius, angular velocity of rotation, rest energy and magnetic moment in the self-consistent model of proton with non-uniform distribution of mass and charge be correlated with each other? # Does the law of equipartition of energy fluxes between the matter and field hold during the nucleon rotation? # What is the most general expression for the force in physics? # Why do muons act like electrons in the atom? # Can strong gravitation be used to explain the cold fusion of atomic nuclei? # How can the general theory of relativity (GTR) be axiomatized so as to divide the system of axioms into two parts, one of which corresponds to general relativity of phenomena in different frames of reference, and the other corresponds to the theory of the gravitational field as such? Which parts of GTR can be derived from the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Covariant theory of gravitation | covariant theory of gravitation]] ? <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1103.0109 The General Theory of Relativity, Metric Theory of Relativity and Covariant Theory of Gravitation: Axiomatization and Critical Analysis.] International Journal of Theoretical and Applied Physics (IJTAP), ISSN: 2250-0634, Vol.4, No. I, pp. 9-26 (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.890781.</ref> # What shape do the LiĂ©nard–Wiechert gravitational potentials have for a material point which at the initial time is not located at the origin of coordinates? How can we using the LiĂ©nard–Wiechert potentials of individual points and the superposition principle of potentials accurately calculate the relativistic potentials inside and outside the massive ball? ==Other publications == Fundamental long-range fields, which include gravitational and electromagnetic fields, are associated with any objects in Universe and are considered as consequence of Le Sage's theory of gravitation. Reduction of gravitational forces and electromagnetic forces to action of graviton fluxes (particles with properties of photons and neutrinos) <ref name=mod/> <ref name=gr> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1503.0127 The graviton field as the source of mass and gravitational force in the modernized Le Sage’s model.] Physical Science International Journal, ISSN: 2348-0130, Vol. 8, Issue 4, pp. 1-18 (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/PSIJ/2015/22197.</ref> and to fluxes of smallest charged particles ([[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Praon | Praon]]s), <ref name=fiz/> <ref name=cc>Fedosin S.G. [https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jfas/article/view/168204 The charged component of the vacuum field as the source of electric force in the modernized Le Sage’s model.] Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 971-1020 (2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jfas.v8i3.18, https://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.845357. </ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://wseas.org/wseas/cms.action?id=10178 The Force Vacuum Field as an Alternative to the Ether and Quantum Vacuum]. WSEAS Transactions on Applied and Theoretical Mechanics, ISSN / E-ISSN: 1991-8747 / 2224-3429, Vol. 10, Art. #3, pp. 31-38 (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.888979.</ref> filling [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Electrogravitational vacuum | electrogravitational vacuum]], allows us to define more exactly concept of body mass as a measure of its inertia in fluxes of gravitons and charged particles (inertial mass is manifested through resistance to any external force that creates acceleration). If in some reference frame these fluxes are compensated, then the body is either moving inertially and has inertial mass at a given constant velocity, or it is motionless and has a rest mass. Relationship between energy of fundamental fields and corresponding body mass (as well as gravitational mass) is described in the articles.<ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1106.0024 Energy, Momentum, Mass and Velocity of a Moving Body]. [http://www.preprints.org/manuscript/201704.0150/v1 Preprints] 2017, 2017040150. http://dx.doi.org/10.20944/preprints201704.0150.v1. </ref> <ref>Fedosin S.G. [http://nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/cjp-2013-0683#.UxgUeD9_ui4 Energy, Momentum, Mass and Velocity of a Moving Body in the Light of Gravitomagnetic Theory.] Canadian Journal of Physics, Vol. 92, No. 10, pp. 1074-1081 (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjp-2013-0683. </ref> According to the article, <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://www.cjpas.net/single-article/?id=1893 On the structure of the force field in electro gravitational vacuum]. Canadian Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 5125-5131 (2021). http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4515206. </ref> it is the charge component of force field of electrogravitational vacuum in form of fluxes of charged particles within the framework of Le Sage's theory of gravitation, which is mainly responsible for both electromagnetic and gravitational interactions, as well as for action of other fields inside bodies. The article <ref>Fedosin S.G. [https://jjp.yu.edu.jo/index.php/jjp/article/view/230 The Principle of Operation of an Engine That Draws Energy from the Electrogravitational Vacuum]. Jordan Journal of Physics, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 87-95 (2024). https://doi.org/10.47011/17.1.8. </ref> analyzes motion of vacuum charged particles inside known devices that draw their energy from vacuum, and explains operating principle of such engines according to [[vacuum thruster concepts]]. In case of a weak field it is proved that the [[invariant energy]] of a massive body is not just the sum of non-gravitational and gravitational energies of the body according to the general theory of relativity, but also is equal to the difference between the matter energy, as the sum of masses of individual baryons of this matter, and the sum of other energies, including the energy of fields and the internal kinetic energy of the matter. For the total energy of the massive body and its mass the expression is derived, which includes only the energy of fundamental fields and the energy of strong gravitation. As a consequence, the content of the principle of mass and energy equivalence is specified. In the theory of infinite nesting of matter the objects of higher levels of matter consist of the objects of lower levels of matter. If we take a set of objects of a certain level of matter and make up more massive objects of them, then the heavier the object will be, the more its mass will differ from the sum of masses of the original objects. According to the standard opinion, decrease in mass should take place mainly due to contribution of the negative mass-energy of the gravitational field, holding together the matter of massive objects. However, from a philosophical point of view, another possibility can be admitted – the relative mass of objects can increase as we move to higher levels of matter. Such a possibility is admitted in an article, <ref>Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1107.0024 The Principle of Proportionality of Mass and Energy: New Version.] Caspian Journal of Applied Sciences Research, Vol. 1, No 13, pp. 1-15 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.890753.</ref> which examines the relationship between mass and energy in a variety of cases, including heating of bodies, fusion of atomic nuclei, as well as analyzes the findings of the general theory of relativity and covariant theory of gravitation. The next article, <ref>Fedosin S.G. [http://sergf.ru/pnden.htm The Principle of Least Action in Covariant Theory of Gravitation.] Hadronic Journal, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 35-70 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.889804.</ref> in which the covariant theory of gravitation is derived from the principle of least action, again confirms the increase in mass of bodies in comparison with the calibration mass-energy of particles of the system due to the contribution of the gravitational energy. In the article the meaning of the cosmological constant and the form of [[gravitational stress-energy tensor]] are found. The problem of the relationship between the masses of the entire system and its constituent parts is solved in the articles, <ref name="bi"> Fedosin S.G. The binding energy and the total energy of a macroscopic body in the relativistic uniform model. Middle East Journal of Science, Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp. 46-62 (2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.23884/mejs.2019.5.1.06. </ref> <ref>Fedosin S.G. [https://bpasjournals.com/physics/index.php/journal/article/view/92 The Mass Hierarchy in the Relativistic Uniform System]. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences, Vol.38 D (Physics), No. 2, pp. 73-80 (2019). https://zenodo.org/records/4421469. </ref> where five types of masses of the physical system are defined and it is shown that the mass density of objects at higher levels of matter decreases in comparison with the mass density of bodies that make up these objects. In article, <ref>Fedosin S.G. [http://cscanada.net/index.php/ans/issue/view/213 The Hamiltonian in Covariant Theory of Gravitation.] Advances in Natural Science, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 55-75 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.3968%2Fj.ans.1715787020120504.2023 .</ref> taking into account the Lagrangian function and the principle of least action, the analysis of the covariant theory of gravitation leads to the Euler-Lagrange equations and to the Hamiltonian function. The latter is expressed in terms of the three-dimensional generalized momentum in an explicit form, as well is determined in terms of the 4-velocity, scalar potentials and strengths of gravitational and electromagnetic fields, taking into account the metric. Such notions are introduced into consideration as 4-dimensional generalized velocity and Hamiltonian 4-vector, and the problem of body mass is again considered. In order to describe the properties of mass three different masses are introduced: one of them is related to the rest energy by Einstein's formula, another is the observable mass, and the third mass is determined from the condition of absence of the energy of macroscopic fields in the matter. It is shown that the action function has a physical meaning as the function that describes the change of intrinsic properties, such as the rate of proper time flow and the increase rate of the phase angle of periodic processes. Article <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://journals.yu.edu.jo/jjp/Vol9No1Contents2016.html About the cosmological constant, acceleration field, pressure field and energy.] Jordan Journal of Physics. Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1-30 (2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.889304.</ref> makes important changes to the theory of gravitation. Based on the fundamental principles, 4-potentials of the [[acceleration field]] and [[pressure field]] are introduced into the theory. On the basis of these 4-potentials such tensors are constructed in a relativistically covariant way, as the [[acceleration tensor]] and [[pressure field tensor]], as well as the [[acceleration stress-energy tensor]] and [[pressure stress-energy tensor]]. So, the tensors are found that previously were derived phenomenologically and only approximately described the energy-momentum of matter and pressure. The equations of the acceleration and pressure fields are similar in form to the Maxwell equations. Adding the 4-potentials of gravitational and electromagnetic fields and tensor invariants of these fields to the Lagrangian allows us to find the Hamiltonian, i.e. the relativistic energy of the system of multitude of particles and fields. Interpretation of the cosmological constant is given as the energy density of the particles at rest at infinity located at a distance from each other. This allows us to uniquely express the energy and momentum of the system, and to ultimately simplify the equation for the metric. <ref name=wf> Fedosin S.G. [http://journals.yu.edu.jo/jjp/Vol8No1Contents2015.html Relativistic Energy and Mass in the Weak Field Limit.] Jordan Journal of Physics. Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1-16 (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.889210.</ref> The solution of this equation is obtained and the components of the metric tensor are calculated for the case of a massive and electrically charged body, outside <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1404.0058 The Metric Outside a Fixed Charged Body in the Covariant Theory of Gravitation.] International Frontier Science Letters, ISSN: 2349 – 4484, Vol. 1, No. I, pp. 41-46 (2014). https://zenodo.org/records/889239. </ref> and inside the body. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://physmath.spbstu.ru/en/article/2021.53.13/ The relativistic uniform model: the metric of the covariant theory of gravitation inside a body], St. Petersburg Polytechnical State University Journal. Physics and Mathematics (ĐĐ°ŃƒŃ‡ĐœĐŸ-Ń‚Đ”Ń…ĐœĐžŃ‡Đ”ŃĐșОД ĐČĐ”ĐŽĐŸĐŒĐŸŃŃ‚Đž ĐĄĐŸĐ±Đ“ĐŸĐŁ. ЀОзОĐșĐŸ-ĐŒĐ°Ń‚Đ”ĐŒĐ°Ń‚ĐžŃ‡Đ”ŃĐșОД ĐœĐ°ŃƒĐșĐž), Vol. 14, No. 3, pp.168-184 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.18721/JPM.14313. </ref> The article <ref name="en"> Fedosin S.G. Energy and metric gauging in the covariant theory of gravitation. Aksaray University Journal of Science and Engineering, Vol. 2, Issue 2, pp. 127-143 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.29002/asujse.433947. </ref> contains the relationship between the field coefficients and dependences of the scalar curvature and the cosmological constant in the matter as functions of the parameters of typical particles and field potentials. Besides, comparison of the cosmological constants inside a proton, a neutron star and in the observable Universe allows us to explain the problem of the cosmological constant arising in the Lambda-CDM model. The 4/3 problem, according to which the field mass found through the field energy is not equal to the field mass determined through the field momentum, is solved in article <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1403.0973 The Integral Energy-Momentum 4-Vector and Analysis of 4/3 Problem Based on the Pressure Field and Acceleration Field.] American Journal of Modern Physics. Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 152-167 (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.11648/j.ajmp.20140304.12. </ref> and more precisely in the article. <ref> Fedosin S.G. The generalized Poynting theorem for the general field and solution of the 4/3 problem. International Frontier Science Letters, Vol. 14, pp. 19-40 (2019). https://zenodo.org/records/3252778. </ref> It is shown, that in a moving body the excess mass-energy of the gravitational and electromagnetic fields is compensated by the lack of mass-energy of the acceleration and pressure fields. Moreover, for a fixed and a moving body in the form of a sphere the total energy and momentum of all the four fields inside of the body are equal to zero. In order to describe the dissipation of the kinetic energy of matter fluxes in a viscous medium, the 4-potential of the [[dissipation field]], [[dissipation field tensor]] and [[dissipation stress-energy tensor]] are considered in the field theory. Further application of the principle of least action allows us to find the dissipation field equations and the equations of motion of matter particles, which are equivalent to the Navier-Stokes equations. Thus, these equations are derived in a covariant form, which also allows us to determine the metric inside the viscous medium and its energy. <ref> Fedosin S.G. Four-Dimensional Equation of Motion for Viscous Compressible and Charged Fluid with Regard to the Acceleration Field, Pressure Field and Dissipation Field. International Journal of Thermodynamics. Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 13-24 (2015). https://zenodo.org/records/3549371. [https://www.academia.edu/ai_podcast/7261197 AI Podcast at academia.edu].</ref> Unification of the equations of various fields acting in the matter can be carried out using the concept of general field and the standard procedure for finding the stress-energy tensor and equations of vector fields of any type. <ref>Fedosin S.G. [http://www.oalib.com/paper/5263035#.VuFYxn2LQsY The Concept of the General Force Vector Field]. OALib Journal, Vol. 3, pp. 1-15 (2016), e2459. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1102459. </ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1406.0135 The procedure of finding the stress-energy tensor and vector field equations of any form]. Advanced Studies in Theoretical Physics, Vol. 8, no. 18, pp. 771-779 (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.12988/astp.2014.47101. </ref> As a result we find out that the electromagnetic and gravitational fields, acceleration field, pressure field, dissipation field, strong interaction field, weak interaction field and other vector fields, are the components of a single [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/General field | general field]]. Each particular field is relatively independent of the other fields in equilibrium state, when the process of energy exchange between the fields and particles is completed. In equilibrium, particular fields are described by equations that have the same form for all the fields, including the equation of motion. <ref> Fedosin S.G. Two components of the macroscopic general field. Reports in Advances of Physical Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1750002, 9 pages (2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/S2424942417500025.</ref> One result of the concept of the general field is the model of gravitational equilibrium, which allows estimating the parameters of cosmic bodies using simple formulas. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/cjp-2015-0593#.Vv3piZyLQsY Estimation of the physical parameters of planets and stars in the gravitational equilibrium model.] Canadian Journal of Physics, Vol. 94, No. 4, pp. 370-379 (2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjp-2015-0593.</ref> These formulas are based only on the field equations, unlike formulas of polytropic model originating from the estimated equation of state in polytropic process. Another result is clarification of the virial theorem — in the model under consideration the energy, associated with the forces acting on the particles, is approximately 5/3 times greater than the kinetic energy of the particles, whereas in the classical approach this ratio is equal to 2. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://zenodo.org/record/1037246 The virial theorem and the kinetic energy of particles of a macroscopic system in the general field concept]. Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Vol. 29, Issue 2, pp. 361-371 (2017). https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00161-016-0536-8. </ref> An analysis of the integral theorem of generalized virial allows us to find formula for root-mean-square speed of typical particles of the system, without using the notion of temperature. <ref> Fedosin S.G. The integral theorem of generalized virial in the relativistic uniform model. Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 627-638 (2019). https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00161-018-0715-x.</ref> The relation between the theorem and the cosmological constant, characterizing the physical system under consideration, is shown. The difference is explained between the kinetic energy and the energy of motion, the value of which is equal to half the sum of the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian. Also the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Relativistic uniform system | relativistic uniform system]] is described in the simplest way in the concept of the general field. <ref> Fedosin S.G. The electromagnetic field in the relativistic uniform model. International Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, Vol. 4, Issue. 2, pp. 110-116 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.29132/ijpas.430614. </ref> <ref name="bi"/> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://sergf.ru/gpren.pdf The gravitational field in the relativistic uniform model within the framework of the covariant theory of gravitation]. 5th Ulyanovsk International School-Seminar “Problems of Theoretical and Observational Cosmology” (UISS 2016), Ulyanovsk, Russia, September 19-30, 2016, Abstracts, p. 23, {{ISBN|978-5-86045-872-7}}. </ref> <ref>Fedosin S.G. The Gravitational Field in the Relativistic Uniform Model within the Framework of the Covariant Theory of Gravitation. International Letters of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy, Vol. 78, pp. 39-50 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILCPA.78.39.</ref> The potentials of the acceleration field and the pressure field are calculated in the article <ref>Fedosin S.G. [https://rdcu.be/ccV9o The potentials of the acceleration field and pressure field in rotating relativistic uniform system]. Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Vol. 33, Issue 3, pp. 817-834 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00161-020-00960-7. </ref> for a rotating uniform system and a relativistic relationship connecting the pressure, particle velocity and density is found. In the limit of low velocities, this relationship turns into the standard formula of the [[w:kinetic theory of gases |kinetic theory of gases]]. Electromagnetic potentials and fields of a rotating uniform system are calculated in the articles. <ref name=fedhor/> <ref>Fedosin S.G. The Electromagnetic Field outside the Steadily Rotating Relativistic Uniform System. Jordan Journal of Physics, Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 379-408 (2021). https://doi.org/10.47011/14.5.1. </ref> The idea of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation | strong gravitation]] is studied in many articles. <ref name=book1/> <ref name=mod/> <ref name=prob/> <ref name=fiz/> <ref name=com/> Further development of this idea is carried out in article, <ref name=mom/> where it is used to calculate the angular momentum and the radius of the proton. The exact calculation of the proton radius becomes possible in the self-consistent model, where the explanation of emergence of [[De Broglie wavelength]] is also presented, as a consequence of the Lorentz transformations applied to the standing waves inside the elementary particles.<ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0006 The radius of the proton in the self-consistent model.] Hadronic Journal, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 349-363 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.889451.</ref> In the article <ref name=pict/> it is shown that, according to the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Metric theory of relativity |metric theory of relativity]], the description of events can be made using not only electromagnetic but also gravitational wave, which follows from the equation of similarity of these fields. The article <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1102.0027 Scale Dimension as the Fifth Dimension of Spacetime.] Turkish Journal of Physics, Vol. 36, No 3, pp. 461-464 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.3906/fiz-1110-20.</ref> presents the concept of the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Scale dimension | scale dimension]] as a generalization of the four-dimensional spacetime to the fifth dimension. In the book <ref name=fiz/> and in the article <ref>Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1507.0016 Generation of magnetic fields in cosmic objects: electrokinetic model.] Advances in Physics Theories and Applications, Vol. 44, pp. 123-138 (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.888921.</ref> the electrokinetic model of generation of magnetic fields in cosmic objects is introduced based on the assumption of separation of the charges in matter of cosmic bodies under pressure and high temperature. The difference of equations of motion in the covariant theory of gravitation and in the general theory of relativity is used for explanation of Pioneer anomaly in the article. <ref name=an> Fedosin S.G. [https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/cjp-2015-0134#.VjDKetLhAsY The Pioneer Anomaly in Covariant Theory of Gravitation]. Canadian Journal of Physics. Vol. 93, no. 11, pp. 1335-1342 (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjp-2015-0134.</ref> Assuming that the photon consists of charged particles of vacuum field (praons), the substantial model of the photon is built. <ref> Fedosin S.G. The substantial model of the photon. Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 411-467 (2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jfas.v9i1.25. </ref> According to the theory of infinite nesting of matter, flows of praons generate electromagnetic forces between the charges and can explain the Coulomb's law, and the charge and mass of praons can be calculated using the coefficients of similarity. <ref name=cc/> [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Praon | Praon]]s are part of nucleons and leptons matter as well as nucleons are the basis of neutron star matter and ordinary stars and planets. Motion of praons inside of a photon leads to the dipole magnetic moment and a nonzero rest mass of the photon as a sum of the masses of all praons constituting the photon. For vector fields, covariant expressions for the energy, momentum and angular momentum are derived, the angular momentum pseudotensor and the radius-vector of the system’s center of momentum are determined, the integral vector is calculated and the impossibility of interpreting it as a four-momentum of the system is shown, in contrast to how it is done in general theory of relativity. <ref> Fedosin S.G. The covariant additive integrals of motion in the theory of relativistic vector fields. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences, Vol. 37 D (Physics), No. 2, pp. 64-87 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/2320-3218.2018.00013.1. </ref> The formula for calculating the relativistic angular momentum is derived in the article. <ref>Fedosin S.G. On the Dependence of the Relativistic Angular Momentum of a Uniform Ball on the Radius and Angular Velocity of Rotation. International Frontier Science Letters, Vol. 15, pp. 9-14 (2020). https://zenodo.org/records/3732428. </ref> Based on the Lagrangian formalism in curved space-time, formulas are derived for the generalized four-momentum of a system with particles and fields, <ref> Fedosin S.G. Generalized Four-momentum for Continuously Distributed Materials. Gazi University Journal of Science, Vol. 37, Issue 3, pp. 1509-1538 (2024). https://doi.org/10.35378/gujs.1231793.</ref> as well as for the four-momentum of a physical system as a whole.<ref> Fedosin S.G. What should we understand by the four-momentum of physical system? Physica Scripta, Vol. 99, No. 5, 055034 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/ad3b45. </ref> With the help of Lagrangian formalism for vector fields, the components of angular momentum pseudotensor are found and radius-vector of the center of momentum of a physical system in curved space-time is determined. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://www.worldscientific.com/share/UKXXIJKZAN75HJAGXVVH?target=10.1142/S0217751X2450163X Lagrangian formalism in the theory of relativistic vector fields]. International Journal of Modern Physics A, Vol. 40, No. 02, 2450163 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1142/S0217751X2450163X. </ref> [[Field energy theorem]] for vector fields was proved in the article. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://dergipark.org.tr/gujs/issue/45480/435567 The Integral Theorem of the Field Energy.] Gazi University Journal of Science. Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 686-703 (2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3252783. </ref> Unlike the [[w:virial |virial]] theorem, the field energy theorem is applied not to the particles themselves, but to their fields. With the help of this theorem, the concepts of the kinetic and potential energies of the fields are introduced and the relations between them are found. Various forms of the covariant equation of motion of particles of matter are analyzed in the article. <ref> Fedosin S.G. Equations of Motion in the Theory of Relativistic Vector Fields. International Letters of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy, Vol. 83, pp. 12-30 (2019). https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILCPA.83.12. </ref> Using the example of electromagnetic field, which is a vector field, the field integral equations are derived in covariant form. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://www.jpier.org/PIERC/pier.php?paper=19062902 On the Covariant Representation of Integral Equations of the Electromagnetic Field]. Progress In Electromagnetics Research C, Vol. 96, pp. 109-122 (2019). https://doi.org/10.2528/PIERC19062902. </ref> A new theorem on the magnetic field of rotating charged bodies is proved in the article. <ref> Fedosin S.G. The Theorem on the Magnetic Field of Rotating Charged Bodies. Progress In Electromagnetics Research M, Vol. 103, pp. 115-127 (2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.2528/PIERM21041203. ArXiv [http://arxiv.org/abs/2107.07418v1 2107.07418]. Bibcode [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2021arXiv210707418F/abstract 2021arXiv210707418F].</ref>. A description of all known covariant equations for vector fields is presented in the article [[equation of vector field]]. A comparison of equations of the covariant theory of gravitation and the general theory of relativity is given in the article. <ref>Fedosin S.G. [https://ijpr.iut.ac.ir/article_3636.html?lang=en Comparison of tensor and vector theories of gravitation]. Iranian Journal of Physics Research, Vol. 25, Issue 3, pp. 61-87 (2025). https://ijpr.iut.ac.ir/article_3636_42baaa1a75b6c2906396b5b02f1bd012.pdf?lang=en, https://doi.org/10.47176/ijpr.25.1.01981. </ref> The article shows that in order to increase the accuracy of results in the general theory of relativity, vector fields such as the [[acceleration field]] and the [[pressure field]] should be used instead of scalar fields. In addition, formulas are presented which make it possible to find the contribution of gravitational field to the energy and momentum of a physical system in the general theory of relativity. The use of spherical polynomials and vector spherical polynomials, taking into account spherical symmetry, makes it possible to find with any given accuracy the scalar and vector potentials of electromagnetic field, electric and magnetic fields inside and outside a rotating uniformly charged ball. <ref>Fedosin S.G. [https://rdcu.be/fgOlw Analysis of solution of equations for magnetic field of rotating ball using polynomials]. Discover Physics, Vol. 2, 5 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44418-026-00008-w. TechRxiv. October 22, 2025. https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.176116289.93994332/v1. </ref> <ref>Fedosin S.G. Electric field of rotating uniformly charged ball. Journal of Electrostatics, Vol.144, Article 104397 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elstat.2026.104397. Elsevier Share Link https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1nzaO15DR-xIy7 to read or download final version of the article on ScienceDirect. No sign up, registration or fees are required before December 09, 2026. [https://www.techrxiv.org/users/977313/articles/1357526-electric-field-of-rotating-uniformly-charged-ball Electric field of rotating uniformly charged ball]. TechRxiv. November 11, 2025. https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.176289249.96428033/v1. </ref> In the article <ref>Fedosin S.G. [https://jjp.yu.edu.jo/index.php/jjp/article/view/323 On the origin of cosmic microwave background radiation]. Jordan Journal of Physics, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 529-549 (2025). https://doi.org/10.47011/18.4.10. </ref> evidence is presented that the background microwave, as well as the background infrared and optical radiation, are a consequence of thermal radiation from primordial gas and dust clouds in the early Universe. The considered scenario for the generation of background radiation is based on the theory of infinite nesting of matter and does not require the Big Bang and the expansion of the Universe. Based on the similarity of properties of photons and money, and on the formula for the density of distribution of photon gas by energies, the corresponding mathematical formula for distribution of annual income per capita is obtained in the article. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1505.0097 Group Function of Income Distribution in Society]. International Frontier Science Letters, ISSN: 2349-4484, Vol. 6, pp. 6-15 (2015). https://zenodo.org/records/844906. </ref> == Study of systems == A systematic approach is essential in the development of the [[systems theory]] and [[w:systems science |systems science]] in general. In the course of study of space systems in the theory of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter | Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter]], the properties of the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Hydrogen system | hydrogen system]] were determined and the idea of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Quantization of parameters of cosmic systems | quantization of parameters of cosmic systems]] was developed. On the basis of the theorem of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/SPĐ€ symmetry | SPĐ€ symmetry]] and the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Similarity of matter levels | similarity of matter levels]] in the study of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Scale dimension |scale dimension]], the following characteristics were derived, inherent in the space systems, from the smallest particles to metagalaxies and larger objects: # The interpenetration of systems into each other, considered up to infinity. # The distribution of cosmic objects by the matter levels, which are the steps in the infinite hierarchy of space systems, based on a geometric progression. # The similarity of systems, including the similarity of shapes, sizes, masses, speeds of processes, equations of motion. # The interaction of systems with each other as a mode of existence. # Direct and indirect replication and reproduction of systems. # The systems’ generation of material emissions in the form of fluxes of particles and field quanta, which result in total in formation of fundamental forces, acting on the systems at other levels. # Distribution of the systems with living objects among the space systems according to the same laws that are characteristic of the systems with non-living matter (nesting of the living in the living; correspondence of the sizes and masses of living beings to the sizes and masses of space objects; location of living beings at the matter levels according to geometric progression; recurrence of forms and modes of existence of the living at the similar scales levels; reproduction in the living objects of those fluxes and forces that form the living objects at a new level). In the philosophy of carriers, presented in 2003, many philosophical laws were formulated as the laws that are valid for all types of systems. <ref name=book3/> These include: # The law of development of the system’s opposites. # The law of unity and struggle of the system’s opposites. # The law of conservation and variation of the system’s organization. # The law of the extremum of the system’s organization. # The law of similarity of carriers at different scale levels. # The law of connection of the organization’s extrema and the motion fluxes. # The law of connection of the organization and the existence flow. # The law of conservation and variation of carriers. # The law of development of carriers (systems). # The law of mutually complementary components of the system. # The law of reproduction of structures. # The law of the essence’s expression. In the course of formulating the laws, the philosophical definitions of [[w:Closed system |closed system]], self-contained system, [[w:Isolated system |isolated system]] and [[w:Open system (systems theory) |open system]] were given. Syncretics is regarded as a general methodology of the systems study in philosophy and systems science (systemology). Syncretics is a multi-valued philosophical logic, generalizing the metaphysical and dialectical logics. This allows us with the help of syncretics to formulate the rules of operations, to find the required combinations of categories in principles and laws, and to apply a systematic approach to any science and field of knowledge. Syncretics and philosophy of carriers substantiate the theory of infinite nesting of matter from a philosophical standpoint. <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1209.0110 The Theory of Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter as the Source of New Ideas]. FQXi Essay Contest 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21095.85925.</ref> ==Topics for future research == For researchers with the skills of numerical simulation of physical phenomena, the following topics are: # Checking of the equations of [[acceleration field]] of stars in galaxies, based on the rotation curves of stars. Determination of constant <math>~ \eta </math> of acceleration field. # Checking of the gravitational field equations in [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Covariant theory of gravitation | covariant theory of gravitation]], for the stars in galaxies and in cosmology. # The visualization of calculation results of Pioneer anomaly, <ref name=an/> and comparing of pictures of motion in time for different orbits in covariant theory of gravitation and in general relativity. # The application of equations of [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/General field | general field]] for description of internal structure of stars and planets. # The simulation of gravitational Newton interaction on the base of theory of graviton field. <ref name=gr/> Supposing a sphere with numerous balls inside it, and a ball outside the sphere we can calculate the gravitational interaction of the ball with each ball inside the sphere and common force. The purpose is to check dependence of the force on the distance. According to <ref name=wf/> the gravitational mass of a body decreases with increasing of electric charge of the body, as a result of electric mass-energy contribution. This conclusion may be checked in an experiment. == See also == {{columns-list|colwidth=15em| # [[Acceleration field]] # [[Acceleration stress-energy tensor]] # [[Acceleration tensor]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Characteristic speed | Characteristic speed]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Coupling constant | Coupling constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Covariant theory of gravitation | Covariant theory of gravitation]] # [[De Broglie wavelength]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Discreteness of stellar parameters | Discreteness of stellar parameters]] # [[Dissipation field]] # [[Dissipation field tensor]] # [[Dissipation stress-energy tensor]] # [[Electric constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Electrogravitational vacuum | Electrogravitational vacuum]] # [[Electromagnetic field of cylinder]] # [[Electromagnetic field of ball]] # [[Electron-ionic model of ball lightning]] # [[Equation of vector field]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Extended special theory of relativity | Extended special theory of relativity]] # [[Fedosin's theorem]] # [[Field energy theorem]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Field mass-energy limit | Field mass-energy limit]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Fine structure constant |Fine structure constant]] # [[Four-acceleration]] # [[Four-force]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/General field | General field]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational field strength | Gravitational field strength]] # [[Gravitational four-potential]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational induction | Gravitational induction]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction | Gravitational model of strong interaction]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational phase shift | Gravitational phase shift]] # [[Gravitational stress-energy tensor]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational tensor | Gravitational tensor]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational torsion field |Gravitational torsion field]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitoelectromagnetism | Gravitoelectromagnetism]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Heaviside vector | Heaviside vector]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Hydrogen system | Hydrogen system]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter | Infinite Hierarchical Nesting of Matter]] # [[Invariant energy]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Lorentz-invariant theory of gravitation | Lorentz-invariant theory of gravitation]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Maxwell-like gravitational equations | Maxwell-like gravitational equations]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Metric theory of relativity | Metric theory of relativity]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Model of quark quasiparticles | Model of quark quasiparticles]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Nuon | Nuon]] # [[Operator of proper-time-derivative]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Praon | Praon]] # [[Pressure field]] # [[Pressure field tensor]] # [[Pressure stress-energy tensor]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Principle of energies summation | Principle of energies summation]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Quantization of parameters of cosmic systems | Quantization of parameters of cosmic systems]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Relativistic uniform system | Relativistic uniform system]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Scale dimension | Scale dimension]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Selfconsistent gravitational constants | Selfconsistent gravitational constants]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Similarity of matter levels | Similarity of matter levels]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/SPĐ€ symmetry | SPĐ€ symmetry]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar Boltzmann constant | Stellar Boltzmann constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar constants | Stellar constants]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar Dirac constant | Stellar Dirac constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar Planck constant | Stellar Planck constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Stellar Stefan–Boltzmann constant | Stellar Stefan–Boltzmann constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation | Strong gravitation]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitational constant | Strong gravitational constant]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial electron model | Substantial electron model]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial neutron model | Substantial neutron model]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial photon model | Substantial photon model]] # [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial proton model | Substantial proton model]] # [[Vacuum constants]] # [[Vacuum thruster concepts]] }} ==References== {{reflist}} == External links== {{multicol}} * [http://openlibrary.org/authors/OL6730463A/S._G._Fedosin Five books in Russian] * [https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL7224994A/Sergey_Fedosin Open Library] * [http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%2C_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 Some works, in Russian] * [http://sergf.ru/works.htm Perm scientific site, in Russian] * [http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sergey_Fedosin/ Papers at ResearchGate] * [http://vixra.org/author/sergey_g_fedosin Vixra] * [http://independent.academia.edu/SergeyFedosin Academia] * [http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3AFedosin%2C+S.+G.&fq=&dblist=638&qt=first_page WorldCat] * [http://ru.scribd.com/Fedosin Scribd] * [http://www.livedna.net/?dna=712.12542 LiveDNA] * [http://www.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/986942 MathSciNet] * [http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3627-2369 ORCID] * [https://search.crossref.org/search/works?q=Fedosin&from_ui=yes Crossref] * [http://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.url?authorId=6506961094 Scopus] * [https://arxiv.org/a/fedosin_s_1.html ArXiv] * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?return_req=no_params&author=Fedosin,%20Sergey%20G.&db_key=PHY ADS] * [https://inspirehep.net/author/profile/Sergey.G.Fedosin.1 inSPIRE] * [https://www.techrxiv.org/users/977313 TechRxiv] * [https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchArg=Fedosin&searchCode=GKEY%5E*&searchType=0&recCount=25&sk=en_US Library of Congress] * [https://catalogue.bl.uk/nde/home?vid=44BL_MAIN:BLL01_NDE British Library] +Fedosin {{multicol-break}} * [http://www.isni.org/000000004698099X ISNI] * [http://viaf.org/viaf/56448904/ VIAF] * [https://www.webofscience.com/wos/author/record/1336126 Web of Science] * [http://elibrary.ru/author_items.asp?authorid=698627 eLIBRARY.ru] * [http://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=4nAcOyYAAAAJ Google Scholar] * [https://jurn.link/#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=Fedosin&gsc.sort= JURN.org] * [https://zenodo.org/search?page=1&size=20&q=Fedosin Zenodo] * [https://www.mendeley.com/search/?page=1&query=Fedosin&sortBy=relevance Mendeley] * [https://www.newsrx.com/Butter/#!Newsletters:MA/article/89b5524a-25dc-11e7-9eb7-0a90b15911ff/VerticalNews/ Newsletters]. Journal of Mathematics. 04/18/2017. * [https://payhip.com/fedosin Payhip] * [https://www.base-search.net/Search/Results?lookfor=Fedosin&name=&oaboost=1&newsearch=1&refid=dcbasen BASE] * [https://www.semanticscholar.org/author/Sergey-G.-Fedosin/100935791 Semantic Scholar] * [https://www.peeref.com/works/list Peeref] +Fedosin * [https://www.sciencegate.app/app/authors Sciencegate.app] +Fedosin * [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=Fedosin&title=Special%3ASearch&go=Go&ns0=1 Wikipedia links] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fedosin/Most_important_results Wikipedia, Most important results] * [https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=Fedosin&title=%D0%A1%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F%3A%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA&go=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B8&ns0=1 ВоĐșĐžĐżĐ”ĐŽĐžŃ, ссылĐșĐž] * [http://sergf.ru/cvfen.htm Curriculum vitae] * [[Special:Emailuser/Fedosin|Email for me]] {{multicol-end}} {{Babel|ru|}} 7vki6hx97b9kezu516uiy3g46qz9v5u Understanding Arithmetic Circuits 0 139384 2841879 2841714 2026-10-21T13:30:49Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2841879 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261021.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261021.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] j10n2rjzzyi32o91sswyj0he3qfykfi Digital Media Concepts 0 213879 2841891 2841734 2026-10-21T16:00:45Z MLResearchEngineer 3112735 Add Andy Chin's page 2841891 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Digital Artists Wiki Project''' Assignment == === Assignment Description === For this assignment, you will write and publish a wiki-style article about a digital artist/technology of your choice on Wikiversity.<ref>https://www.techxlab.org/solutions/wikimedia-foundation-wikiversity</ref> You should begin by finding an article stub that needs to be developed or identifying a potential artist whose work is not featured currently. Remember that you are writing for the Wikiversity community and your article will be judged and graded on Wikipedia publishing standards.<ref>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]]</ref> == Instructions == '''1. Create a user Profile here:'''<br> [[Special:CreateAccount]]<br> User Guidelines can be found here: [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]<br><br> '''2. Choose a Topic'''<br> You may choose any topic related to digital art and technology from any time period. Try to find a topic that's important to you and not already featured on wikipedia. In case you have difficulties finding a topic, please feel free to consult with your instructor.<br> Please note that each student must choose a unique topic. Once you have selected a digital artist, post your artist’s name along with your name under the Spring 2026 header. Please check that no one else has elected to work on the same artists. Example: <pre>* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/YOUR PAGE TITLE]]</pre> for example <pre>* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal]]</pre> produces: * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] 01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] '''3. OR Create your page using the following:''' <inputbox> type=create width=80 preload={{FULLPAGENAME}}/Template editintro= buttonlabel=Create project subpage searchbuttonlabel= break=no prefix={{FULLPAGENAME}}/ placeholder=enter title here </inputbox><br> This template can help get you started: [[Digital_Media_Concepts/Template|Template]] == Links == A wikilink (or internal link) links a page to another page within English Wikipedia. In wikitext, links are enclosed in double square brackets like this: <pre>[[abc]]</pre> is seen as [[abc]] External links use absolute URLs to link directly to any web page. External links are enclosed in single square brackets (rather than double brackets as with internal links), with the optional link text separated from the URL by a space <pre>[http://www.example.org/ link text]</pre> will be rendered as: [http://www.example.org/ link text] When no link text is specified, external links appear numbered: <pre>[http://www.example.org/some-other-page]</pre> becomes: [http://www.example.org/some-other-page] Links with no square brackets display in their entirety <pre>http://www.example.org/</pre> displays as http://www.example.org === Fall 2026 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Mr. Screw News|Mr. Screw News]] ([[User talk:Mr. Screw News|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mr. Screw News|contribs]]) 17:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Peer to Peer Online Education Interactions ]] * [[User:Hadfaiez|Hadfaiez]] ([[User talk:Hadfaiez|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hadfaiez|contribs]]) 04:59, 15 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking]] * [[User:Katelyn Thilak|Katelyn Thilak]] ([[User talk:Katelyn Thilak|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Katelyn Thilak|contribs]]) 08:00, 18 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital_Media_Concepts/Joy_Buolamwini_and_Facial_Analysis_Bias]] * [[User:AndyChin|Andy Chin]] ([[User talk:AndyChin|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AndyChin|contribs]]) [[Digital Media Concepts/Claude Code in Software Development]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2026 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Jaylor22|Jaylor22]] ([[User talk:Jaylor22|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jaylor22|contribs]]) 22:52, 7 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Use of CGI in Motion Picture Film How to Train Your Dragon]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 02:21, 4 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/TikTok and Its Impact on Self-Esteem]] * [[User:Ksafa1|Ksafa1]] ([[User talk:Ksafa1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ksafa1|contribs]]) 05:29, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Rise of Digital Music Therapy Apps and Teen Mental Health]] * [[User:Mina Safa|Mina Safa]] ([[User talk:Mina Safa|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mina Safa|contribs]]) 03:59, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Media Concepts/Algorithmic Mood Feeds]] * [[User:Aarna.Makam|Aarna.Makam]] ([[User talk:Aarna.Makam|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aarna.Makam|contribs]]) 00:08, 31 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Concerts & Hologram-Style Live Events]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 18:27, 29 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/New StudyFetch]] * [[User:Vania Lat|Vania Lat]] ([[User talk:Vania Lat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vania Lat|contribs]]) 20:33, 9 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technological Landscape of Esports]] * [[User:SarahLuber|SarahLuber]] ([[User talk:SarahLuber|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SarahLuber|contribs]]) 20:59, 9 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Notch's history In Games]] * [[User:5heep.doggydog|5heep.doggydog]] ([[User talk:5heep.doggydog|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/5heep.doggydog|contribs]]) 16:43, 13 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Radio Telemetry in Bear Conservation]] * [[User:Qianqian Z|Qianqian Z]] ([[User talk:Qianqian Z|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Qianqian Z|contribs]]) 05:19, 16 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Zhang Yiming and Algorithm-Driven Content Platforms]] * [[User:EZMedina18|EZMedina18]] ([[User talk:EZMedina18|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/EZMedina18|contribs]]) 04:34, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Trackman Golf Launch Monitors]] * [[User:Triajj|Trianna J.]] ([[User talk:Triajj|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Triajj|contribs]]) 23:26, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Marketing Strategies in K-Pop]] * [[User:Qiurick|Qiurick]] ([[User talk:Qiurick|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Qiurick|contribs]]) 20:50, 28 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Simon Collins-Laflamme]] * [[User:SwarG07|SwarG07]] ([[User talk:SwarG07|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SwarG07|contribs]]) 06:01, 30 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Kanye West and the Living Album Concept]] * [[User:Joaquin A Quinonez|Joaquin A Quinonez]] ([[User talk:Joaquin A Quinonez|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Joaquin A Quinonez|contribs]]) 20:25, 30 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Environmental storytelling in Xenoblade Chronicles]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2025 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Yusuf152|Yusuf152] ([[User talk:Yusuf152|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yusuf152|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Social Media Technology and the Arab Spring]] * [[User:Riaz23413|Riaz23413]] ([[User talk:Riaz23413|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Riaz23413|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Midjourney v6]]*[[User:JSDAID|JSDAID]] ([[User talk:JSDAID|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JSDAID|contribs]]) 04:00, 26 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Devine Lu Linvega]] * [[User:SrushDigitalMedia|SrushDigitalMedia]] ([[User talk:SrushDigitalMedia|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SrushDigitalMedia|contribs]]) 00:23, 8 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jessica “Sting” Peterson]] *[[User:Lsingh29|Lsingh29]] ([[User talk:Lsingh29|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lsingh29|contribs]]) 06:47, 19 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Cultural Impact of PokĂ©mon on Youth]] * [[User:Fnabong|Fnabong]] ([[User talk:Fnabong|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Fnabong|contribs]]) 03:19, 24 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Privacy Plan]] * [[User:Sharaf Obaid|Sharaf Obaid]] ([[User talk:Sharaf Obaid|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sharaf Obaid|contribs]]) 16:25, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Impact of AI on Social Media]] * [[User:A.A2711|A.A2711]] ([[User talk:A.A2711|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/A.A2711|contribs]]) 19:15, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Paul Allen's Philanthropic Practices]] * [[User:AdamFlick18|AdamFlick18]] ([[User talk:AdamFlick18|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AdamFlick18|contribs]]) 06:19, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Automated Industrial Robotics Inc. (AIR)]] * [[User:Msingh132|Msingh132]] ([[User talk:Msingh132|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Msingh132|contribs]]) 07:23, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The impact of renewable energy on emerging economies]] * [[User:CleaverCat2|<bdi>CleaverCat2</bdi>]] ([[User talk:CleaverCat2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/CleaverCat2|contribs]]) 06:26, 26 October 2025 (UTC) '''[[Digital Media Concepts/Generative AI on Game Development]]''' * [[User:Wesleyphin|Wesleyphin]] ([[User talk:Wesleyphin|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Wesleyphin|contribs]]) 23:04, 26 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sora 2]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2025 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Gsingh598|Gsingh598]] ([[User talk:Gsingh598|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gsingh598|contribs]]) 18:09, 10 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Refik Anadol: Blending Data and Art Through Machine Learning]] * [[User:Safaiqbal11|Safaiqbal11]] ([[User talk:Safaiqbal11|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Safaiqbal11|contribs]]) 04:58, 17 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Evolution of the iPhone and Its Cultural Impact]] * [[User:Weswu341|Weswu341]] ([[User talk:Weswu341|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Weswu341|contribs]]) 01:27, 19 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Yucef Merhi]] * [[User:Mdelacruz7|Mdelacruz7]] ([[User talk:Mdelacruz7|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mdelacruz7|contribs]]) 02:32, 25 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Technology and its Influence on Romance.]] * [[User:Amojado1|Amojado1]] ([[User talk:Amojado1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Amojado1|contribs]]) 22:09, 28 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Samir Vasavada]] * [[User:TianxinXu0201|TianxinXu0201]] ([[User talk:TianxinXu0201|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/TianxinXu0201|contribs]]) 19:15, 29 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Role of Autopilot in Tesla's Robotaxi Plan]] * [[User:Zsadozai|Zsadozai]] ([[User talk:Zsadozai|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zsadozai|contribs]]) 05:31, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Influence of Live Creators]] * [[User:Dija8719|Dija8719]] ([[User talk:Dija8719|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dija8719|contribs]]) 06:53, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartphones Impact on Communication]] * [[User:Ksak2|Ksak2]] ([[User talk:Ksak2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ksak2|contribs]]) 23:49, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Reflection of the Nintendo Wii on the Nintendo Switch]] * [[User:Nyanoble|Nyanoble]] ([[User talk:Nyanoble|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nyanoble|contribs]]) 00:30, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/ Impact AI has on the job market]] * [[User:Kjchai1|Kjchai1]] ([[User talk:Kjchai1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kjchai1|contribs]]) 04:00, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Alex Karp's impact on the public view of AI]] * [[User:Mpiquero1]] 23:07, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Quantum Computing and Information Security]] * [[User:NoahMacias1|NoahMacias1]] ([[User talk:NoahMacias1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/NoahMacias1|contribs]]) 04:15, 2 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Marvel Rivals vs Overwatch]] * [[User:Cassidyhalen|Cassidyhalen]] ([[User talk:Cassidyhalen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cassidyhalen|contribs]]) 10:28, 5 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Waymo's impact on the economy]] * [[User:Glry2ua|Glry2ua]] ([[User talk:Glry2ua|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Glry2ua|contribs]]) 06:50, 27 May 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Counter-Drone Technologies]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2024 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Dawson Travis|Dawson Travis]] ([[User talk:Dawson Travis|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dawson Travis|contribs]]) 20:03, 2 November 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Bruce Laval]] * [[User:Jillianrae247|Jillianrae247]] ([[User talk:Jillianrae247|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jillianrae247|contribs]]) 06:21, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/David LaRochelle]] * [[User:Jmartin51|Jmartin51]] ([[User talk:Jmartin51|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jmartin51j|contribs]]) 22:46, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Creating Digital Media Concepts/Relationship of GPUs and Bitcoin Mining]] * [[User:Hero1ghj|Hero1ghj]] ([[User talk:Hero1ghj|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hero1ghj|contribs]]) 01:56, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Fortnite Storyline]] * [[User:Catalinajordanvillar|Catalinajordanvillar]] ([[User talk:Catalinajordanvillar|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Catalinajordanvillar|contribs]]) 06:57, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution Of Disney Animation]] * [[User:Daid gem|Daid gem]] ([[User talk:Daid gem|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Daid gem|contribs]]) 22:35, 25 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Webtoon Adaptations]] * [[User:Hillary Cheng|Hillary Cheng]] ([[User talk:Hillary Cheng|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hillary Cheng|contribs]]) 18:37, 15 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lane Centering Technology]] * [[User:Chloecastellana|Chloecastellana]] ([[User talk:Chloecastellana|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Chloecastellana|contribs]]) 23:04, 19 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jack Ma]] * [[User:Durontop7|Durontop7]] ([[User talk:Durontop7|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Durontop7|contribs]]) 02:11, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Getting Over It with Bennett Foddy]] * [[User:Megamatt02001|Megamatt02001]] ([[User talk:Megamatt02001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Megamatt02001|contribs]]) 13:05, 28 October 2024 (UTC) [[Hideo Kojima's Podcast "Brain Structure"]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2024 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 20:28, 22 April 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Can't Help Myself Robot]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 23:24, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Shopping]] * [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 03:44, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI’s Impact on Art]] * [[User:Diegou04|Diegou04]] ([[User talk:Diegou04|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Diegou04|contribs]]) 00:39, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Vision Pro Environmental Considerations ]] * [[User:Omegajame456|Omegajame456]] ([[User talk:Omegajame456|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Omegajame456|contribs]]) 10:40, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smart Roads]] * [[User:Ashlyn45|Ashlyn45]] ([[User talk:Ashlyn45|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ashlyn45|contribs]]) 06:50, 22 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Khan Academy Breakthrough]] * [[User:Myat K.S|Myat K.S]] ([[User talk:Myat K.S|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Myat K.S|contribs]]) 10:10, 7 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/BILL GATES (William Henry Gates III)]] * [[User:Yuyani0915|Yuyani0915]] ([[User talk:Yuyani0915|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yuyani0915|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Gaming Technology]] * [[User:RobbyDAID|RobbyDAID]] ([[User talk:RobbyDAID|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RobbyDAID|contribs]]) 19:23, 19 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lost Cities]] * [[User:Isaiah Guerrero|Isaiah Guerrero]] ([[User talk:Isaiah Guerrero|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Isaiah Guerrero|contribs]]) 04:15, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nano Bots and CO2]] * [[User:Xavierrrrrrr01|Xavierrrrrrr01]] ([[User talk:Xavierrrrrrr01|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Xavierrrrrrr01|contribs]]) 19:20, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Uses of the Raspberry Pi]] * [[User:Luna, D Media|Luna, D Media]] ([[User talk:Luna, D Media|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Luna, D Media|contribs]]) 02:09, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Science S.T.E.M. Influencers]] * [[User:Yueminl|Yueminl]] ([[User talk:Yueminl|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yueminl|contribs]]) 22:39, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Information Cocoons Effect]] * [[User:Tarunya Dharma|Tarunya Dharma]] ([[User talk:Tarunya Dharma|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tarunya Dharma|contribs]]) 01:59, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI Human Clones]] * [[User:GCanilao|GCanilao]] ([[User talk:GCanilao|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/GCanilao|contribs]]) 05:56, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution of "Bits" in Game Graphics]] * [[User:Helldivers.2|Helldivers.2]] ([[User talk:Helldivers.2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Helldivers.2|contribs]]) 17:12, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Helldivers 2 Impact on Gaming Community]] * [[User:Arbalest zy|Arbalest zy]] ([[User talk:Arbalest zy|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Arbalest zy|contribs]]) 03:45, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Proprietary PS Vita memory card]] * [[User:RaymondHuang10|RaymondHuang10]] ([[User talk:RaymondHuang10|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RaymondHuang10|contribs]]) 11:59, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Keshi]] * [[User:Weijian Chen|Weijian Chen]] ([[User talk:Weijian Chen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Weijian Chen|contribs]]) 21:17, 28 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/CPU Evolution]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2023 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 06:23, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Autism (ASD) & Social Media]] * -~--([Digital Media Concepts/Transforming Agriculture: A Case Study on Pakistan|)) * [[User:Garylongington|Garylongington]] ([[User talk:Garylongington|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Garylongington|contribs]]) 21:04, 22 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Slender: The Eight Pages]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 16:06, 6 June 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal Example]] * [[User:Archelone|Archelone]] ([[User talk:Archelone|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Archelone|contribs]]) 01:32, 16 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Representation in Baldur's Gate 3]] * [[User:Gauze0001|Gauze0001]] ([[User talk:Gauze0001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gauze0001|contribs]]) 01:11, 17 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Cameron's World]] * [[User:Owynmlee|Owynmlee]] ([[User talk:Owynmlee|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Owynmlee|contribs]]) 01:11, 18 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Shrinkwrapping]] * [[User:Atnguyen12|Atnguyen12]] ([[User talk:Atnguyen12|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Atnguyen12|contribs]]) 05:54, 21 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wonderlab]] * [[User:BinhNguyenSKMT|BinhNguyenSKMT]] ([[User talk:BinhNguyenSKMT|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/BinhNguyenSKMT|contribs]]) 01:14, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Education with Generative AI]] * [[User:Jonnmac|Jonnmac]] ([[User talk:Jonnmac|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jonnmac|contribs]]) 02:50, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2 Culture]] * [[Digital Media Concepts/Transportation Technologies]] * [[User:Kalvabb|Kalvabb]] ([[User talk:Kalvabb|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/Kalvabb|contribs]]) 10:58, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Writing and Artificial Intelligence]] * [[User:Karan 035|Karan 035]] ([[User talk:Karan 035|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Karan 035|contribs]]) 02:07, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve jobs and his Leadership styles]] * [[User:Elyssamlee|Elyssamlee]] ([[User talk:Elyssamlee|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Elyssamlee|contribs]]) 02:53, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve Lacy]] * [[User:Daniel Lopezzz|Daniel Lopezzz]] ([[User talk:Daniel Lopezzz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Daniel Lopezzz|contribs]]) 23:40, 19 November 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Xbox Technological Advances]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2022 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 19:27, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal 3]] * [[User:Logain.Abd|Logain.Abd]] ([[User talk:Logain.Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Logain.Abd|contribs]]) 16:55, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Prosthetic Body Parts]] * [[User:Ceruleansnake|Ceruleansnake]] ([[User talk:Ceruleansnake|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ceruleansnake|contribs]]) 19:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/ENA (web series)]] * [[User:SPiedyW5|SPiedyW5]] ([[User talk:SPiedyW5|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SPiedyW5|contribs]]) 19:33, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Streaming Platforms]] * [[User:AkhilKandkur|AkhilKandkur]] ([[User talk:AkhilKandkur|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AkhilKandkur|contribs]]) 19:34, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/DVD-Video]] * [[User:Adamgmz|Adamgmz]] ([[User talk:Adamgmz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Adamgmz|contribs]]) 19:47, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Physically Based Rendering]] * [[User:ZhuoL|ZhuoL]] ([[User talk:ZhuoL|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ZhuoL|contribs]]) 20:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Audio Editing]] * [[User:WanderingWalruses|WanderingWalruses]] ([[User talk:WanderingWalruses|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/WanderingWalruses|contribs]]) 20:32, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Youtube Monetization]] * [[User:Anammughal|Anammughal]] ([[User talk:Anammughal|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Anammughal|contribs]]) 20:36, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare]] * [[User:Vlee88|Vlee88]] ([[User talk:Vlee88|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vlee88|contribs]]) 22:16, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wacom/digital tablets]] * [[User:TZrng8|TZrng8]] ([[User talk:TZrng8|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/TZrng8|contribs]]) 20:07, 25 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Reality]] * [[User:Nooshas|Nooshas]] ([[User talk:Nooshas|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nooshas|contribs]]) 04:57, 28 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Eduardo Saverin]] * [[User:Rjoyner1|Rjoyner1]] ([[User talk:Rjoyner1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rjoyner1|contribs]]) 19:26, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Higher Learning Podacast]] * [[User:Yaboiversity|Yaboiversity]] ([[User talk:Yaboiversity|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yaboiversity|contribs]]) 19:36, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ceramic 3D Printers]] * [[User:Ayeitsemmie|Ayeitsemmie]] ([[User talk:Ayeitsemmie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ayeitsemmie|contribs]]) 20:35, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technology Used In “Rick and Morty”]] * [[User:Navveerbhangal|Navveerbhangal]] ([[User talk:Navveerbhangal|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Navveerbhangal|contribs]]) 19:56, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Lex Fridman]] * [[User:Mayapose|Mayapose]] ([[User talk:Mayapose|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mayapose|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hedy Lamarr]] * [[User:Ohlonestudengo12|Ohlonestudengo12]] ([[User talk:Ohlonestudengo12|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ohlonestudengo12|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple AirTag]] * [[User:Aayyaz|Aayyaz]] ([[User talk:Aayyaz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aayyaz|contribs]]) 20:08, 3 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Speech Recognition]] * [[User:Brana1|Brana1]] ([[User talk:Brana1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Brana1|contribs]]) 06:56, 9 March 2022 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sony Playstation]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2021 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Five Nights at Freddy's]] * [[User:Zkeeler1|Zkeeler1]] ([[User talk:Zkeeler1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zkeeler1|contribs]]) 01:28, 22 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The process of Encryption]] * [[User:Ronit Dhir|Ronit Dhir]] ([[User talk:Ronit Dhir|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ronit Dhir|contribs]]) 07:15, 14 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Shantanu Narayen]] * [[User:Joachanz|Joachanz]] ([[User talk:Joachanz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Joachanz|contribs]]) 20:32, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games Gender Discrimination Controversy]] * [[User:SauerPatch|SauerPatch]] ([[User talk:SauerPatch|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SauerPatch|contribs]]) 20:35, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Bitcoin]] * [[User:Vy Trieu|Vy Trieu]] ([[User talk:Vy Trieu|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vy Trieu|contribs]]) 20:47, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Influencer]] * [[User:GEEGOLLYY|GEEGOLLYY]] ([[User talk:GEEGOLLYY|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/GEEGOLLYY|contribs]]) 21:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Valorant]] * [[User:Cheesze|Cheesze]] ([[User talk:Cheesze|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cheesze|contribs]]) 21:10, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Squid Game S1E6: Gganbu]] * [[User:PcPeou1|PcPeou1]] ([[User talk:PcPeou1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PcPeou1|contribs]]) 21:19, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown]] * [[User:Ralph Lagmay|Ralph Lagmay]] ([[User talk:Ralph Lagmay|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ralph Lagmay|contribs]]) 19:24, 3 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Beeple]] * [[User:Nicole Wood|Nicole Wood]] ([[User talk:Nicole Wood|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nicole Wood]]) 23:29, 5 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sam Does Arts]] * [[User:Choopa land|Choopa land]] ([[User talk:Choopa land|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Choopa land|contribs]]) 21:31, 7 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sudha Murty]] * [[User:Alex Walsh|Alex Walsh]] ([[User talk:Alex Walsh|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Alex Walsh|contribs]]) 07:35, 9 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Twitch Hate Raids]] * [[User:Just TMar|Just TMar]] ([[User talk:Just TMar|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Just TMar|contribs]]) 01:54, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Doxing]] * [[User:Ghiyasat|Ghiyasat]] ([[User talk:Ghiyasat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ghiyasat|contribs]]) 17:28, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Polygraph]] * [[User:Snuckles49|Snuckles49]] ([[User talk:Snuckles49|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Snuckles49|contribs]]) 00:43, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/BattlEye Anti-Cheat]] * [[User:Nino02|Nino02]] ([[User talk:Nino02|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nino02|contribs]]) (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Video Streaming Services]] * [[User:Ishadamle|Ishadamle]] ([[User talk:Ishadamle|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ishadamle|contribs]]) 16:56, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Aistė Stancikaitė]] * [[User:Zainab Attarwala|Zainab Attarwala]] ([[User talk:Zainab Attarwala|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zainab Attarwala|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tokyo Medical University for Rejected Woman]] * [[User:Yusef510|Yusef510]] ([[User talk:Yusef510|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yusef510|contribs]]) 21:26, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Women In Esports]] * [[User:SLBriscoe|SLBriscoe]] ([[User talk:SLBriscoe|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SLBriscoe|contribs]]) 21:36, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dark Souls III]] * [[User:Phonemyat238|Phonemyat238]] ([[User talk:Phonemyat238|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Phonemyat238|contribs]]) 23:47, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dota 2 Esport]] * [[User:JBauer4|JBauer4]] ([[User talk:JBauer4|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JBauer4|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New World (game)]] * [[User:Rburnham1740|Rburnham1740]] ([[User talk:Rburnham1740|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rburnham1740|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Call Of Duty: Warzone]] * [[User:HellaCinema|HellaCinema]] ([[User talk:HellaCinema|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/HellaCinema|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New Age Cinema - Film Cinematography]] * [[User:Tiwarisushant|Tiwarisushant]] ([[User talk:Tiwarisushant|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tiwarisushant|contribs]]) 23:58, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI - Uses and Importance]] * [[User:JoseNavarro15|JoseNavarro15]] ([[User talk:JoseNavarro15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JoseNavarro15|contribs]]) 05:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Space X]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2020 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Daniyal.ak27|Daniyal.ak27]] ([[User talk:Daniyal.ak27|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Daniyal.ak27|contribs]]) 21:42, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Neuralink/]] * [[User:Alisonmp|Alisonmp]] ([[User talk:Alisonmp|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Alisonmp|contribs]]) 21:41, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Video Streaming Services/]] * [[Special:Contributions/2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D]] ([[User talk:2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|discuss]]) 21:40, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Metroidvania/]] * [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 03:26, 14 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Zoom Video Communications/]] * [[User:Nidhisgupta|Nidhisgupta]] ([[User talk:Nidhisgupta|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nidhisgupta|contribs]]) 23:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Cyber Crimes/]] * [[User:Melissalop551|Melissalop551]] ([[User talk:Melissalop551|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Melissalop551|contribs]]) 23:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Iphone X (Face ID)/]] * [[User:Navink100|Navink100]] ([[User talk:Navink100|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Navink100|contribs]]) 20:03, 8 October 2020 (UTC) [[/The Evolution of Digital Scouting in the NBA/]] * [[User:Rthawani2|Rthawani2]] ([[User talk:Rthawani2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rthawani2|contribs]]) 22:35, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/LD, 2D, SD, 3D, HD, 4D, 4K, 8K/]] * [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 21:13, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Tesla Inc./]] * [[User:MalakaiCaro|MalakaiCaro]] ([[User talk:MalakaiCaro|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MalakaiCaro|contribs]]) 21:03, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Apple CarPlay/]] * [[User:Jb000ts|Jb000ts]] ([[User talk:Jb000ts|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jb000ts|contribs]]) 20:46, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Porsche Taycan/]] * [[User:Simplyktp|Simplyktp]] ([[User talk:Simplyktp|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Simplyktp|contribs]]) 00:54, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Animal Crossing: New Horizons/]] * [[User:Ankith Reddy Alwa|Ankith Reddy Alwa]] ([[User talk:Ankith Reddy Alwa|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ankith Reddy Alwa|contribs]]) 20:14, 1 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Narayana Murthy/]] * [[User:MoisesMorales04|MoisesMorales04]] ([[User talk:MoisesMorales04|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MoisesMorales04|contribs]]) 23:23, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Adaptive Cruise Control/]] * [[User:Rhummdan|Rhummdan]] ([[User talk:Rhummdan|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rhummdan|contribs]]) 21:45, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/NBA 2K/]] * [[User:Yiyi799|Yiyi799]] ([[User talk:Yiyi799|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yiyi799|contribs]]) 20:36, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Snapchat Lenses/]] * [[User:Oaramirez780|Oaramirez780]] ([[User talk:Oaramirez780|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Oaramirez780|contribs]]) 20:17, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Image Comics/]] * [[User:Coleslamfreckle|Coleslamfreckle]] ([[User talk:Coleslamfreckle|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Coleslamfreckle|contribs]]) 19:36, 23 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Linux Beta/]] * [[User:Shaikhhiba|Shaikhhiba]] ([[User talk:Shaikhhiba|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shaikhhiba|contribs]]) 02:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Cancel Culture/]] * [[User:444juptr|444juptr]] ([[User talk:444juptr|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/444juptr|contribs]]) 20:33, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Otaku Life/]] *[[User:Shruthi2001|Shruthi2001]] ([[User talk:Shruthi2001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shruthi2001|contribs]]) 20:40, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Social Media Effect on Diet/]] * [[User:Vtran50|Vtran50]] ([[User talk:Vtran50|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vtran50|contribs]]) 20:51, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Slander/]] * [[User:JayceeLorenzo|JayceeLorenzo]] ([[User talk:JayceeLorenzo|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JayceeLorenzo|contribs]]) 21:24, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT)/]] * [[User:IowaneNoka|IowaneNoka]] ([[User talk:IowaneNoka|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/IowaneNoka|contribs]]) 03:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call Of Duty:Modern Warfare (2019)/]] * [[User:Kban2001|Kban2001]] ([[User talk:Kban2001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kban2001|contribs]]) 16:11, 12 October 2020 (UTC) [[/ARK: Survival Evolved/]] * [[User:Christiand28|Christiand28]] ([[User talk:Christiand28|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Christiand28|contribs]]) 02:21, 13 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty:Black Ops 2/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2020 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Postmodern Jukebox]] * [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 23:16, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking the Fourth Wall]] * [[User:PlasticOrPapper|PlasticOrPapper]] ([[User talk:PlasticOrPapper|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PlasticOrPapper|contribs]]) 23:14, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege]] * [[User:Miranda Tapioca|Miranda Tapioca]] ([[User talk:Miranda Tapioca|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Miranda Tapioca|contribs]]) 23:04, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Blizzard Entertaiment]] * [[User:Christinuh|Christinuh]] ([[User talk:Christinuh|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Christinuh|contribs]]) 23:07, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking News on Twitter]] * [[User:Emartinez40|Emartinez40]] ([[User talk:Emartinez40|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Emartinez40|contribs]]) 23:09, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Witcher (Game Series)]] * [[User:MarkxG|MarkxG]] ([[User talk:MarkxG|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MarkxG|contribs]]) 23:26, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Reddit]] * [[User:Dmusselwhite1|Dmusselwhite1]] ([[User talk:Dmusselwhite1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmusselwhite1|contribs]]) 23:15, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI]] * [[User:Ericahy|Ericahy]] ([[User talk:Ericahy|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ericahy|contribs]]) 23:17, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Siri]] * [[User:Aphon17|Aphon17]] ([[User talk:Aphon17|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aphon17|contribs]]) 23:23, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Inside (video game)]] * [[User:Mpaing2|Mpaing2]] ([[User talk:Mpaing2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mpaing2|contribs]]) 22:15, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Pencil]] * [[User:TakeCare2021|TakeCare2021]] ([[User talk:TakeCare2021|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/TakeCare2021|contribs]]) 22:52, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Take Care (Album)]] * [[User:DixonCider1331|DixonCider1331]] ([[User talk:DixonCider1331|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DixonCider1331|contribs]]) 22:55, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games]] * [[User:John.rod22|John.rod22]] ([[User talk:John.rod22|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/John.rod22|contribs]]) 23:01, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Grand Theft Auto V]] * [[User:Ankits2001|Ankits2001]] ([[User talk:Ankits2001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ankits2001|contribs]]) 23:06, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPhone 4s (Siri)]] * [[User:MichaelP75075|MichaelP75075]] ([[User talk:MichaelP75075|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MichaelP75075|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Black Mesa]] * [[User:Kfernes1|Kfernes1]] ([[User talk:Kfernes1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kfernes1|contribs]]) 22:38, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Joe Rogan Experience]] * [[Special:Contributions/207.62.190.33|207.62.190.33]] ([[User talk:207.62.190.33|discuss]]) 23:42, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tinder]] * [[User:Atul.mav|Atul.mav]] ([[User talk:Atul.mav|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Atul.mav|contribs]]) 17:48, 7 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ralph Lauren]] * [[User:Namesshaikh|Namesshaikh]] ([[User talk:Namesshaikh|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Namesshaikh|contribs]]) 22:19, 9 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CD Projekt Red]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2019 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:HPatel40|HPatel40]] ([[User talk:HPatel40|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/HPatel40|contribs]]) 19:23, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/5G Technologies]] * [[User:Hpatel42|Hpatel42]] ([[User talk:Hpatel42|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hpatel42|contribs]]) 19:01, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Larry Page]] * [[User:CRichards17|CRichards17]] ([[User talk:CRichards17|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/CRichards17|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/White Supremacy on the Internet]] * [[User:Waterbottle50|Waterbottle50]] ([[User talk:Waterbottle50|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Waterbottle50|contribs]]) 19:55, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Color-blind lens/EnChroma]] * [[User:Mcaya00|Mcaya00]] ([[User talk:Mcaya00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mcaya00|contribs]]) 19:49, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Markus Perrson]] * [[User:Qinyu Chen|Qinyu Chen]] ([[User talk:Qinyu Chen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Qinyu Chen|contribs]]) 19:36, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/teamLab]] * [[User:Soyoboy.exe|Soyboy.exe]] ([[User talk:Soyboy.exe|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Soyboy.exe|contribs]]) 20:04, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch]] * [[User:Yjiang26|Yjiang26]] ([[User talk:Yjiang26|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yjiang26|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Alipay]] * [[User:Lmurffrenninger1|Lmurffrenninger1]] ([[User talk:Lmurffrenninger1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lmurffrenninger1|contribs]]) 19:39, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/MagicBands at Disneyland]] * [[User:Jalvarellos1|Jalvarellos1]] ([[User talk:Jalvarellos1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jalvarellos1|contribs]]) 19:41, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Rocket League]] * [[Adam3318|Adam3318]] ([[User talk:Adam3318|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Adam3318|contribs]]) 19:46, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/3D scanning with drones]] * [[User:SanIam|SanIam]] ([[User talk:SanIam|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SanIam|contribs]]) 19:57, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Legend Of Zelda: Breath of the Wild]] * [[User:Nphan16|Nphan16]] ([[User talk:Nphan16|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nphan16|contribs]]) 20:02, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hannah Alexander]] * [[User:Vluong6|Vluong6]] ([[User talk:Vluong6|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vluong6|contribs]]) 20:24, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Cyberware]] * [[User:Philventi|Philventi]] ([[User talk:Philventi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Philventi|contribs]]) 22:33, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPadOS]] * [[User:Jwendland1|Jwendland1]] ([[User talk:Jwendland1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jwendland1|contribs]]) 19:05, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Infinadeck Omnidirectional Treadmill]] * [[User:Ranle7|Ranle7]] ([[User talk:Ranle7|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ranle7|contribs]]) 19:06, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/osu!]] * [[User:Andrewyamasaki|Andrewyamasaki]] ([[User talk:Andrewyamasaki|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Andrewyamasaki|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Super Smash Bros Ultimate]] * [[User:Samuel3571|Samuel3571]] ([[User talk:Samuel3571|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Samuel3571|contribs]]) 20:35, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Forensic Technology]] * [[User:Lmedina19|Lmedina19]] ([[User talk:Lmedina19|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lmedina19|contribs]]) 20:00, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Hayley Kiyoko]] * [[User:Djh42|Djh42]] ([[User talk:Djh42|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Djh42|contribs]]) 20:25, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch Controller]] * [[User:CharlieDub|CharlieDub]] ([[User talk:CharlieDub|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/CharlieDub|contribs]]) 19:42, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Porsche Ignition]] * [[User:Erick.Flore|Erick.Flore]] ([[User talk:Erick.Flore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Erick.Flore|contribs]]) 20:40, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The video hosting site BitChute]] * [[User:Dbarquin1|Dbarquin1]] ([[User talk:Dbarquin1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dbarquin1|contribs]]) 17:28, 27 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Custom Built Computer]] * [[User:Spcharc|Spcharc]] ([[User talk:Spcharc|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Spcharc|contribs]]) 18:07, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/RSA (cryptosystem)]] * [[User:Krishnan1000|Krishnan1000]] ([[User talk:Krishnan1000|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Krishnan1000|contribs]]) 18:36, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Pokemon Battling]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2019 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Mknight77|Mknight77]] ([[User talk:Mknight77|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mknight77|contribs]]) 22:52, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Mayhem fest]] * [[User:Samirjan0420|Samirjan0420]] ([[User talk:Samirjan0420|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Samirjan0420|contribs]]) 22:05, 21 February 2019 (UTC) [[/The most hated car/]] * [[User:Tobilansangan|Tobilansangan]] ([[User talk:Tobilansangan|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tobilansangan|contribs]]) 23:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy/]] * [[User:alyssamunoz|alyssamunoz]] ([[User talk: alyssamunoz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/alyssamunoz|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Dr.Pepper/]] * [[User:omergreengiant|omergreengiant]] ([[User talk:omergreengiant|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/omergreengiant|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Kabul, Afghanistan/]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:14, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] * [[User:Gum-POP|Gum-POP]] ([[User talk:Gum-POP|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gum-POP|contribs]]) 22:37, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Gaming Desktop VS Gaming Laptop/]] * [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 22:42, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Virtual Self/]] * [[User:Tvo36|Tvo36]] ([[User talk:Tvo36|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tvo36|contribs]]) 23:13, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Markelle Fultz/]] * [[User:iluca|iluca]] ([[User talk:iluca|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/iluca|contribs]]) 23:14, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Nagishiro Mito/]] * [[User:Justinchau|Justinchau]] ([[User talk:Justinchau|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Justinchau|contribs]]) 23:16, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Best Pizza/]] * [[User:Ashwinjambu15|Ashwinjambu15]] ([[User talk:Ashwinjambu15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ashwinjambu15|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Mos Def & Talib Kweli Are Black Star/]] * [[User:Ationgson|Ationgson]] ([[User talk:Ationgson|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ationgson|contribs]]) 23:24, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/2JZ Engine/]] * [[User:Ddimitrov1|Ddimitrov1]] ([[User talk:Ddimitrov1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ddimitrov1|contribs]]) 23:29, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Theatre Of Blood/]] * [[User:Gli15|Gli15]] ([[User talk:Gli15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gli15|contribs]]) 22:12, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Matcha/]] * [[User:Akanijade|Akanijade]] ([[User talk:Akanijade|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Akanijade|contribs]]) 22:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Batik/]] * [[User:BrokenConsole|BrokenConsole]] ([[User talk:BrokenConsole|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/BrokenConsole|contribs]]) 22:46, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Custom Built Gaming Computers/]] * [[User:Lord Arugula|Lord Arugula]] ([[User talk:Lord Arugula|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lord Arugula|contribs]]) 22:47, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Aurelio Voltaire/]] * [[User:Danialmirza99|Danialmirza99]] ([[User talk:Danialmirza99|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Danialmirza99|contribs]]) 22:50, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Spelling Bee (1938)/]] * [[User:Janine8100|Janine8100]] ([[User talk:Janine8100|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Janine8100|contribs]]) 22:52, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Brunei Rainforests/]] * [[User:D_Sh1nra|D_Sh1nra]] ([[User talk:D_Sh1nra|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/D_Sh1nra|contribs]]) 15:07, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Phosphenes/]] * [[User:Jameslacdao|Jameslacdao]] ([[User talk:Jameslacdao|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jameslacdao|contribs]]) 23:34, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Love of my Life (Queen song)/]] * [[User:Janinaengo|Janinaengo]] ([[User talk:Janinaengo|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Janinaengo|contribs]]) 06:04, 20 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Influence of 90s sitcom Friends/]] * [[User:Mdapostol|Mdapostol]] ([[User talk:Mdapostol|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mdapostol|contribs]]) 01:32, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Regions of San Jose, California/]] * [[User:HellBlossoms|HellBlossoms]] ([[User talk:HellBlossoms|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/HellBlossoms|contribs]]) 14:13, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Bill Kaulitz/]] * [[User:Nintenchris5963|Nintenchris5963]] ([[User talk:Nintenchris5963|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nintenchris5963|contribs]]) 22:28, 28 February 2019 (UTC) [[/CrossCode/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2018 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:J3tR0cK3t|J3tR0cK3t]] ([[User talk:J3tR0cK3t|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/J3tR0cK3t|contribs]]) 19:55, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Streets of Rage (Axel Stone)/]] * [[User:William Leber|William Leber]] ([[User talk:William Leber|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/William Leber|contribs]]) 19:56, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Ethoslab/]] * [[User:Vicpimentel99|Vicpimentel99]] ([[User talk:Vicpimentel99|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vicpimentel99|contribs]]) 20:19, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Micah Mahinay/]] * [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 20:21, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Shelter (Song by Porter Robinson & Madeon)/]] * [[User:Ahuq2|Ahuq2]] ([[User talk:Ahuq2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ahuq2|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza (video game series)/]] * [[User:Plam153|Plam153]] ([[User talk:Plam153|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Plam153|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Trinh Cong Son (Vietnamese songwriter)/]] * [[User:DoomFry68|DoomFry68]] ([[User talk:DoomFry68|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DoomFry68|contribs]]) 20:23, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza: Goro Majima/]] * [[User:FizzahKafil|FizzahKafil]] ([[User talk:FizzahKafil|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/FizzahKafil|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Little Big Planet/]] * [[User:Dursa1|Dursa S]] ([[User talk:Dursa1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dursa1|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/r.h. Sin/]] * [[User:ZaroonIqbal|ZaroonIqbal]] ([[User talk:ZaroonIqbal|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ZaroonIqbal|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Fortnite/]] * [[User:Lmascardo1|Lmascardo1]] ([[User talk:Lmascardo1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lmascardo1|contribs]]) 20:31, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Stardew Valley/]] * [[User:Aungthuhtet245|Aungthuhtet245]] ([[User talk:Aungthuhtet245|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aungthuhtet245|contribs]]) 20:32, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Science Behind Pixar/]] * [[User:Whill4|Whill4]] ([[User talk:Whill4|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Whill4|contribs]]) 15:06, 17 September 2018 (UTC) [[ /Mariner's Apartment Complex (Lana Del Rey song)/]] * [[User:WontonsofDMG|WontonsofDMG]] ([[User talk:WontonsofDMG|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/WontonsofDMG|contribs]]) 19:03, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Heroes of the Storm/]] * [[User:PATISBACK9|PATISBACK9]] ([[User talk:PATISBACK9|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PATISBACK9|contribs]]) 19:19, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJ screw/]] * [[User:EnderClevToby|EnderClevToby]] ([[User talk:EnderClevToby|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/EnderClevToby|contribs]]) 12:15, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Matthew Fredrick/]] * [[User:Danny M487|Danny M487]] ([[User talk:Danny M487|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Danny M487|contribs]]) 19:30, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Casey Neistat/]] * [[User:Itsjustkulsoom|Itsjustkulsoom]] ([[User talk:Itsjustkulsoom|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Itsjustkulsoom|contribs]]) 19:31, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Zedd/]] * [[User:Josemazon123|Josemazon123]] ([[User talk:Josemazon123|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Josemazon123|contribs]]) 20:06, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/BROCKHAMPTON/]] * [[User:Ahernandez85|Ahernandez85]] ([[User talk:Ahernandez85|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ahernandez85|contribs]]) 19:17, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Legend Of Zelda: Ocarina of Time/]] * [[User:JackyLu01|JackyLu01]] ([[User talk:JackyLu01|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JackyLu01|contribs]]) 12:30, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Smartisan/]] * [[User:Manohar singh 32|Manohar singh 32]] ([[User talk:Manohar singh 32|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Manohar singh 32|contribs]]) 19:51, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Motion Capture/]] * [[User:Zwo1|Zwo1]] ([[User talk:Zwo1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zwo1|contribs]]) 23:57, 23 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI Mavic 2 Pro/]] * [[User:Hartveit|Hartveit]] ([[User talk:Hartveit|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hartveit|contribs]]) 01:49, 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Hurdal Verk Folk High School/]] * [[User:p_ng_r|p_ng_r]] ([[User talk:p_ng_r|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/p_ng_r|contribs]]) 12:41 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Wenqing Yan/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2018 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] 01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] * [[User:Wompaku|Wompaku]] ([[User talk:Wompaku|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Wompaku|contribs]]) 22:21, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Life is Strange/]] * [[User:Hamitaro|Hamitaro]] ([[User talk:Hamitaro|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hamitaro|contribs]]) 22:22, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Persona 5/]] * [[User:Shayan223|Sean223]] ([[User talk:Shayan223|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shayan223|contribs]]) 22:33, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/David Patrick Crane/]] * [[User:Touch92|Touch92]] ([[User talk:Touch92|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Touch92|contribs]]) 22:29, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/3D Printing/]] * [[User:Peg123|Peg123]] ([[User talk:Peg123|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Peg123|contribs]]) 22:32, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dota 2/]] * [[User:Shadow1942oohwa|Shadow1942oohwa]] ([[User talk:Shadow1942oohwa|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shadow1942oohwa|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dodge Charger Daytona/]] * [[User:Skullallen|Skullallen]] ([[User talk:Skullallen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Skullallen|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI/]] * [[User:Johnbcuong|Johnbcuong]] ([[User talk:Johnbcuong|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Johnbcuong|contribs]]) 22:39, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Nguyen Tu Quang/]] * [[User:W popal1|W popal1]] ([[User talk:W popal1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/W popal1|contribs]]) 22:36, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Lilly Singh/]] * [[User:Sankeerth1017|Sankeerth1017]] ([[User talk:Sankeerth1017|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sankeerth1017|contribs]]) 22:41, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Pewdiepie/]] * [[User:Jpierceall1|Jpierceall1]] ([[User talk:Jpierceall1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jpierceall1|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/The World of FPS/]] *[[User:ShardolBGupta|ShardolBGupta]] ([[User talk:ShardolBGupta|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShardolBGupta|contribs]]) 22:42, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Chevrolet Volt/]] * [[User:JoshM75401|JoshM75401]] ([[User talk:JoshM75401|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JoshM75401|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jack Thompson/]] * [[User:Thaliatorres|Thaliatorres]] ([[User talk:Thaliatorres|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Thaliatorres|contribs]]) 23:04, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Laserphaco Probe/]] * [[User:YuuchyHongroy|YuuchyHongroy]] ([[User talk:YuuchyHongroy|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/YuuchyHongroy|contribs]]) 23:23, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Photoshop/]] * [[User:stzyjpg|stzyjpg]] ([[User talk:stzyjpg|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/stzyjpg|contribs]]) 23:23, 18 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jeff Bezos/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2017 === {{collapse top|Project List}} *[[User:Kbearrr|Kbearrr]] ([[User talk:Kbearrr|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kbearrr|contribs]]) 19:20, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Detriments of the Internet/]] *[[User:Ratalouie|Ratalouie]] ([[User talk:Ratalouie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ratalouie|contribs]]) 19:45, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Overwatch/]] *[[User:Inadversity574|Inadversity574]] ([[User talk:Inadversity574|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Inadversity574|contribs]]) 19:44, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fire Emblem/]] *[[User:Dwingdwang|Dwingdwang]] ([[User talk:Dwingdwang|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dwingdwang|contribs]]) 20:02, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fixed Gear Bikes/]] * [[User:Isaacpacheco12|Isaacpacheco12]] ([[User talk:Isaacpacheco12|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Isaacpacheco12|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Amazon Echo/]] * [[User:Gdonpadlan|Gdonpadlan]] ([[User talk:Gdonpadlan|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gdonpadlan|contribs]]) 20:21, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Nikon D850/]] *[[User:Cdb1015|Cdb1015]] ([[User talk:Cdb1015|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cdb1015|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Visual Effects in Television and Movies/]] * [[User:Sjsanchez|Sjsanchez]] ([[User talk:Sjsanchez|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sjsanchez|contribs]]) 01:11, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Ryan Higa/]] * [[User:Aevans28|Aevans28]] ([[User talk:Aevans28|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aevans28|contribs]]) 03:56, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Patty Jenkins/]] * [[User:Johnlee1234594|Johnlee1234594]] ([[User talk:Johnlee1234594|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Johnlee1234594|contribs]]) 11:17, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tom Hanks/]] * [[User:Michaelellasos|Michaelellasos]] ([[User talk:Michaelellasos|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Michaelellasos|contribs]]) 21:36, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Counter Strike: Global Offensive/]] * [[bilal621]] ([[User talk:bilal621|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/bilal621|contribs]]) 22:03, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2/]] * [[User:Alscylla|Alscylla]] ([[User talk:Alscylla|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Alscylla|contribs]]) 13:11, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Final Fantasy Record Keeper/]] * [[User:Kshadd15|Kshadd15]] ([[User talk:Kshadd15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kshadd15|contribs]]) 10:59, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Artificial Intelligence/]] * [[User:Greentea456|Greentea456]] ([[User talk:Greentea456|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Greentea456|contribs]]) 18:29, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2|Team Fortress 2]] * [[User:Mehraan01|Mehraan01]] ([[User talk:Mehraan01|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mehraan01|contribs]]) 19:43, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tesla, Inc./]] * [[User:Zblazin|Zblazin]] ([[User talk:Zblazin|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zblazin|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Graphics processing unit/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2017 === {{collapse top|Project List}} *[[User:Mattvs1|Mattvs1]] ([[User talk:Mattvs1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mattvs1|contribs]]) 22:56, 7 February 2017 (UTC) [[/No Man's Sky/]] * [[User:Ebondoc98|Ebondoc98]] ([[User talk:Ebondoc98|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ebondoc98|contribs]]) 22:26, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/League of Legends/]] * [[User:Dmendoza1|Dmendoza1]] ([[User talk:Dmendoza1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmendoza1|contribs]]) 22:44, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/The Legend Of Zelda/]] * [[User:Mmmarrufo|Mmmarrufo]] ([[User talk:Mmmarrufo|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mmmarrufo|contribs]]) 22:58, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Gabe Newell/]] * [[User:Jfriedenberg|Jfriedenberg]] ([[User talk:Jfriedenberg|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jfriedenberg|contribs]]) 23:19, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Shinji Mikami/]] * [[User:AKW2017|AKW2017]] ([[User talk:AKW2017|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AKW2017|contribs]]) 23:32, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Wii U/]] * [[User:Wramos1|Wramos1]] ([[User talk:Wramos1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Wramos1|contribs]]) 23:46, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Lasseter/]] * [[User:Yjohar1|Yjohar1]] ([[User talk:Yjohar1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yjohar1|contribs]]) 23:48, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Video Game Aggression/]] * [[User:Dzhang17|Dzhang17]] ([[User talk:Dzhang17|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dzhang17|contribs]]) 23:51, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Fan Bingbing/]] * [[User:Dougalhathaway|Dougalhathaway]] ([[User talk:Dougalhathaway|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dougalhathaway|contribs]]) 00:04, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Rayman/]] * [[User:Mochill|Mochill]] ([[User talk:Mochill|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mochill|contribs]]) 04:05, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Commercial Head-up displays/]] *[[User:Hdo18|Hdo18]] ([[User talk:Hdo18|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hdo18|contribs]]) 18:38, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Cory Arcangel/]] * [[User:GnaF69|GnaF69]] ([[User talk:GnaF69|discuss)]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/GnaF69|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Romero/]] * [[User:Blizz23|Blizz23]] ([[User talk:Blizz23|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Blizz23|contribs]]) 23:45, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Archaeology Robots/]] * [[User:Bchu55|Bchu55]] ([[User talk:Bchu55|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Bchu55|contribs]]) 23:50, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Mark Zuckerberg/]] {{collapse bottom}} '''4. Research your topic'''<br> Look for at least three kinds of sources: # Articles, any published material, interviews, videos and information you can use for your own contributions to the site # Internet sources that can be linked to your page including multimedia content (please make sure that images and other visual materials not restricted by copyright)<br><br> '''5. Add or edit headings such as:''' * Early Life and Education or Biography * Career * Legacy * Personal Life * Exhibitions * Awards and Nominations (if relevant) * Bibliography or Further Reading * History * Software or Hardware * References * External Links For a detailed editing reference, go to: [[Wikiversity:FAQ/Editing|Wikiversity Editing Reference]] <br><br> '''6. Need Images?''' You can find images that are licensed under the Creative Comments license here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page/ Wikimedia Commons]<br><br> Include <nowiki>[[Category:Digital Media Concepts]]</nowiki> at the bottom of the page to move the page into the assignment category. == Citations == APA style <ref>"Name of Article," accessed March 11, 2015, http://www.someURL.com.</ref> Chicago Style: <ref>Name of Article (for a source that does not list a copyright date, you use (n.d.) ). Retrieved October 15, 2015, from  http://www.someURL.com</ref> == Example of an annotated image == [[File:Great Wall of China in 2014.jpg|thumb|Great Wall of China in 2014]] <br style="clear: both;"> == Example of an [[Template:Infobox|infobox]] == {{Infobox |name = Wafaa Bilal |image = [[File:Wafaa-bilal2.JPG|thumb]] |title = Artist Wafaa Bilal |headerstyle = background:#ccf; |labelstyle = background:#ddf; |label1 = |data1 = Wafaa Bilal reading at Lannan Center for Poetics and Social Practice, Georgetown University |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one| Iraqi American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|June 10, 1966}}} |label4 = Field of Research |data4 = {{{item_three|[[Video]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[New Media]]}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Najaf, Iraq}}} |label6 = Autor |data6 = {{{item_Five|Slowking4}}} }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> {{Infobox | name = Digital Media Concepts | bodystyle = | titlestyle = | abovestyle = background:#cfc; | subheaderstyle = | title = Test Infobox | above = Above text | subheader = Subheader above image | subheader2 = Second subheader | imagestyle = | captionstyle = | image = [[File:Example-serious.jpg|200px|alt=Example alt text]] | caption = Caption displayed below Example-serious.jpg | headerstyle = background:#ccf; | labelstyle = background:#ddf; | datastyle = | header1 = Header defined alone | label1 = | data1 = | header2 = | label2 = Label defined alone does not display (needs data, or is suppressed) | data2 = | header3 = | label3 = | data3 = Data defined alone | header4 = All three defined (header, label, data, all with same number) | label4 = does not display (same number as a header) | data4 = does not display (same number as a header) | header5 = | label5 = Label and data defined (label) | data5 = Label and data defined (data) | belowstyle = background:#ddf; | below = Below text }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Navigational Templates== [[:w:Wikipedia:Navigation template|Navigation Template on Wikipedia]] == Media Templates == {{Listen | filename = Lion raring-sound1TamilNadu178.ogg | title = Lion roaring | plain = yes | style = float:left }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> == Useful links == * [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|Quick Reference]] * [[:w:Wikipedia:Tutorial/Wikipedia_links|Wikipedia Tutorial]] * [http://www.wikihow.com/Cite How to cite on Wikipedia] * [[:w:Help:Link|Using external links]] == Completed Assignments == {{Subpages/List}} ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Art]] [[Category:Culture]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Assignments]] [[Category:Digital art]] [[Category:Courses]] [[Category:Education]] ir7tgzuc6t2ly2d2oblk7d4x789w00u 2841892 2841891 2026-10-21T16:01:36Z MLResearchEngineer 3112735 /* Fall 2026 */ 2841892 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Digital Artists Wiki Project''' Assignment == === Assignment Description === For this assignment, you will write and publish a wiki-style article about a digital artist/technology of your choice on Wikiversity.<ref>https://www.techxlab.org/solutions/wikimedia-foundation-wikiversity</ref> You should begin by finding an article stub that needs to be developed or identifying a potential artist whose work is not featured currently. Remember that you are writing for the Wikiversity community and your article will be judged and graded on Wikipedia publishing standards.<ref>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]]</ref> == Instructions == '''1. Create a user Profile here:'''<br> [[Special:CreateAccount]]<br> User Guidelines can be found here: [[Wikiversity:Introduction]]<br><br> '''2. Choose a Topic'''<br> You may choose any topic related to digital art and technology from any time period. Try to find a topic that's important to you and not already featured on wikipedia. In case you have difficulties finding a topic, please feel free to consult with your instructor.<br> Please note that each student must choose a unique topic. Once you have selected a digital artist, post your artist’s name along with your name under the Spring 2026 header. Please check that no one else has elected to work on the same artists. Example: <pre>* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/YOUR PAGE TITLE]]</pre> for example <pre>* ~~~~[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal]]</pre> produces: * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] 01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] '''3. OR Create your page using the following:''' <inputbox> type=create width=80 preload={{FULLPAGENAME}}/Template editintro= buttonlabel=Create project subpage searchbuttonlabel= break=no prefix={{FULLPAGENAME}}/ placeholder=enter title here </inputbox><br> This template can help get you started: [[Digital_Media_Concepts/Template|Template]] == Links == A wikilink (or internal link) links a page to another page within English Wikipedia. In wikitext, links are enclosed in double square brackets like this: <pre>[[abc]]</pre> is seen as [[abc]] External links use absolute URLs to link directly to any web page. External links are enclosed in single square brackets (rather than double brackets as with internal links), with the optional link text separated from the URL by a space <pre>[http://www.example.org/ link text]</pre> will be rendered as: [http://www.example.org/ link text] When no link text is specified, external links appear numbered: <pre>[http://www.example.org/some-other-page]</pre> becomes: [http://www.example.org/some-other-page] Links with no square brackets display in their entirety <pre>http://www.example.org/</pre> displays as http://www.example.org === Fall 2026 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Mr. Screw News|Mr. Screw News]] ([[User talk:Mr. Screw News|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mr. Screw News|contribs]]) 17:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Peer to Peer Online Education Interactions ]] * [[User:Hadfaiez|Hadfaiez]] ([[User talk:Hadfaiez|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hadfaiez|contribs]]) 04:59, 15 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartwatch Technology for Health Monitoring and Fitness Tracking]] * [[User:Katelyn Thilak|Katelyn Thilak]] ([[User talk:Katelyn Thilak|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Katelyn Thilak|contribs]]) 08:00, 18 October 2026 (UTC)[[Digital_Media_Concepts/Joy_Buolamwini_and_Facial_Analysis_Bias]] * [[User:MLResearchEngineer|Andy Chin]] ([[User talk:AndyChin|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AndyChin|contribs]]) [[Digital Media Concepts/Claude Code in Software Development]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2026 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Jaylor22|Jaylor22]] ([[User talk:Jaylor22|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jaylor22|contribs]]) 22:52, 7 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Use of CGI in Motion Picture Film How to Train Your Dragon]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 02:21, 4 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/TikTok and Its Impact on Self-Esteem]] * [[User:Ksafa1|Ksafa1]] ([[User talk:Ksafa1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ksafa1|contribs]]) 05:29, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Rise of Digital Music Therapy Apps and Teen Mental Health]] * [[User:Mina Safa|Mina Safa]] ([[User talk:Mina Safa|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mina Safa|contribs]]) 03:59, 1 April 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Media Concepts/Algorithmic Mood Feeds]] * [[User:Aarna.Makam|Aarna.Makam]] ([[User talk:Aarna.Makam|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aarna.Makam|contribs]]) 00:08, 31 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Concerts & Hologram-Style Live Events]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 18:27, 29 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/New StudyFetch]] * [[User:Vania Lat|Vania Lat]] ([[User talk:Vania Lat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vania Lat|contribs]]) 20:33, 9 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technological Landscape of Esports]] * [[User:SarahLuber|SarahLuber]] ([[User talk:SarahLuber|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SarahLuber|contribs]]) 20:59, 9 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Notch's history In Games]] * [[User:5heep.doggydog|5heep.doggydog]] ([[User talk:5heep.doggydog|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/5heep.doggydog|contribs]]) 16:43, 13 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Radio Telemetry in Bear Conservation]] * [[User:Qianqian Z|Qianqian Z]] ([[User talk:Qianqian Z|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Qianqian Z|contribs]]) 05:19, 16 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Zhang Yiming and Algorithm-Driven Content Platforms]] * [[User:EZMedina18|EZMedina18]] ([[User talk:EZMedina18|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/EZMedina18|contribs]]) 04:34, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Trackman Golf Launch Monitors]] * [[User:Triajj|Trianna J.]] ([[User talk:Triajj|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Triajj|contribs]]) 23:26, 27 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Digital Marketing Strategies in K-Pop]] * [[User:Qiurick|Qiurick]] ([[User talk:Qiurick|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Qiurick|contribs]]) 20:50, 28 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Simon Collins-Laflamme]] * [[User:SwarG07|SwarG07]] ([[User talk:SwarG07|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SwarG07|contribs]]) 06:01, 30 March 2026 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Kanye West and the Living Album Concept]] * [[User:Joaquin A Quinonez|Joaquin A Quinonez]] ([[User talk:Joaquin A Quinonez|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Joaquin A Quinonez|contribs]]) 20:25, 30 March 2026 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Environmental storytelling in Xenoblade Chronicles]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2025 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Yusuf152|Yusuf152] ([[User talk:Yusuf152|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yusuf152|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Social Media Technology and the Arab Spring]] * [[User:Riaz23413|Riaz23413]] ([[User talk:Riaz23413|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Riaz23413|contribs]]) 06:42, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Midjourney v6]]*[[User:JSDAID|JSDAID]] ([[User talk:JSDAID|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JSDAID|contribs]]) 04:00, 26 October 2025 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Devine Lu Linvega]] * [[User:SrushDigitalMedia|SrushDigitalMedia]] ([[User talk:SrushDigitalMedia|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SrushDigitalMedia|contribs]]) 00:23, 8 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jessica “Sting” Peterson]] *[[User:Lsingh29|Lsingh29]] ([[User talk:Lsingh29|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lsingh29|contribs]]) 06:47, 19 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Cultural Impact of PokĂ©mon on Youth]] * [[User:Fnabong|Fnabong]] ([[User talk:Fnabong|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Fnabong|contribs]]) 03:19, 24 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Privacy Plan]] * [[User:Sharaf Obaid|Sharaf Obaid]] ([[User talk:Sharaf Obaid|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sharaf Obaid|contribs]]) 16:25, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Impact of AI on Social Media]] * [[User:A.A2711|A.A2711]] ([[User talk:A.A2711|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/A.A2711|contribs]]) 19:15, 25 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Paul Allen's Philanthropic Practices]] * [[User:AdamFlick18|AdamFlick18]] ([[User talk:AdamFlick18|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AdamFlick18|contribs]]) 06:19, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Automated Industrial Robotics Inc. (AIR)]] * [[User:Msingh132|Msingh132]] ([[User talk:Msingh132|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Msingh132|contribs]]) 07:23, 27 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The impact of renewable energy on emerging economies]] * [[User:CleaverCat2|<bdi>CleaverCat2</bdi>]] ([[User talk:CleaverCat2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/CleaverCat2|contribs]]) 06:26, 26 October 2025 (UTC) '''[[Digital Media Concepts/Generative AI on Game Development]]''' * [[User:Wesleyphin|Wesleyphin]] ([[User talk:Wesleyphin|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Wesleyphin|contribs]]) 23:04, 26 October 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sora 2]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2025 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Gsingh598|Gsingh598]] ([[User talk:Gsingh598|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gsingh598|contribs]]) 18:09, 10 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Refik Anadol: Blending Data and Art Through Machine Learning]] * [[User:Safaiqbal11|Safaiqbal11]] ([[User talk:Safaiqbal11|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Safaiqbal11|contribs]]) 04:58, 17 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Evolution of the iPhone and Its Cultural Impact]] * [[User:Weswu341|Weswu341]] ([[User talk:Weswu341|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Weswu341|contribs]]) 01:27, 19 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Yucef Merhi]] * [[User:Mdelacruz7|Mdelacruz7]] ([[User talk:Mdelacruz7|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mdelacruz7|contribs]]) 02:32, 25 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Technology and its Influence on Romance.]] * [[User:Amojado1|Amojado1]] ([[User talk:Amojado1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Amojado1|contribs]]) 22:09, 28 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Samir Vasavada]] * [[User:TianxinXu0201|TianxinXu0201]] ([[User talk:TianxinXu0201|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/TianxinXu0201|contribs]]) 19:15, 29 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Role of Autopilot in Tesla's Robotaxi Plan]] * [[User:Zsadozai|Zsadozai]] ([[User talk:Zsadozai|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zsadozai|contribs]]) 05:31, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Influence of Live Creators]] * [[User:Dija8719|Dija8719]] ([[User talk:Dija8719|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dija8719|contribs]]) 06:53, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smartphones Impact on Communication]] * [[User:Ksak2|Ksak2]] ([[User talk:Ksak2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ksak2|contribs]]) 23:49, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Reflection of the Nintendo Wii on the Nintendo Switch]] * [[User:Nyanoble|Nyanoble]] ([[User talk:Nyanoble|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nyanoble|contribs]]) 00:30, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/ Impact AI has on the job market]] * [[User:Kjchai1|Kjchai1]] ([[User talk:Kjchai1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kjchai1|contribs]]) 04:00, 31 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Alex Karp's impact on the public view of AI]] * [[User:Mpiquero1]] 23:07, 30 March 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Quantum Computing and Information Security]] * [[User:NoahMacias1|NoahMacias1]] ([[User talk:NoahMacias1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/NoahMacias1|contribs]]) 04:15, 2 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Marvel Rivals vs Overwatch]] * [[User:Cassidyhalen|Cassidyhalen]] ([[User talk:Cassidyhalen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cassidyhalen|contribs]]) 10:28, 5 April 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Waymo's impact on the economy]] * [[User:Glry2ua|Glry2ua]] ([[User talk:Glry2ua|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Glry2ua|contribs]]) 06:50, 27 May 2025 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Counter-Drone Technologies]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2024 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Dawson Travis|Dawson Travis]] ([[User talk:Dawson Travis|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dawson Travis|contribs]]) 20:03, 2 November 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Bruce Laval]] * [[User:Jillianrae247|Jillianrae247]] ([[User talk:Jillianrae247|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jillianrae247|contribs]]) 06:21, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/David LaRochelle]] * [[User:Jmartin51|Jmartin51]] ([[User talk:Jmartin51|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jmartin51j|contribs]]) 22:46, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Creating Digital Media Concepts/Relationship of GPUs and Bitcoin Mining]] * [[User:Hero1ghj|Hero1ghj]] ([[User talk:Hero1ghj|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hero1ghj|contribs]]) 01:56, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The Fortnite Storyline]] * [[User:Catalinajordanvillar|Catalinajordanvillar]] ([[User talk:Catalinajordanvillar|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Catalinajordanvillar|contribs]]) 06:57, 27 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution Of Disney Animation]] * [[User:Daid gem|Daid gem]] ([[User talk:Daid gem|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Daid gem|contribs]]) 22:35, 25 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Webtoon Adaptations]] * [[User:Hillary Cheng|Hillary Cheng]] ([[User talk:Hillary Cheng|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hillary Cheng|contribs]]) 18:37, 15 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lane Centering Technology]] * [[User:Chloecastellana|Chloecastellana]] ([[User talk:Chloecastellana|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Chloecastellana|contribs]]) 23:04, 19 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Jack Ma]] * [[User:Durontop7|Durontop7]] ([[User talk:Durontop7|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Durontop7|contribs]]) 02:11, 28 October 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Getting Over It with Bennett Foddy]] * [[User:Megamatt02001|Megamatt02001]] ([[User talk:Megamatt02001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Megamatt02001|contribs]]) 13:05, 28 October 2024 (UTC) [[Hideo Kojima's Podcast "Brain Structure"]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2024 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 20:28, 22 April 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Can't Help Myself Robot]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 23:24, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Online Shopping]] * [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 03:44, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI’s Impact on Art]] * [[User:Diegou04|Diegou04]] ([[User talk:Diegou04|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Diegou04|contribs]]) 00:39, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Vision Pro Environmental Considerations ]] * [[User:Omegajame456|Omegajame456]] ([[User talk:Omegajame456|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Omegajame456|contribs]]) 10:40, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Smart Roads]] * [[User:Ashlyn45|Ashlyn45]] ([[User talk:Ashlyn45|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ashlyn45|contribs]]) 06:50, 22 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Khan Academy Breakthrough]] * [[User:Myat K.S|Myat K.S]] ([[User talk:Myat K.S|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Myat K.S|contribs]]) 10:10, 7 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/BILL GATES (William Henry Gates III)]] * [[User:Yuyani0915|Yuyani0915]] ([[User talk:Yuyani0915|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yuyani0915|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Gaming Technology]] * [[User:RobbyDAID|RobbyDAID]] ([[User talk:RobbyDAID|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RobbyDAID|contribs]]) 19:23, 19 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Lost Cities]] * [[User:Isaiah Guerrero|Isaiah Guerrero]] ([[User talk:Isaiah Guerrero|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Isaiah Guerrero|contribs]]) 04:15, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nano Bots and CO2]] * [[User:Xavierrrrrrr01|Xavierrrrrrr01]] ([[User talk:Xavierrrrrrr01|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Xavierrrrrrr01|contribs]]) 19:20, 20 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Uses of the Raspberry Pi]] * [[User:Luna, D Media|Luna, D Media]] ([[User talk:Luna, D Media|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Luna, D Media|contribs]]) 02:09, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Science S.T.E.M. Influencers]] * [[User:Yueminl|Yueminl]] ([[User talk:Yueminl|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yueminl|contribs]]) 22:39, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Information Cocoons Effect]] * [[User:Tarunya Dharma|Tarunya Dharma]] ([[User talk:Tarunya Dharma|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tarunya Dharma|contribs]]) 01:59, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/AI Human Clones]] * [[User:GCanilao|GCanilao]] ([[User talk:GCanilao|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/GCanilao|contribs]]) 05:56, 24 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Evolution of "Bits" in Game Graphics]] * [[User:Helldivers.2|Helldivers.2]] ([[User talk:Helldivers.2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Helldivers.2|contribs]]) 17:12, 23 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Helldivers 2 Impact on Gaming Community]] * [[User:Arbalest zy|Arbalest zy]] ([[User talk:Arbalest zy|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Arbalest zy|contribs]]) 03:45, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Proprietary PS Vita memory card]] * [[User:RaymondHuang10|RaymondHuang10]] ([[User talk:RaymondHuang10|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/RaymondHuang10|contribs]]) 11:59, 25 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Keshi]] * [[User:Weijian Chen|Weijian Chen]] ([[User talk:Weijian Chen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Weijian Chen|contribs]]) 21:17, 28 March 2024 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/CPU Evolution]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2023 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Homero021004|Homero021004]] ([[User talk:Homero021004|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Homero021004|contribs]]) 06:23, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Autism (ASD) & Social Media]] * -~--([Digital Media Concepts/Transforming Agriculture: A Case Study on Pakistan|)) * [[User:Garylongington|Garylongington]] ([[User talk:Garylongington|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Garylongington|contribs]]) 21:04, 22 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Slender: The Eight Pages]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 16:06, 6 June 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal Example]] * [[User:Archelone|Archelone]] ([[User talk:Archelone|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Archelone|contribs]]) 01:32, 16 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Representation in Baldur's Gate 3]] * [[User:Gauze0001|Gauze0001]] ([[User talk:Gauze0001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gauze0001|contribs]]) 01:11, 17 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Cameron's World]] * [[User:Owynmlee|Owynmlee]] ([[User talk:Owynmlee|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Owynmlee|contribs]]) 01:11, 18 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Shrinkwrapping]] * [[User:Atnguyen12|Atnguyen12]] ([[User talk:Atnguyen12|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Atnguyen12|contribs]]) 05:54, 21 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Wonderlab]] * [[User:BinhNguyenSKMT|BinhNguyenSKMT]] ([[User talk:BinhNguyenSKMT|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/BinhNguyenSKMT|contribs]]) 01:14, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Education with Generative AI]] * [[User:Jonnmac|Jonnmac]] ([[User talk:Jonnmac|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jonnmac|contribs]]) 02:50, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2 Culture]] * [[Digital Media Concepts/Transportation Technologies]] * [[User:Kalvabb|Kalvabb]] ([[User talk:Kalvabb|discuss]] * [[Special:Contributions/Kalvabb|contribs]]) 10:58, 22 October 2023 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Writing and Artificial Intelligence]] * [[User:Karan 035|Karan 035]] ([[User talk:Karan 035|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Karan 035|contribs]]) 02:07, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve jobs and his Leadership styles]] * [[User:Elyssamlee|Elyssamlee]] ([[User talk:Elyssamlee|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Elyssamlee|contribs]]) 02:53, 23 October 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Steve Lacy]] * [[User:Daniel Lopezzz|Daniel Lopezzz]] ([[User talk:Daniel Lopezzz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Daniel Lopezzz|contribs]]) 23:40, 19 November 2023 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Xbox Technological Advances]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2022 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 19:27, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wafaa Bilal 3]] * [[User:Logain.Abd|Logain.Abd]] ([[User talk:Logain.Abd|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Logain.Abd|contribs]]) 16:55, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Prosthetic Body Parts]] * [[User:Ceruleansnake|Ceruleansnake]] ([[User talk:Ceruleansnake|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ceruleansnake|contribs]]) 19:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/ENA (web series)]] * [[User:SPiedyW5|SPiedyW5]] ([[User talk:SPiedyW5|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SPiedyW5|contribs]]) 19:33, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Streaming Platforms]] * [[User:AkhilKandkur|AkhilKandkur]] ([[User talk:AkhilKandkur|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AkhilKandkur|contribs]]) 19:34, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/DVD-Video]] * [[User:Adamgmz|Adamgmz]] ([[User talk:Adamgmz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Adamgmz|contribs]]) 19:47, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Physically Based Rendering]] * [[User:ZhuoL|ZhuoL]] ([[User talk:ZhuoL|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ZhuoL|contribs]]) 20:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Audio Editing]] * [[User:WanderingWalruses|WanderingWalruses]] ([[User talk:WanderingWalruses|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/WanderingWalruses|contribs]]) 20:32, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Youtube Monetization]] * [[User:Anammughal|Anammughal]] ([[User talk:Anammughal|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Anammughal|contribs]]) 20:36, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare]] * [[User:Vlee88|Vlee88]] ([[User talk:Vlee88|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vlee88|contribs]]) 22:16, 24 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Wacom/digital tablets]] * [[User:TZrng8|TZrng8]] ([[User talk:TZrng8|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/TZrng8|contribs]]) 20:07, 25 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Reality]] * [[User:Nooshas|Nooshas]] ([[User talk:Nooshas|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nooshas|contribs]]) 04:57, 28 February 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Eduardo Saverin]] * [[User:Rjoyner1|Rjoyner1]] ([[User talk:Rjoyner1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rjoyner1|contribs]]) 19:26, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Higher Learning Podacast]] * [[User:Yaboiversity|Yaboiversity]] ([[User talk:Yaboiversity|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yaboiversity|contribs]]) 19:36, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ceramic 3D Printers]] * [[User:Ayeitsemmie|Ayeitsemmie]] ([[User talk:Ayeitsemmie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ayeitsemmie|contribs]]) 20:35, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Technology Used In “Rick and Morty”]] * [[User:Navveerbhangal|Navveerbhangal]] ([[User talk:Navveerbhangal|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Navveerbhangal|contribs]]) 19:56, 1 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Lex Fridman]] * [[User:Mayapose|Mayapose]] ([[User talk:Mayapose|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mayapose|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hedy Lamarr]] * [[User:Ohlonestudengo12|Ohlonestudengo12]] ([[User talk:Ohlonestudengo12|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ohlonestudengo12|contribs]]) 00:23, 2 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple AirTag]] * [[User:Aayyaz|Aayyaz]] ([[User talk:Aayyaz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aayyaz|contribs]]) 20:08, 3 March 2022 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Speech Recognition]] * [[User:Brana1|Brana1]] ([[User talk:Brana1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Brana1|contribs]]) 06:56, 9 March 2022 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Sony Playstation]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2021 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Five Nights at Freddy's]] * [[User:Zkeeler1|Zkeeler1]] ([[User talk:Zkeeler1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zkeeler1|contribs]]) 01:28, 22 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The process of Encryption]] * [[User:Ronit Dhir|Ronit Dhir]] ([[User talk:Ronit Dhir|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ronit Dhir|contribs]]) 07:15, 14 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Shantanu Narayen]] * [[User:Joachanz|Joachanz]] ([[User talk:Joachanz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Joachanz|contribs]]) 20:32, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games Gender Discrimination Controversy]] * [[User:SauerPatch|SauerPatch]] ([[User talk:SauerPatch|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SauerPatch|contribs]]) 20:35, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Bitcoin]] * [[User:Vy Trieu|Vy Trieu]] ([[User talk:Vy Trieu|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vy Trieu|contribs]]) 20:47, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Virtual Influencer]] * [[User:GEEGOLLYY|GEEGOLLYY]] ([[User talk:GEEGOLLYY|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/GEEGOLLYY|contribs]]) 21:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Valorant]] * [[User:Cheesze|Cheesze]] ([[User talk:Cheesze|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cheesze|contribs]]) 21:10, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Squid Game S1E6: Gganbu]] * [[User:PcPeou1|PcPeou1]] ([[User talk:PcPeou1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PcPeou1|contribs]]) 21:19, 28 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown]] * [[User:Ralph Lagmay|Ralph Lagmay]] ([[User talk:Ralph Lagmay|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ralph Lagmay|contribs]]) 19:24, 3 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Beeple]] * [[User:Nicole Wood|Nicole Wood]] ([[User talk:Nicole Wood|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nicole Wood]]) 23:29, 5 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sam Does Arts]] * [[User:Choopa land|Choopa land]] ([[User talk:Choopa land|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Choopa land|contribs]]) 21:31, 7 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Sudha Murty]] * [[User:Alex Walsh|Alex Walsh]] ([[User talk:Alex Walsh|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Alex Walsh|contribs]]) 07:35, 9 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Twitch Hate Raids]] * [[User:Just TMar|Just TMar]] ([[User talk:Just TMar|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Just TMar|contribs]]) 01:54, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Doxing]] * [[User:Ghiyasat|Ghiyasat]] ([[User talk:Ghiyasat|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ghiyasat|contribs]]) 17:28, 11 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Polygraph]] * [[User:Snuckles49|Snuckles49]] ([[User talk:Snuckles49|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Snuckles49|contribs]]) 00:43, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/BattlEye Anti-Cheat]] * [[User:Nino02|Nino02]] ([[User talk:Nino02|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nino02|contribs]]) (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Video Streaming Services]] * [[User:Ishadamle|Ishadamle]] ([[User talk:Ishadamle|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ishadamle|contribs]]) 16:56, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Aistė Stancikaitė]] * [[User:Zainab Attarwala|Zainab Attarwala]] ([[User talk:Zainab Attarwala|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zainab Attarwala|contribs]]) 22:37, 21 September 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tokyo Medical University for Rejected Woman]] * [[User:Yusef510|Yusef510]] ([[User talk:Yusef510|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yusef510|contribs]]) 21:26, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Women In Esports]] * [[User:SLBriscoe|SLBriscoe]] ([[User talk:SLBriscoe|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SLBriscoe|contribs]]) 21:36, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dark Souls III]] * [[User:Phonemyat238|Phonemyat238]] ([[User talk:Phonemyat238|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Phonemyat238|contribs]]) 23:47, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Dota 2 Esport]] * [[User:JBauer4|JBauer4]] ([[User talk:JBauer4|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JBauer4|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New World (game)]] * [[User:Rburnham1740|Rburnham1740]] ([[User talk:Rburnham1740|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rburnham1740|contribs]]) 23:57, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Call Of Duty: Warzone]] * [[User:HellaCinema|HellaCinema]] ([[User talk:HellaCinema|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/HellaCinema|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/New Age Cinema - Film Cinematography]] * [[User:Tiwarisushant|Tiwarisushant]] ([[User talk:Tiwarisushant|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tiwarisushant|contribs]]) 23:58, 12 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI - Uses and Importance]] * [[User:JoseNavarro15|JoseNavarro15]] ([[User talk:JoseNavarro15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JoseNavarro15|contribs]]) 05:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Space X]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2020 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Daniyal.ak27|Daniyal.ak27]] ([[User talk:Daniyal.ak27|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Daniyal.ak27|contribs]]) 21:42, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Neuralink/]] * [[User:Alisonmp|Alisonmp]] ([[User talk:Alisonmp|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Alisonmp|contribs]]) 21:41, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Video Streaming Services/]] * [[Special:Contributions/2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D]] ([[User talk:2601:641:400:4F00:39DF:F97A:724A:496D|discuss]]) 21:40, 15 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Metroidvania/]] * [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 03:26, 14 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Zoom Video Communications/]] * [[User:Nidhisgupta|Nidhisgupta]] ([[User talk:Nidhisgupta|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nidhisgupta|contribs]]) 23:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Cyber Crimes/]] * [[User:Melissalop551|Melissalop551]] ([[User talk:Melissalop551|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Melissalop551|contribs]]) 23:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Iphone X (Face ID)/]] * [[User:Navink100|Navink100]] ([[User talk:Navink100|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Navink100|contribs]]) 20:03, 8 October 2020 (UTC) [[/The Evolution of Digital Scouting in the NBA/]] * [[User:Rthawani2|Rthawani2]] ([[User talk:Rthawani2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rthawani2|contribs]]) 22:35, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/LD, 2D, SD, 3D, HD, 4D, 4K, 8K/]] * [[User:Bandz21811|Bandz21811]] ([[User talk:Bandz21811|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Bandz21811|contribs]]) 21:13, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Tesla Inc./]] * [[User:MalakaiCaro|MalakaiCaro]] ([[User talk:MalakaiCaro|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MalakaiCaro|contribs]]) 21:03, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Apple CarPlay/]] * [[User:Jb000ts|Jb000ts]] ([[User talk:Jb000ts|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jb000ts|contribs]]) 20:46, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Porsche Taycan/]] * [[User:Simplyktp|Simplyktp]] ([[User talk:Simplyktp|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Simplyktp|contribs]]) 00:54, 6 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Animal Crossing: New Horizons/]] * [[User:Ankith Reddy Alwa|Ankith Reddy Alwa]] ([[User talk:Ankith Reddy Alwa|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ankith Reddy Alwa|contribs]]) 20:14, 1 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Narayana Murthy/]] * [[User:MoisesMorales04|MoisesMorales04]] ([[User talk:MoisesMorales04|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MoisesMorales04|contribs]]) 23:23, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Adaptive Cruise Control/]] * [[User:Rhummdan|Rhummdan]] ([[User talk:Rhummdan|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Rhummdan|contribs]]) 21:45, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/NBA 2K/]] * [[User:Yiyi799|Yiyi799]] ([[User talk:Yiyi799|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yiyi799|contribs]]) 20:36, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Snapchat Lenses/]] * [[User:Oaramirez780|Oaramirez780]] ([[User talk:Oaramirez780|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Oaramirez780|contribs]]) 20:17, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Image Comics/]] * [[User:Coleslamfreckle|Coleslamfreckle]] ([[User talk:Coleslamfreckle|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Coleslamfreckle|contribs]]) 19:36, 23 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Linux Beta/]] * [[User:Shaikhhiba|Shaikhhiba]] ([[User talk:Shaikhhiba|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shaikhhiba|contribs]]) 02:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Cancel Culture/]] * [[User:444juptr|444juptr]] ([[User talk:444juptr|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/444juptr|contribs]]) 20:33, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Otaku Life/]] *[[User:Shruthi2001|Shruthi2001]] ([[User talk:Shruthi2001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shruthi2001|contribs]]) 20:40, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Social Media Effect on Diet/]] * [[User:Vtran50|Vtran50]] ([[User talk:Vtran50|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vtran50|contribs]]) 20:51, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Slander/]] * [[User:JayceeLorenzo|JayceeLorenzo]] ([[User talk:JayceeLorenzo|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JayceeLorenzo|contribs]]) 21:24, 29 September 2020 (UTC) [[/Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT)/]] * [[User:IowaneNoka|IowaneNoka]] ([[User talk:IowaneNoka|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/IowaneNoka|contribs]]) 03:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call Of Duty:Modern Warfare (2019)/]] * [[User:Kban2001|Kban2001]] ([[User talk:Kban2001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kban2001|contribs]]) 16:11, 12 October 2020 (UTC) [[/ARK: Survival Evolved/]] * [[User:Christiand28|Christiand28]] ([[User talk:Christiand28|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Christiand28|contribs]]) 02:21, 13 October 2020 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty:Black Ops 2/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2020 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Postmodern Jukebox]] * [[User:Deuteryium|Deuteryium]] ([[User talk:Deuteryium|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Deuteryium|contribs]]) 23:16, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking the Fourth Wall]] * [[User:PlasticOrPapper|PlasticOrPapper]] ([[User talk:PlasticOrPapper|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PlasticOrPapper|contribs]]) 23:14, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege]] * [[User:Miranda Tapioca|Miranda Tapioca]] ([[User talk:Miranda Tapioca|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Miranda Tapioca|contribs]]) 23:04, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Blizzard Entertaiment]] * [[User:Christinuh|Christinuh]] ([[User talk:Christinuh|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Christinuh|contribs]]) 23:07, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Breaking News on Twitter]] * [[User:Emartinez40|Emartinez40]] ([[User talk:Emartinez40|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Emartinez40|contribs]]) 23:09, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Witcher (Game Series)]] * [[User:MarkxG|MarkxG]] ([[User talk:MarkxG|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MarkxG|contribs]]) 23:26, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Reddit]] * [[User:Dmusselwhite1|Dmusselwhite1]] ([[User talk:Dmusselwhite1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmusselwhite1|contribs]]) 23:15, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CGI]] * [[User:Ericahy|Ericahy]] ([[User talk:Ericahy|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ericahy|contribs]]) 23:17, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Siri]] * [[User:Aphon17|Aphon17]] ([[User talk:Aphon17|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aphon17|contribs]]) 23:23, 25 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Inside (video game)]] * [[User:Mpaing2|Mpaing2]] ([[User talk:Mpaing2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mpaing2|contribs]]) 22:15, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Apple Pencil]] * [[User:TakeCare2021|TakeCare2021]] ([[User talk:TakeCare2021|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/TakeCare2021|contribs]]) 22:52, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Take Care (Album)]] * [[User:DixonCider1331|DixonCider1331]] ([[User talk:DixonCider1331|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DixonCider1331|contribs]]) 22:55, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Riot Games]] * [[User:John.rod22|John.rod22]] ([[User talk:John.rod22|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/John.rod22|contribs]]) 23:01, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Grand Theft Auto V]] * [[User:Ankits2001|Ankits2001]] ([[User talk:Ankits2001|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ankits2001|contribs]]) 23:06, 27 February 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPhone 4s (Siri)]] * [[User:MichaelP75075|MichaelP75075]] ([[User talk:MichaelP75075|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MichaelP75075|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Black Mesa]] * [[User:Kfernes1|Kfernes1]] ([[User talk:Kfernes1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kfernes1|contribs]]) 22:38, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Joe Rogan Experience]] * [[Special:Contributions/207.62.190.33|207.62.190.33]] ([[User talk:207.62.190.33|discuss]]) 23:42, 5 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Tinder]] * [[User:Atul.mav|Atul.mav]] ([[User talk:Atul.mav|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Atul.mav|contribs]]) 17:48, 7 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Ralph Lauren]] * [[User:Namesshaikh|Namesshaikh]] ([[User talk:Namesshaikh|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Namesshaikh|contribs]]) 22:19, 9 March 2020 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/CD Projekt Red]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2019 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:HPatel40|HPatel40]] ([[User talk:HPatel40|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/HPatel40|contribs]]) 19:23, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/5G Technologies]] * [[User:Hpatel42|Hpatel42]] ([[User talk:Hpatel42|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hpatel42|contribs]]) 19:01, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Larry Page]] * [[User:CRichards17|CRichards17]] ([[User talk:CRichards17|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/CRichards17|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/White Supremacy on the Internet]] * [[User:Waterbottle50|Waterbottle50]] ([[User talk:Waterbottle50|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Waterbottle50|contribs]]) 19:55, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Color-blind lens/EnChroma]] * [[User:Mcaya00|Mcaya00]] ([[User talk:Mcaya00|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mcaya00|contribs]]) 19:49, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Markus Perrson]] * [[User:Qinyu Chen|Qinyu Chen]] ([[User talk:Qinyu Chen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Qinyu Chen|contribs]]) 19:36, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/teamLab]] * [[User:Soyoboy.exe|Soyboy.exe]] ([[User talk:Soyboy.exe|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Soyboy.exe|contribs]]) 20:04, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch]] * [[User:Yjiang26|Yjiang26]] ([[User talk:Yjiang26|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yjiang26|contribs]]) 19:38, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Alipay]] * [[User:Lmurffrenninger1|Lmurffrenninger1]] ([[User talk:Lmurffrenninger1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lmurffrenninger1|contribs]]) 19:39, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/MagicBands at Disneyland]] * [[User:Jalvarellos1|Jalvarellos1]] ([[User talk:Jalvarellos1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jalvarellos1|contribs]]) 19:41, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Rocket League]] * [[Adam3318|Adam3318]] ([[User talk:Adam3318|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Adam3318|contribs]]) 19:46, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/3D scanning with drones]] * [[User:SanIam|SanIam]] ([[User talk:SanIam|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/SanIam|contribs]]) 19:57, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/The Legend Of Zelda: Breath of the Wild]] * [[User:Nphan16|Nphan16]] ([[User talk:Nphan16|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nphan16|contribs]]) 20:02, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Hannah Alexander]] * [[User:Vluong6|Vluong6]] ([[User talk:Vluong6|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vluong6|contribs]]) 20:24, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Cyberware]] * [[User:Philventi|Philventi]] ([[User talk:Philventi|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Philventi|contribs]]) 22:33, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/iPadOS]] * [[User:Jwendland1|Jwendland1]] ([[User talk:Jwendland1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jwendland1|contribs]]) 19:05, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Infinadeck Omnidirectional Treadmill]] * [[User:Ranle7|Ranle7]] ([[User talk:Ranle7|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ranle7|contribs]]) 19:06, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/osu!]] * [[User:Andrewyamasaki|Andrewyamasaki]] ([[User talk:Andrewyamasaki|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Andrewyamasaki|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Super Smash Bros Ultimate]] * [[User:Samuel3571|Samuel3571]] ([[User talk:Samuel3571|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Samuel3571|contribs]]) 20:35, 19 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Forensic Technology]] * [[User:Lmedina19|Lmedina19]] ([[User talk:Lmedina19|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lmedina19|contribs]]) 20:00, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Hayley Kiyoko]] * [[User:Djh42|Djh42]] ([[User talk:Djh42|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Djh42|contribs]]) 20:25, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Nintendo Switch Controller]] * [[User:CharlieDub|CharlieDub]] ([[User talk:CharlieDub|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/CharlieDub|contribs]]) 19:42, 17 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Porsche Ignition]] * [[User:Erick.Flore|Erick.Flore]] ([[User talk:Erick.Flore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Erick.Flore|contribs]]) 20:40, 26 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/The video hosting site BitChute]] * [[User:Dbarquin1|Dbarquin1]] ([[User talk:Dbarquin1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dbarquin1|contribs]]) 17:28, 27 September 2019 (UTC)[[Digital Media Concepts/Custom Built Computer]] * [[User:Spcharc|Spcharc]] ([[User talk:Spcharc|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Spcharc|contribs]]) 18:07, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/RSA (cryptosystem)]] * [[User:Krishnan1000|Krishnan1000]] ([[User talk:Krishnan1000|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Krishnan1000|contribs]]) 18:36, 29 September 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Competitive Pokemon Battling]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2019 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Mknight77|Mknight77]] ([[User talk:Mknight77|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mknight77|contribs]]) 22:52, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Mayhem fest]] * [[User:Samirjan0420|Samirjan0420]] ([[User talk:Samirjan0420|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Samirjan0420|contribs]]) 22:05, 21 February 2019 (UTC) [[/The most hated car/]] * [[User:Tobilansangan|Tobilansangan]] ([[User talk:Tobilansangan|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tobilansangan|contribs]]) 23:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy/]] * [[User:alyssamunoz|alyssamunoz]] ([[User talk: alyssamunoz|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/alyssamunoz|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Dr.Pepper/]] * [[User:omergreengiant|omergreengiant]] ([[User talk:omergreengiant|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/omergreengiant|contribs]]) 14:57, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Kabul, Afghanistan/]] * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] ([[User talk:Ireicher2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ireicher2|contribs]]) 22:14, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] * [[User:Gum-POP|Gum-POP]] ([[User talk:Gum-POP|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gum-POP|contribs]]) 22:37, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Gaming Desktop VS Gaming Laptop/]] * [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 22:42, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Virtual Self/]] * [[User:Tvo36|Tvo36]] ([[User talk:Tvo36|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Tvo36|contribs]]) 23:13, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Markelle Fultz/]] * [[User:iluca|iluca]] ([[User talk:iluca|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/iluca|contribs]]) 23:14, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Nagishiro Mito/]] * [[User:Justinchau|Justinchau]] ([[User talk:Justinchau|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Justinchau|contribs]]) 23:16, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Best Pizza/]] * [[User:Ashwinjambu15|Ashwinjambu15]] ([[User talk:Ashwinjambu15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ashwinjambu15|contribs]]) 23:19, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Mos Def & Talib Kweli Are Black Star/]] * [[User:Ationgson|Ationgson]] ([[User talk:Ationgson|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ationgson|contribs]]) 23:24, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/2JZ Engine/]] * [[User:Ddimitrov1|Ddimitrov1]] ([[User talk:Ddimitrov1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ddimitrov1|contribs]]) 23:29, 14 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Theatre Of Blood/]] * [[User:Gli15|Gli15]] ([[User talk:Gli15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gli15|contribs]]) 22:12, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Matcha/]] * [[User:Akanijade|Akanijade]] ([[User talk:Akanijade|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Akanijade|contribs]]) 22:39, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Batik/]] * [[User:BrokenConsole|BrokenConsole]] ([[User talk:BrokenConsole|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/BrokenConsole|contribs]]) 22:46, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Custom Built Gaming Computers/]] * [[User:Lord Arugula|Lord Arugula]] ([[User talk:Lord Arugula|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lord Arugula|contribs]]) 22:47, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Aurelio Voltaire/]] * [[User:Danialmirza99|Danialmirza99]] ([[User talk:Danialmirza99|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Danialmirza99|contribs]]) 22:50, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Spelling Bee (1938)/]] * [[User:Janine8100|Janine8100]] ([[User talk:Janine8100|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Janine8100|contribs]]) 22:52, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Brunei Rainforests/]] * [[User:D_Sh1nra|D_Sh1nra]] ([[User talk:D_Sh1nra|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/D_Sh1nra|contribs]]) 15:07, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Phosphenes/]] * [[User:Jameslacdao|Jameslacdao]] ([[User talk:Jameslacdao|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jameslacdao|contribs]]) 23:34, 19 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Love of my Life (Queen song)/]] * [[User:Janinaengo|Janinaengo]] ([[User talk:Janinaengo|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Janinaengo|contribs]]) 06:04, 20 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Influence of 90s sitcom Friends/]] * [[User:Mdapostol|Mdapostol]] ([[User talk:Mdapostol|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mdapostol|contribs]]) 01:32, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Regions of San Jose, California/]] * [[User:HellBlossoms|HellBlossoms]] ([[User talk:HellBlossoms|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/HellBlossoms|contribs]]) 14:13, 26 February 2019 (UTC) [[/Bill Kaulitz/]] * [[User:Nintenchris5963|Nintenchris5963]] ([[User talk:Nintenchris5963|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Nintenchris5963|contribs]]) 22:28, 28 February 2019 (UTC) [[/CrossCode/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2018 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:J3tR0cK3t|J3tR0cK3t]] ([[User talk:J3tR0cK3t|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/J3tR0cK3t|contribs]]) 19:55, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Streets of Rage (Axel Stone)/]] * [[User:William Leber|William Leber]] ([[User talk:William Leber|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/William Leber|contribs]]) 19:56, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Ethoslab/]] * [[User:Vicpimentel99|Vicpimentel99]] ([[User talk:Vicpimentel99|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Vicpimentel99|contribs]]) 20:19, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Micah Mahinay/]] * [[User:Magtotodile|Magtotodile]] ([[User talk:Magtotodile|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Magtotodile|contribs]]) 20:21, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Shelter (Song by Porter Robinson & Madeon)/]] * [[User:Ahuq2|Ahuq2]] ([[User talk:Ahuq2|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ahuq2|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza (video game series)/]] * [[User:Plam153|Plam153]] ([[User talk:Plam153|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Plam153|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Trinh Cong Son (Vietnamese songwriter)/]] * [[User:DoomFry68|DoomFry68]] ([[User talk:DoomFry68|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/DoomFry68|contribs]]) 20:23, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Yakuza: Goro Majima/]] * [[User:FizzahKafil|FizzahKafil]] ([[User talk:FizzahKafil|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/FizzahKafil|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Little Big Planet/]] * [[User:Dursa1|Dursa S]] ([[User talk:Dursa1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dursa1|contribs]]) 20:24, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/r.h. Sin/]] * [[User:ZaroonIqbal|ZaroonIqbal]] ([[User talk:ZaroonIqbal|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ZaroonIqbal|contribs]]) 20:25, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Fortnite/]] * [[User:Lmascardo1|Lmascardo1]] ([[User talk:Lmascardo1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Lmascardo1|contribs]]) 20:31, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Stardew Valley/]] * [[User:Aungthuhtet245|Aungthuhtet245]] ([[User talk:Aungthuhtet245|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aungthuhtet245|contribs]]) 20:32, 13 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Science Behind Pixar/]] * [[User:Whill4|Whill4]] ([[User talk:Whill4|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Whill4|contribs]]) 15:06, 17 September 2018 (UTC) [[ /Mariner's Apartment Complex (Lana Del Rey song)/]] * [[User:WontonsofDMG|WontonsofDMG]] ([[User talk:WontonsofDMG|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/WontonsofDMG|contribs]]) 19:03, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Heroes of the Storm/]] * [[User:PATISBACK9|PATISBACK9]] ([[User talk:PATISBACK9|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/PATISBACK9|contribs]]) 19:19, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJ screw/]] * [[User:EnderClevToby|EnderClevToby]] ([[User talk:EnderClevToby|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/EnderClevToby|contribs]]) 12:15, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Matthew Fredrick/]] * [[User:Danny M487|Danny M487]] ([[User talk:Danny M487|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Danny M487|contribs]]) 19:30, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Casey Neistat/]] * [[User:Itsjustkulsoom|Itsjustkulsoom]] ([[User talk:Itsjustkulsoom|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Itsjustkulsoom|contribs]]) 19:31, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Zedd/]] * [[User:Josemazon123|Josemazon123]] ([[User talk:Josemazon123|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Josemazon123|contribs]]) 20:06, 18 September 2018 (UTC) [[/BROCKHAMPTON/]] * [[User:Ahernandez85|Ahernandez85]] ([[User talk:Ahernandez85|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ahernandez85|contribs]]) 19:17, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Legend Of Zelda: Ocarina of Time/]] * [[User:JackyLu01|JackyLu01]] ([[User talk:JackyLu01|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JackyLu01|contribs]]) 12:30, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Smartisan/]] * [[User:Manohar singh 32|Manohar singh 32]] ([[User talk:Manohar singh 32|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Manohar singh 32|contribs]]) 19:51, 20 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Motion Capture/]] * [[User:Zwo1|Zwo1]] ([[User talk:Zwo1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zwo1|contribs]]) 23:57, 23 September 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI Mavic 2 Pro/]] * [[User:Hartveit|Hartveit]] ([[User talk:Hartveit|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hartveit|contribs]]) 01:49, 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Hurdal Verk Folk High School/]] * [[User:p_ng_r|p_ng_r]] ([[User talk:p_ng_r|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/p_ng_r|contribs]]) 12:41 25 September 2018 (UTC) [[/Wenqing Yan/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2018 === {{collapse top|Project List}} * [[User:Ireicher2|Ireicher2]] 01:01, 15 August 2016 (UTC) [[/Wafaa Bilal/]] * [[User:Wompaku|Wompaku]] ([[User talk:Wompaku|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Wompaku|contribs]]) 22:21, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Life is Strange/]] * [[User:Hamitaro|Hamitaro]] ([[User talk:Hamitaro|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hamitaro|contribs]]) 22:22, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Persona 5/]] * [[User:Shayan223|Sean223]] ([[User talk:Shayan223|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shayan223|contribs]]) 22:33, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/David Patrick Crane/]] * [[User:Touch92|Touch92]] ([[User talk:Touch92|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Touch92|contribs]]) 22:29, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/3D Printing/]] * [[User:Peg123|Peg123]] ([[User talk:Peg123|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Peg123|contribs]]) 22:32, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dota 2/]] * [[User:Shadow1942oohwa|Shadow1942oohwa]] ([[User talk:Shadow1942oohwa|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Shadow1942oohwa|contribs]]) 22:34, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Dodge Charger Daytona/]] * [[User:Skullallen|Skullallen]] ([[User talk:Skullallen|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Skullallen|contribs]]) 22:38, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/DJI/]] * [[User:Johnbcuong|Johnbcuong]] ([[User talk:Johnbcuong|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Johnbcuong|contribs]]) 22:39, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Nguyen Tu Quang/]] * [[User:W popal1|W popal1]] ([[User talk:W popal1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/W popal1|contribs]]) 22:36, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Lilly Singh/]] * [[User:Sankeerth1017|Sankeerth1017]] ([[User talk:Sankeerth1017|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sankeerth1017|contribs]]) 22:41, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Pewdiepie/]] * [[User:Jpierceall1|Jpierceall1]] ([[User talk:Jpierceall1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jpierceall1|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/The World of FPS/]] *[[User:ShardolBGupta|ShardolBGupta]] ([[User talk:ShardolBGupta|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/ShardolBGupta|contribs]]) 22:42, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Chevrolet Volt/]] * [[User:JoshM75401|JoshM75401]] ([[User talk:JoshM75401|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JoshM75401|contribs]]) 22:49, 13 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jack Thompson/]] * [[User:Thaliatorres|Thaliatorres]] ([[User talk:Thaliatorres|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Thaliatorres|contribs]]) 23:04, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Laserphaco Probe/]] * [[User:YuuchyHongroy|YuuchyHongroy]] ([[User talk:YuuchyHongroy|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/YuuchyHongroy|contribs]]) 23:23, 15 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Photoshop/]] * [[User:stzyjpg|stzyjpg]] ([[User talk:stzyjpg|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/stzyjpg|contribs]]) 23:23, 18 February 2018 (UTC) [[/Jeff Bezos/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Fall 2017 === {{collapse top|Project List}} *[[User:Kbearrr|Kbearrr]] ([[User talk:Kbearrr|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kbearrr|contribs]]) 19:20, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Detriments of the Internet/]] *[[User:Ratalouie|Ratalouie]] ([[User talk:Ratalouie|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ratalouie|contribs]]) 19:45, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Overwatch/]] *[[User:Inadversity574|Inadversity574]] ([[User talk:Inadversity574|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Inadversity574|contribs]]) 19:44, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fire Emblem/]] *[[User:Dwingdwang|Dwingdwang]] ([[User talk:Dwingdwang|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dwingdwang|contribs]]) 20:02, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Fixed Gear Bikes/]] * [[User:Isaacpacheco12|Isaacpacheco12]] ([[User talk:Isaacpacheco12|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Isaacpacheco12|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Amazon Echo/]] * [[User:Gdonpadlan|Gdonpadlan]] ([[User talk:Gdonpadlan|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Gdonpadlan|contribs]]) 20:21, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Nikon D850/]] *[[User:Cdb1015|Cdb1015]] ([[User talk:Cdb1015|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Cdb1015|contribs]]) 21:59, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Visual Effects in Television and Movies/]] * [[User:Sjsanchez|Sjsanchez]] ([[User talk:Sjsanchez|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Sjsanchez|contribs]]) 01:11, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Ryan Higa/]] * [[User:Aevans28|Aevans28]] ([[User talk:Aevans28|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Aevans28|contribs]]) 03:56, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Patty Jenkins/]] * [[User:Johnlee1234594|Johnlee1234594]] ([[User talk:Johnlee1234594|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Johnlee1234594|contribs]]) 11:17, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tom Hanks/]] * [[User:Michaelellasos|Michaelellasos]] ([[User talk:Michaelellasos|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Michaelellasos|contribs]]) 21:36, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Counter Strike: Global Offensive/]] * [[bilal621]] ([[User talk:bilal621|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/bilal621|contribs]]) 22:03, 20 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2/]] * [[User:Alscylla|Alscylla]] ([[User talk:Alscylla|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Alscylla|contribs]]) 13:11, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Final Fantasy Record Keeper/]] * [[User:Kshadd15|Kshadd15]] ([[User talk:Kshadd15|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Kshadd15|contribs]]) 10:59, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Artificial Intelligence/]] * [[User:Greentea456|Greentea456]] ([[User talk:Greentea456|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Greentea456|contribs]]) 18:29, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[Digital Media Concepts/Team Fortress 2|Team Fortress 2]] * [[User:Mehraan01|Mehraan01]] ([[User talk:Mehraan01|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mehraan01|contribs]]) 19:43, 21 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Tesla, Inc./]] * [[User:Zblazin|Zblazin]] ([[User talk:Zblazin|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Zblazin|contribs]]) 20:12, 19 September 2017 (UTC) [[/Graphics processing unit/]] {{collapse bottom}} === Spring 2017 === {{collapse top|Project List}} *[[User:Mattvs1|Mattvs1]] ([[User talk:Mattvs1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mattvs1|contribs]]) 22:56, 7 February 2017 (UTC) [[/No Man's Sky/]] * [[User:Ebondoc98|Ebondoc98]] ([[User talk:Ebondoc98|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Ebondoc98|contribs]]) 22:26, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/League of Legends/]] * [[User:Dmendoza1|Dmendoza1]] ([[User talk:Dmendoza1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dmendoza1|contribs]]) 22:44, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/The Legend Of Zelda/]] * [[User:Mmmarrufo|Mmmarrufo]] ([[User talk:Mmmarrufo|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mmmarrufo|contribs]]) 22:58, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Gabe Newell/]] * [[User:Jfriedenberg|Jfriedenberg]] ([[User talk:Jfriedenberg|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Jfriedenberg|contribs]]) 23:19, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Shinji Mikami/]] * [[User:AKW2017|AKW2017]] ([[User talk:AKW2017|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/AKW2017|contribs]]) 23:32, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Wii U/]] * [[User:Wramos1|Wramos1]] ([[User talk:Wramos1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Wramos1|contribs]]) 23:46, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Lasseter/]] * [[User:Yjohar1|Yjohar1]] ([[User talk:Yjohar1|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Yjohar1|contribs]]) 23:48, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Video Game Aggression/]] * [[User:Dzhang17|Dzhang17]] ([[User talk:Dzhang17|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dzhang17|contribs]]) 23:51, 9 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Fan Bingbing/]] * [[User:Dougalhathaway|Dougalhathaway]] ([[User talk:Dougalhathaway|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dougalhathaway|contribs]]) 00:04, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Rayman/]] * [[User:Mochill|Mochill]] ([[User talk:Mochill|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Mochill|contribs]]) 04:05, 10 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Commercial Head-up displays/]] *[[User:Hdo18|Hdo18]] ([[User talk:Hdo18|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Hdo18|contribs]]) 18:38, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Cory Arcangel/]] * [[User:GnaF69|GnaF69]] ([[User talk:GnaF69|discuss)]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/GnaF69|contribs]]) 20:22, 13 February 2017 (UTC) [[/John Romero/]] * [[User:Blizz23|Blizz23]] ([[User talk:Blizz23|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Blizz23|contribs]]) 23:45, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Archaeology Robots/]] * [[User:Bchu55|Bchu55]] ([[User talk:Bchu55|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Bchu55|contribs]]) 23:50, 14 February 2017 (UTC) [[/Mark Zuckerberg/]] {{collapse bottom}} '''4. Research your topic'''<br> Look for at least three kinds of sources: # Articles, any published material, interviews, videos and information you can use for your own contributions to the site # Internet sources that can be linked to your page including multimedia content (please make sure that images and other visual materials not restricted by copyright)<br><br> '''5. Add or edit headings such as:''' * Early Life and Education or Biography * Career * Legacy * Personal Life * Exhibitions * Awards and Nominations (if relevant) * Bibliography or Further Reading * History * Software or Hardware * References * External Links For a detailed editing reference, go to: [[Wikiversity:FAQ/Editing|Wikiversity Editing Reference]] <br><br> '''6. Need Images?''' You can find images that are licensed under the Creative Comments license here [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page/ Wikimedia Commons]<br><br> Include <nowiki>[[Category:Digital Media Concepts]]</nowiki> at the bottom of the page to move the page into the assignment category. == Citations == APA style <ref>"Name of Article," accessed March 11, 2015, http://www.someURL.com.</ref> Chicago Style: <ref>Name of Article (for a source that does not list a copyright date, you use (n.d.) ). Retrieved October 15, 2015, from  http://www.someURL.com</ref> == Example of an annotated image == [[File:Great Wall of China in 2014.jpg|thumb|Great Wall of China in 2014]] <br style="clear: both;"> == Example of an [[Template:Infobox|infobox]] == {{Infobox |name = Wafaa Bilal |image = [[File:Wafaa-bilal2.JPG|thumb]] |title = Artist Wafaa Bilal |headerstyle = background:#ccf; |labelstyle = background:#ddf; |label1 = |data1 = Wafaa Bilal reading at Lannan Center for Poetics and Social Practice, Georgetown University |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one| Iraqi American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|June 10, 1966}}} |label4 = Field of Research |data4 = {{{item_three|[[Video]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[New Media]]}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Najaf, Iraq}}} |label6 = Autor |data6 = {{{item_Five|Slowking4}}} }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> {{Infobox | name = Digital Media Concepts | bodystyle = | titlestyle = | abovestyle = background:#cfc; | subheaderstyle = | title = Test Infobox | above = Above text | subheader = Subheader above image | subheader2 = Second subheader | imagestyle = | captionstyle = | image = [[File:Example-serious.jpg|200px|alt=Example alt text]] | caption = Caption displayed below Example-serious.jpg | headerstyle = background:#ccf; | labelstyle = background:#ddf; | datastyle = | header1 = Header defined alone | label1 = | data1 = | header2 = | label2 = Label defined alone does not display (needs data, or is suppressed) | data2 = | header3 = | label3 = | data3 = Data defined alone | header4 = All three defined (header, label, data, all with same number) | label4 = does not display (same number as a header) | data4 = does not display (same number as a header) | header5 = | label5 = Label and data defined (label) | data5 = Label and data defined (data) | belowstyle = background:#ddf; | below = Below text }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> ==Navigational Templates== [[:w:Wikipedia:Navigation template|Navigation Template on Wikipedia]] == Media Templates == {{Listen | filename = Lion raring-sound1TamilNadu178.ogg | title = Lion roaring | plain = yes | style = float:left }} <div style="clear:both;"></div> == Useful links == * [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|Quick Reference]] * [[:w:Wikipedia:Tutorial/Wikipedia_links|Wikipedia Tutorial]] * [http://www.wikihow.com/Cite How to cite on Wikipedia] * [[:w:Help:Link|Using external links]] == Completed Assignments == {{Subpages/List}} ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Art]] [[Category:Culture]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Assignments]] [[Category:Digital art]] [[Category:Courses]] [[Category:Education]] mmpqyuj1x9ztada25ott3g7o30aj48q Animal Phyla 0 235131 2841934 2841401 2026-10-21T21:24:34Z The Citer 3110681 /* Rhombozoa */ 2841934 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Animalia diversity.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Some examples of animal diversity.]] A Phylum (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within animal taxonomy. This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement. This list is also available in [[/Table/|table form]]. Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Animal Phyla. Other sources may combine or split these listed Phyla. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of animal diversity. There are approximately 1.9 million animal species that have been described by science. This list tries to give the following information on each Phylum: *Phyllum Name *A link to a sub-page discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists) *Name Meaning (in English) *An English Common Name, where one is in regular use *Distinguishing characteristics of animals within the Phylum *An approximate number of species described within that Phylum. Since zoology fortunately refuses to stand still, this number can change. Oh! And there's a quiz at the end. See also [[/Lesson Plan for Animal Phyla/]]. Or head to [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic. You can also visit [[Plant Divisions (Phyla)]], the equivalent page for plants. ==Acanthocephala== [[Image:Macracanthorhynchus_hirudinaceus_adult_BAM1.jpg|thumb|100px|left|An Acanthocephalan, ''Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus'', adult.]] [[/Acanthocephala/]] Name Meaning: horny head English Common Name: Horny-headed worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Reversible spiny proboscis Approximate number of species described: 1,151 ==Acoelomorpha== [[File:Acoelomorpha.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Acoelomorpha]] [[/Acoelomorpha/]] Name Meaning: Without gut English Common Name: Acoels Major distinguishing characteristics: No mouth or alimentary canal Approximate number of species described: 50,000 == Annelida == <div id="Annelida"></div> [[Image:Reef0200.jpg|thumb|100px|left|An feather duster worm of the family Sabellidae in parchment tube.]] [[/Annelida/]] Name Meaning: Little ring English Common Name: Segmented worms, annelids Major distinguishing characteristics: Multiple circular segments Approximate number of species described: 22,000 modern ==Arthropoda== [[Image:Chelicerae_%26_pedipalps_%288689230685%29.jpg|thumb|100px|left|A scorpion, an example of an Arthropod]] [[/Arthropoda/]] Name Meaning: Jointed foot English Common Name: Arthropods Major distinguishing characteristics: Chitin exoskeleton Approximate number of species described: 1,134,000+ ==Brachiopoda== [[Image:Isocrania_costata_Sowerby_1823.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Brachiopod ''Isocrania costata''.]] [[/Brachiopoda/]] Name Meaning: Arm foot English Common Name: Lamp shells, brachiopod Major distinguishing characteristics: Lophophore and pedicle Approximate number of species described: between 300 and 500 extant ==Bryozoa== [[Image:Freshwater_Bryozoan234.JPG|thumb|100px|left|A freshwater Bryozoan, species unknown.]] [[/Bryozoa/]] Name Meaning: Moss animals English Common Name: Moss animals, sea mats, bryozoans Major distinguishing characteristics: Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles Approximate number of species described: about 5,000 living species ==Chaetognatha== [[Image:Chaetognatha.PNG|thumb|100px|left|Chaetognathans.]] [[/Chaetognatha/]] Name Meaning: Longhair jaw English Common Name: Arrow worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Chitinous spines either side of head, fins Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species ==Chordata== [[Image:Clavelina lepadiformis (MĂŒller, 1776) - Banyuls-sur-Mer - 04.83.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Clavelina lepadiformis'', a non-vertebrate chordates.]] [[/Chordata/]] Name Meaning: Cord English Common Name: Chordates Major distinguishing characteristics: Hollow dorsal nervous chord Approximate number of species described: about 100,000+ ==Cnidaria== [[Image:Cynarina_lacrymalis.jpeg|thumb|100px|left|''Cynarina lacrymalis'' an anthozoan member of the Phylum Cnidaria.]] [[/Cnidaria/]] Name Meaning: Stinging nettle English Common Name: Coelenterates, cnidarians, sea anemones, jellies, hydra Major distinguishing characteristics: Cnidocytes (stinging cells) Approximate number of species described: about 11,000 ==Ctenophora== [[Image:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Mertensia'', a Ctenophore.]] [[/Ctenophora/]] Name Meaning: Comb bearer English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia Approximate number of species described: about 200 modern species ==Cycliophora== [[Image:Cycliophora - Symbion pandora.png|thumb|100px|left|''Symbion pandora'', a Cycliphoran.]] [[/Cycliophora/]] Name Meaning: Wheel carrying English Common Name: Symbion Major distinguishing characteristics: Circular mouth surrounded by small cilia Approximate number of species described: at least 3 ==Echinodermata== [[Image:Crinoideos.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Crinoideos'', an example of Ecinoderms.]] [[/Echinodermata/]] Name Meaning: Spiny skin(Body) English Common Name: Echinoderms Major distinguishing characteristics: Five-fold radial symmetry, mesodermal layer, calcified spines Approximate number of species described: about 7,000 living species and 13,000 extinct ones ==Entoprocta== [[Image:Barentsa discreta suzukokemusi01.JPG|thumb|100px|left|''Barentsa discreta suzukokemusi'', a species of goblet worm.]] [[/Entoprocta/]] Name Meaning: Inside anus English Common Name: Goblet worm Major distinguishing characteristics: Anus inside ring of cilia Approximate number of species described: about 150 ==Gastrotricha== [[Image:Chaetonotus (Chaetonotus) polyspinosus.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Chaetonotus polyspinosus'' a species of meiofauna.]] [[/Gastrotricha/]] Name Meaning: Hair stomach English Common Name: Hairybellies, hairybacks Major Distinguishing Characteristics: Two terminal adhesive tubes Approximate number of species described: about 690 ==Gnathostomulida== [[Image:Gnathostomula paradoxa Sylt.tif|thumb|100px|left|''Gnathostomula paradoxa'', a jaw worm.]] [[/Gnathostomulida/]] Name Meaning: Jaw orifice English Common Name: Jaw worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: about 100 ==Hemichordata== [[Image:Glossograptus whitfieldii 01.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Glossograptus whitfieldii, a fossil hemichordate.]] [[/Hemichordata/]] Name Meaning: Half cord English Common Name: Acorn worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Stomochord in collar Approximate number of species described: about 100 living species ==Kinorhyncha== [[Image:Paracentrophyes quadridentatus.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Paracentrophyes quadridentatus'', a mud dragon.]] [[/Kinorhyncha/]] Name Meaning: Motion snout English Common Name: Mud dragons Major distinguishing characteristics: Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate Approximate number of species described: about 150 ==Loricifera== [[Image:Pliciloricus enigmatus.jpg|thumb|100px|left|A member of the Phylum Loricifera, ''Pliciloricus enigmatus''.]] [[/Loricifera/]] Name Meaning: Corset bearer English Common Name: Loriciferans Major distinguishing characteristics: Umbrella-like scales at each end Approximate number of species described: about 122 ==Micrognathozoa== [[Image:Limnonathia, drawing.tif|thumb|100px|left|''Limnonathia'', drawing, a Micrognathozoan.]] [[/Micrognathozoa/]] (sometimes called Phylum Gnathifera) Name Meaning: Tiny jaw animals English Common Name: Micrognathozoans Major distinguishing characteristics: Accordion like extensible thorax Approximate number of species described: 1 ==Mollusca== [[Image:Shells01.jpg|thumb|100px|left|A group of Gastropod shells, Phylum Mollusca.]] [[/Mollusca/]] Name Meaning: Thin shell English Common Name: Mollusks or molluscs Major distinguishing characteristics: Muscular foot and Mantle, round shell Approximate number of species described: 85,000 ==Nematoda== [[Image:Mermis nigrescens beentree.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Mermis nigrescens beentree'', a nematode worm.]] [[/Nematoda/]] Name Meaning: Thread like English Common Name: Round worms, Nematodes Major distinguishing characteristics: Round cross section, keratin, cuticle Approximate number of species described: 80 000 - 1 million ==Nematomorpha== [[Image:Gordiidae A MRKVICKA.JPG|thumb|100px|left|A Gordian worm, Phylum Nematomorpha.]] [[/Nematomorpha/]] Name Meaning: Thread form English Common Name: Horsehair worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: about 320 ==Nemertea== [[Image:Micrura alaskensis.png|thumb|100px|left|Micrura alaskensis, a ribbon worm.]] [[/Nemertea/]] Name Meaning: A sea nymph English Common Name: Ribbon worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: about 1200 ==Onychophora== [[Image:Euperipatoides kanangrensis crop.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Euperipatoides kanangrensis'', a velvet worm.]] [[/Onychophora/]] Name Meaning: Claw bearer English Common Name: Velvet worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Legs tipped by chitinous claws Approximate number of species described: about 200 modern ==Orthonectida== <div id="Orthonectida"></div> [[Image:Orthonetida dict flat and cylinder.png|thumb|100px|left|Orthonetida, an Orthonectidan.]] [[/Orthonectida/]] Name Meaning: Straight swim English Common Name: Orthonectida Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: about 20 ==Phoronida== [[Image:Phoronis Maria Grazia Montanucci2.jpg|thumb|100px|left|'' Phoronis hippocrepis'', a species of horseshoe worm.]] [[/Phoronida/]] Name Meaning: Zeus' mistress English Common Name: Horseshoe worms Major distinguishing characteristics: U-shaped gut Approximate number of species described: 20 ==Placozoa== [[Image:Trichoplax adhaerens photograph.png|thumb|100px|left|''Trichoplax adhaerens'', the only Placozoan.]] [[/Placozoa/]] Name Meaning: Plate animals English Common Name: Placozoans Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: 4 ==Platyhelminthes== [[Image:Gigantolina.elongata.in.vivo.png|thumb|100px|left|''Gigantolina elongata'', a flat worm.]] [[/Platyhelminthes/]] Name Meaning: Flat worms English Common Name: Flat worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Approximate number of species described: about 25,000 ==Porifera== [[Image:Eponge Ă  dĂ©terminer (1).jpg|thumb|100px|left|An unidentified sponge.]] [[/Porifera/]] Name Meaning: Pore bearer English Common Name: Sponges Major distinguishing characteristics: Perforated interior wall Approximate number of species described: over 5,000 modern ==Priapulida== [[Image:Adult priapulid.jpg|thumb|100px|left|''Priapulus caudatus'', a Priapulid worm.]] [[/Priapulida/]] Name Meaning: Penis English Common Name: Priapulid worms Major distinguishing characteristics: Retractable proboscis surrounded by papillae Approximate number of species described: 22 ==Rhombozoa== <div id="Rhombozoa"></div> [[Image:Dicyema japonicum.png |thumb|100px|left|''Dicyema japonicum'', a rhombozoan.]] [[/Rhombozoa/]] Name Meaning: Lozenge animal English Common Name: Lozenge animals Major distinguishing characteristics: Single axial cell surrounded by ciliated cells Approximate number of species described: 75 ==Rotifera== [[Image:20090730 020239 Rotifer.jpg|thumb|100px|left|An unidentified rotifer.]] [[/Rotifera/]] Name Meaning: Wheel bearer English Common Name: Rotifers Major distinguishing characteristics: Anterior crown of cilia Approximate number of species described: about 2000 ==Tardigrada== [[Image:SEM image of Milnesium tardigradum in active state - journal.pone.0045682.g001-2.png|thumb|100px|left|Tardigrade ''Milnesium tardigradum'' in active state.]] [[/Tardigrada/]] Name Meaning: Slow step English Common Name: Water bears Major distinguishing characteristics: Four segmented body and head Approximate number of species described: 1,000+ ==Xenacoelomorpha== [[Image:Xenoturbella bockii longitudinal section.svg|thumb|100px|left|''Xenoturbella bockii'' longitudinal section.]] [[/Xenacoelomorpha/]] Name Meaning: Strange hollow form English Common Name: none Major distinguishing characteristics: Ciliated deuterostome Approximate number of species described: 435 ==Quizzes== * [[/Quiz/|Animal Phyla Quiz]] ==References== {{reflist}} *Brusca, Richard C., Wendy Moore, Stephen M. Shuster. Invertebrate Zoology 3rd ed. 2016. Sinauer. 1104 pp. *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum Phylum] on Wikipedia [[Category:Lists]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Zoology]] [[Category:Animals]] {{science}} {{biology}} ja3oo2tn06wxxbr6g5xb0fe21k825vi Animal Phyla/Ctenophora 0 235179 2841904 2841736 2026-10-21T19:12:31Z The Citer 3110681 Updated phylogeny. 2841904 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Mertensia'', a Ctenophore.]] * Ctenophora * Name Meaning: Comb bearer * English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores * Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia * Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species == Natural History == All species are marine and almost all are free-swimming. They are found around the world, and grow up to 2 meters (6 feet) in length. Comb-jellies are difficult to study because most species are extremely soft-bodied and don't survive capture intact. A few coastal species are a bit tougher, and are regularly displayed in aquaria. Most of what we know about them comes from these species. All adult ctenophores are predators. The juveniles of two species are parasites, otherwise they too are predators. Some are bioluminescent. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Ctenophora is divided into two living classes: * Class Tentaculata (ctenophores with cilia) * Class Nuda (ctenophores without cilia) ==Phylogeny== {{Clade |label1=Ctenophora |1={{clade |label1=Nuda |1={{clade |1=''Beroe'' |2=''Neis''}} |label2=Tentaculata |2={{clade |1=''Cambodgia elegantissima'' |3={{clade |label1=Cestida |1={{clade |1=''Cestum veneris'' |2=''Velamen parallelum''}} |label2=Cryptolobiferida |2={{clade |1=''Cryptolobata primitiva'' |2=''Lobocrypta annamita''}} }} |label5=Cydippida |5={{clade |1=''Duobrachium sparksae'' |2=''Aulacoctena acuminata'' |3=''Cryptocoda gerlachi'' |4=''Ctenella aurantia'' |5=''Dryodora glandiformis'' |6=''Vampyroctena delmarvensis'' |label7=''Bathyctena'' |7={{clade |1=''Bathyctena chuni'' |2=''Bathyctena latipharyngea'' }} |label9=''Haeckelia'' |9={{Clade |1=''Haeckelia beehleri'' |2=''Haeckelia bimaculata'' |3=''Haeckelia filigera'' |4=''Haeckelia rubra''}} |label10=''Euplokamis'' |10={{clade |1=''Euplokamis crinita'' |2=''Euplokamis dunlapae'' |3=''Euplokamis evansae'' |4=''Euplokamis evansae'' |5=''Euplokamis octoptera'' |6=''Euplokamis stationis''}} |label13=Cydippidae |13={{clade |1=''Attenboroughctena'' |2=''Hormiphora'' |3=''Minictena'' |4=''Pleurobrachia'' |5=''Tinerfe''}} |label11=Lampeidae |11={{clade |1=''Gastropodes'' |2=''Lampea'' |3=''Lampetia''}} |label12=Mertensiidae |12={{Clade |1=''Callianira'' |2=''Charistephane'' |3=''Gastrodes'' |4=''Mertensia''}} |label8=''Pukia'' |8={{clade |1=''Pukia falcata'' |2=''Pukia ohtsukai'' }} }} |label2=''Ganesha'' |2={{clade |1=''Ganesha annamita'' |2=''Ganesha elegans'' }} |label4=Lobata |4={{clade |3=''Bathocyroe'' |5=Bolinopsidae |6=Eurhamphaeidae |2=''Lampocteis cruentiventer'' |4=''Leucothea'' |1=''Lobatolampea tetragona'' |7=Ocyropsidae }} |6=Platyctenida}} }} }} ==Anatomy== Ctenophora are the largest animals to move by the use of cilia. The cilia are present in lines, called combs. A few deep-sea ctenophorans lack combs. Like cnidarians, their bodies consist mostly of mesoglea, a non-living substance. Unlike the cnidarians, their body wall contains two layers of cells instead of one. Their internal anatomy consists of a mouth, pharynx, stomach, and an internal set of canals. ==The Fossil Record== Having a soft body, the fossil record of the Ctenophora is spotty and limited. The earliest known is 520 million years old. They are present in the Burgess Shale. ==Quiz== * [[/Ctenophora Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora Ctenophora] at Wikipedia * [http://eol.org/pages/69/overview Ctenophora] at the Encyclopedia of Life * [http://tolweb.org/Ctenophora/2462 Ctenophora] at the Tree of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Biology]] [[Category:Zoology]] e3bk45gzq089ms1zyh8jn7m3s3k97tz 2841933 2841904 2026-10-21T21:22:22Z The Citer 3110681 Completed phylogeny. 2841933 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:LightRefractsOf comb-rows of ctenophore Mertensia ovum.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Mertensia'', a Ctenophore.]] * Ctenophora * Name Meaning: Comb bearer * English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores * Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia * Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species == Natural History == All species are marine and almost all are free-swimming. They are found around the world, and grow up to 2 meters (6 feet) in length. Comb-jellies are difficult to study because most species are extremely soft-bodied and don't survive capture intact. A few coastal species are a bit tougher, and are regularly displayed in aquaria. Most of what we know about them comes from these species. All adult ctenophores are predators. The juveniles of two species are parasites, otherwise they too are predators. Some are bioluminescent. ==Taxonomy== The Phylum Ctenophora is divided into two living classes: * Class Tentaculata (ctenophores with cilia) * Class Nuda (ctenophores without cilia) ==Phylogeny== {{Clade |label1=Ctenophora |1={{clade |label1=Nuda |1={{clade |1=''Beroe'' |2=''Neis''}} |label2=Tentaculata |2={{clade |10=''Thalassocalyce inconstans'' |1=''Cambodgia elegantissima'' |3={{clade |label1=Cestida |1={{clade |1=''Cestum veneris'' |2=''Velamen parallelum''}} |label2=Cryptolobiferida |2={{clade |1=''Cryptolobata primitiva'' |2=''Lobocrypta annamita''}} }} |label6=Cydippida |6={{clade |1=''Duobrachium sparksae'' |2=''Aulacoctena acuminata'' |3=''Cryptocoda gerlachi'' |4=''Ctenella aurantia'' |5=''Dryodora glandiformis'' |6=''Vampyroctena delmarvensis'' |label7=''Bathyctena'' |7={{clade |1=''Bathyctena chuni'' |2=''Bathyctena latipharyngea'' }} |label9=''Haeckelia'' |9={{Clade |1=''Haeckelia beehleri'' |2=''Haeckelia bimaculata'' |3=''Haeckelia filigera'' |4=''Haeckelia rubra''}} |label10=''Euplokamis'' |10={{clade |1=''Euplokamis crinita'' |2=''Euplokamis dunlapae'' |3=''Euplokamis evansae'' |4=''Euplokamis evansae'' |5=''Euplokamis octoptera'' |6=''Euplokamis stationis''}} |label13=Cydippidae |13={{clade |1=''Attenboroughctena'' |2=''Hormiphora'' |3=''Minictena'' |4=''Pleurobrachia'' |5=''Tinerfe''}} |label11=Lampeidae |11={{clade |1=''Gastropodes'' |2=''Lampea'' |3=''Lampetia''}} |label12=Mertensiidae |12={{Clade |1=''Callianira'' |2=''Charistephane'' |3=''Gastrodes'' |4=''Mertensia''}} |label8=''Pukia'' |8={{clade |1=''Pukia falcata'' |2=''Pukia ohtsukai'' }} }} |label2=''Ganesha'' |2={{clade |1=''Ganesha annamita'' |2=''Ganesha elegans'' }} |label4=Lobata |4={{clade |3=''Bathocyroe'' |5=Bolinopsidae |6=Eurhamphaeidae |2=''Lampocteis cruentiventer'' |4=''Leucothea'' |1=''Lobatolampea tetragona'' |7=Ocyropsidae }} |label5=Platyctenida |5={{Clade |1=''Tjalfiella tristoma'' |2={{clade |1=''Lyrocteis imperatoris'' |2={{clade |1=''Coeloplana'' |2=''Ctenoplana'' }}}} |3={{clade |1=''Savangia atentaculata'' |label2=Benthoplanidae |2={{clade |1=''Benthoplana meteoris'' |2=''Vallicula multiformis'' }}}} }} }} }} }} ==Anatomy== Ctenophora are the largest animals to move by the use of cilia. The cilia are present in lines, called combs. A few deep-sea ctenophorans lack combs. Like cnidarians, their bodies consist mostly of mesoglea, a non-living substance. Unlike the cnidarians, their body wall contains two layers of cells instead of one. Their internal anatomy consists of a mouth, pharynx, stomach, and an internal set of canals. ==The Fossil Record== Having a soft body, the fossil record of the Ctenophora is spotty and limited. The earliest known is 520 million years old. They are present in the Burgess Shale. ==Quiz== * [[/Ctenophora Quiz/]] ==References and Further Reading== * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora Ctenophora] at Wikipedia * [http://eol.org/pages/69/overview Ctenophora] at the Encyclopedia of Life * [http://tolweb.org/Ctenophora/2462 Ctenophora] at the Tree of Life [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Taxonomy]] [[Category:Biology]] [[Category:Zoology]] qd4uuoh4lbc0ejgccz35y9infmq2nh3 Social Victorians/Timeline/1890 0 264277 2841940 2841817 2026-10-21T23:16:00Z Scogdill 1331941 2841940 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1840s|1840s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s |1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] 1890 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895 | 1895]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]] ==January 1890== Sometime in January 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/Horniman|Annie Horniman]] was initiated into the Golden Dawn (Gilbert 86 144). Sometime in 1890 Annie Besant and [[Social Victorians/People/Helena Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]] founded the Working Women's Club in the East End (Besant Chronology.pdf). Maye Dilke was a member (Crawford 170). [[Social Victorians/People/Frank Harris|Frank Harris]] says,<blockquote>One day in 1890 I had George Meredith, Walter Pater and [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] dining with me in Park Lane and the time of sex-awakening was discussed. Both Pater and Wilde spoke of it as a sign of puberty. Pater thought it began about thirteen or fourteen and Wilde to my amazement set it as late as sixteen. Meredith alone was inclined to put it earlier.<ref>Harris, Frank. ''My Life and Loves''.</ref></blockquote> ===1 January 1890, Wednesday, New Year's Day=== <blockquote>Sharp frost was experienced over the East of England yesterday morning, and in South London the thermometer had been as low as 27deg., and 28deg. in Hyde-park. It rose during the day to 41deg., but in the evening frost again set in. Later the thermometer rose again to 32deg., and there was an appearance as of coming rain.<ref><cite>The Morning Post. 1 January 1890 (No. 36,675): P. 4, Col. F.</cite></ref></blockquote>Influenza was spreading all over Europe. A true pandemic carried by international commerce and travel, it was called the Russian flu. {{paragraph break}} According to the "Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning" in the Morning Post,<blockquote>A second supplement to the Gazette, issued last night, contains the following: — "Lord Chamberlain's Office, January 1. "Orders for the Court's going into mourning on Thursday next, the 2d instant, for her late Majesty the Empress of Brazil, viz." — "The ladies to wear black dresses, white gloves, black or white shoes, feathers, and fans, pearls, diamonds, or plain gold or silver ornaments. The gentlemen to wear black Court dress, with black swords and buckles. "The Court to change the mourning on Thursday, the 16th instant, viz.: — [new paragraph] The ladies to wear black dresses, with coloured ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments, or grey or white dresses, with black ribbons, flowers, feathers, and ornaments. The gentlemen to continue the same mourning. "And on Thursday, the 23d instant, the Court to go out of mourning."<ref><cite>"Court Circular: Orders for Court Mourning." The Morning Post, 2 January 1890 (No. 36,676): page 5 Col. G.</cite></ref></blockquote> ==== Marchioness of Londonderry's "At Home" ==== Also on 1 January, Wednesday, the Marchioness of Londonderry hosted an at-home. Here's a report from the London ''Daily Telegraph'':<blockquote>Among those whom the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry are entertaining this week at Wynyard Park, their South Durham residence, are the Dowager Marchioness of Londonderry, Mr. Wentworth Beaumont and Lady Aline Beaumont, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Ormonde, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Castlereagh, Lady Helen Stewart, Lord C. Reginald Stewart, Lord Henry Vane-Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Sir William and Lady Eden, the Hon. Rowland Winn, the Hon. Miss Winn, the Hon. F. Thellusson, the Hon. Miss Thellusson, the Hon. Violet White, Miss Wombwell and Miss C. Wombwell, Mr. and Mrs. W. Jameson, Captain the Hon. C. Lambton, Mr. R. Yeoman, Mr. Adolphus Vane-Tempest, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Ord, Captain Orr-Ewing, A.D.C. (16th Lancers), Miss Sturmfells, and Mr. N. W. Apperley.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 2 January 1890, Thursday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900102&page=5&article=075&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>This report is from the ''Seaham Weekly News'' and focuses on local people:<blockquote>The Marchioness of Londonderry gave an "At Home" at Wynyard Park on Wednesday evening (New Year's day), at which there was present a large and fashionable company, including the following:— The house party at Wynyard Park comprises the following:— The Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Dowager Marchioness of Londonderry, Mr Wentworth Beaumont and Lady Alexandrlna Beaumont, the [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Ormonde, Viscount Castlereagh, Lady Helen Stewart, and Lord Reginald Stewart, Lord Henry Vane-Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Sir William and Lady Eden, the Hon. Rowland Winn and the Hon. Miss Winn, the Hon. Mr F. Thelusson and the Hon. Miss Thelusson, the Hon. Violet White, Miss Wombwell, and Miss C. Wombwell, Mr and Mrs W. Jameson, Captain the Hon. C. Lambton, Mr R. Yeoman, Mr Adolphus Vane-Tempest, Mr and Mrs Richard Ord, Captain Orr-Ewing, A.D.C., 18th Lancers, Miss Sturmfells, and Mr N. W. Apperley. Invitations were issued to between seven hundred and eight hundred ladies and gentlemen, and most of them were accepted. The guests comprised the Mayors and Corporations of Stockton, Hartlepool, and West Hartlepool, the chairman and members of the South Stockton Local Board, together with their wives and daughters, the local clergy, and a large number of private residents of Stockton and the district and Seaham Harbour and its neighbourhood. The entertainment consisted of private theatricals, Blanchard Jerrold’s farce "Cool as a Cucumber" and Charles Mathew's comedy "The Dowager" being played. The characters were sustained by the Marquis of Londonderry, Lady Alexandrina Beaumont, Lady Helen Stewart, Lord Herbert Vane-Tempest, Mr and Mrs R. Ord, and Mr Adolpbus Vane-Tempest. Among those who received invitations were the following from this neighbourhood:— Lieut.-Colonel and Mrs Eminson and Miss Meerwarth, Seaham Harbour; Mr and Mrs Corbett,  Miss Corbett, and Miss Swann, Chilton Moor; Mr and Mrs Ditchfield, Seaham Harbour; Mr and Mrs Clazey and Miss Clazey, Sunderland; Mr and Mrs Warham and Miss Warbam, Mr and Mrs Young and Miss Young, Mr and Miss Forster, Mr and Mrs Brydon and Miss Brydon, Mr and Mrs Hardy and Miss Hardy, Seaham Harbour; Mr and Mrs Barrett, Seaham Colliery; Mr and Mrs Panton, Silksworth Colliery; Mr and Mrs Laverick, Rainton Colliery; Revd James Colling, The Vicarage, Seaham Harbour; Revd Canon Scott, Mrs, and Miss Scott, The Vicarage, New Seaham; Revd  A. Bethune, The Vicarage, Seaham; Revd J. Wallis, Revd T. Coploy, Mr H. B. Wright, Captain and Mrs Dawson, Seaham Harbour; the Revd J. J. Brown and Mrs Brown, The Vicarage, Silksworth; Miss Mann, Dr  and Mrs Beatty, Mr and Mrs R. Thorman and Miss Thorman, Mr and Mrs J. J. Candlish, Dr and Mrs Gibbon and Miss Gibbon, Dr and Mrs French and Miss French, Seaham Harbour; Dr and Mrs Broadbent, Dalton-le-Dale; Mr and Mrs Gregson and Miss Gregson, Warden Law, Houghton-le-Spring.<ref>"Entertainment at Wynard Park." ''Seaham Weekly News'' 3 January 1890, Friday: 8 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005958%2F18900103&page=8&article=070&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> </blockquote> === 5 January 1890, Sunday === ==== "A Very Bad Lot" ==== ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' published this article critical of the aristocracy, or "the privileged classes":<blockquote>The English aristocracy is cutting a contemptible figure in the world. Scarcely a day passes that some one or other of its members does not appear in a disreputable light. They are presumed to serve as models, by reason of breeding, education, and the many social advantages they enjoy, to their fellow-men. But what do we find them? Let any brutal exhibition take place, like the recent prize-fight in Belgium, and amongst the supporters and spectators of blackguardism and blackguards are certain well known, and by no means respected, members of the privileged classes. There was, as reported at the Bruges brutal orgie, amongst other noble "patrons of the prize ring," [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], heir to the dukedom of Manchester, whose affray with a cab-man; about a bill his lordship refused to settle recently came before a police court. There was Lord Royston, heir to the earldom of Hardwicke, and several other sprigs of the nobility, all of whom, in course of time, will become hereditary legislators, notwithstanding their blackguard and immoral predilections. A den of unmitigated infamy and bestiality was recently discovered in the midst of London, where practices such as those which brought down upon Sodom and other cities of the plain the wrath of heaven were of daily occurrence. The principal patrons of this abominable resort were members of the aristocracy. "Society" will decline to recognise the enormity of these offences, or the guilt of the offenders, because the latter belong to the "privileged" classes. It saw and purposely refused to even rebuke the Duke of Marlborough belabouring his wife when in the family way for remonstrating with [4c–5a] him on the adulterous intimacy then existing between himself and the Countess of Aylesford. He was a duke, and his ruffianism was excusable! The Divorce Court is incessantly bringing to light the brutal and dastardly behaviour of impecunious aristocrats to the wives they have married solely for the money they possess. All this sort of thing passes for the most part unheeded, save and except now and then, but very rarely, a few platitudes fall from the mouth of some parson from the pulpit, uttered in a  parrot-like manner, as though he feared of offending the rich and privileged members of his congregation. Did he speak out plainly and boldly in condemnation of the terrible vices that prevail amongst what is termed "society," further preferment would be withheld, and most assuredly he would never figure as a Court preacher. Canon Liddon, however, the most eminent orator of the Church of England, and perhaps its most outspoken dignitary, is not so mealy-mouthed. In St. Paul's Cathedral he gave the following trenchant and truthful description of what is to be witnessed in the drawing-rooms of the West-end of London at the commencement of the season:— "Eager mothers, like generals setting out on a campaign, prepared to undergo any amount of fatigue if only they could marry their daughters, not necessarily to a high-souled man, but in any case to a man of fortune. They could also see a group of young men after perhaps a career of dissipation thinking that the time had arrived for settling respectably in life and looking out, not for a girl whose graces and character would  make her husband and children happy, but for somebody with a sufficient dowry to enable them to keep up a large establishment." Girls are sold to the highest bidder. They sit in the drawing-rooms of fashionable London just as the slaves do in Africa, awaiting the most eligible purchaser, or stand about like servant girls waiting to be hired at a statute fair. In very many instances they loathe and detest the man who purchases them, and love another, who, by reason of his scanty means, finds no favour in the eyes of their parents. No wonder, under such conditions, the Divorce Court teems with what are termed "aristocratic scandals." By thus preaching the truth, and denouncing the meannesses and wickednesses of the privileged orders in plain but powerful language, as John Knox did to Mary Queen of Scots, Canon Liddon is no favourite at Court. Albeit the most eloquent preacher of the State Church, he is said to be out of favour in that quarter, and has never been invited to appear in any church where royalty is likely to be found.<ref>"A Very Bad Lot." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 5 January 1890, Sunday: 4 [of 8], Col 4c–5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900105&page=4&article=032&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 6 January 1890, Monday === Empress Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach died on 7 January, and her funeral was on 11 January 1890. (She had been Queen of Prussia and the first German Empress. Her mother had been a Romanov, and she had been married to William I, German Emperor; their eldest son, Frederick William, married Vicky, Princess Royal, Queen Victoria's first-born child. She had politics similar to those of her daughter-in-law, but not of her grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II or Bismarck.) Bertie did not attend her funeral:<blockquote>The decision of the Prince of Wales not to go to Berlin for the funeral of the Empress Augusta has caused much surprise, to say the least of it; but H.R.H. preferred to conclude his visit to Baron Hirsch at Merton, where there was a prodigious slaughter of partridges during the four days' ''chasse''. {{paragraph break}} The guests invited to Merton to meet the Prince were the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Lord and Lady de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Mr. Henry Chaplin, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 14 [of 40], Col. 2b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900115&page=14. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The local paper, the Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal, has a full account:<blockquote>Royal Visit. — On Monday H.R.H. the Prince of Wales arrived here by special train on a visit to the Baron de Hirsch, who is residing at Merton Hall. The train was in charge of Mr. Kimm, the District Superintendent. The Prince was accompanied by the Marquis of Hartington, and attended by Colonel Teesdale. Long before the arrival of the train a large number of the townspeople and many from neighbouring villages gathered in the station yard, the platform being kept clear by a staff of police, who were under the direction of Inspector Knights. Crimson cloth was laid from the platform through the station to Lord Walsingham’s carriage, which was in waiting to convey the visitors to the Hall. His Royal Highness was met on the platform by the Baron. The crowd cheered most heartily as the Prince left the station yard. The company invited to meet His Royal Highness and staying at the Hall are the Duchess of Manchester, Lord Hartington, Colonel Teesdale, Mr. Mackenzie, Colonel Ellis, Lord and Lady Brook, Earl and Countess de Grey, Duc de Chartres, Mr. and Mrs. Sassoon, Viscountess Mandeville and Miss Giese. The Right Hon. Henry Chaplin was prevented by illness from being present. On Tuesday the party went partridge shooting at Stanford, where game was abundant. Lord Hartington was taken ill from the effects of a cold soon after his arrival at Merton. On Wednesday and Thursday the party had "mixed shooting," and to-day (Friday) they shoot through the Home Coverts.<ref>"Watton." ''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 1a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=5&article=091&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' says,<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon [Monday, 6 January] for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud, remains at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton, the ancient seat of the De Grey's in Norfolk. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, via King's Lynn and Swaffham, to Wotton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Viscountess Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon.<ref>"The Queen and Royal Family." ''Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 12 [of 12], Col. 2a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000079%2F18900112&page=12&article=046&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Lloyd's Weekly London Newspaper'', p. 12.</ref></blockquote>The ''Thetford and Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'' has a little more:<blockquote>The Prince of Wales, attended by General Teesdale, C.B., left Sandringham on Monday afternoon for Merton. ... The Princess of Wales, with Princesses Victoria and Maud remain at Sandringham. The Prince of Wales is the guest of the Baron de Hirsch at Merton. Among the other guests at Merton are the Marquis of Hartington, M.P., who travelled by special train with the Prince from Wolferton, ''vĂ­a'' King’s Lynn and Swaffham, to Watton, where the host met them and conducted them to Merton; the Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, the Earl and Countess de Grey, Viscountess Mandeville, General Ellis, Sir James Mackenzie, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon. Mr. Chaplin was expected to have joined the party, but at present is unable to do so.<ref>''Thetford & Watton Times'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 4 [of 8], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001533%2F18900111&page=4&article=090&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Thetford & Watton Times and People's Weekly Journal'', p. 4.</ref></blockquote>And the ''County Gentleman'' has a little more:<blockquote>The party assembled to meet the Prince of Wales at Merton Hall included Lord Hartington, who came on from Wolferton with the Prince. Baron Hirsch met them at Walton Station, and conducted them back to Merton. There was a nice little crowd of country people at the station, who cheered H.R.H. lustily. The Duc de Chartres, the Duchess of Manchester, Lord and Lady de Grey, Lady Mandeville, and Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon were of the party. Mr. Chaplin, laid up with influenza, was unable to accept the Baron's invitation. The shooting was excellent. I hear that the Baron will, after all, buy Houghton, and take up his abode there next year. ...  Death has been busy in Imperial circles this week. Scarcely had mourning been decreed for the ex-Empress of Brazil than we heard of the death of the venerable Empress Augusta of Germany at the advanced age of 80. She had been a great invalid for many years past, and influenza found her an easy victim. ... The Empress Frederick's visit to Italy has been abruptly terminated by the death of her mother-in-law, the Empress Augusta. ... Court mourning will considerably modify the programmes arranged for next week at Bournemouth, Poole, and Canford Manor. The Prince and Princess will, of course, be Lord and Lady Wimborne's guests, but the balls will have to be given up, much to the vexation of spirit of all concerned. Mourning is to be worn for four weeks, from Wednesday until February 5.<ref>"The Man about Town." ''Sporting Gazette'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 34], Col. 1b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900111&page=6&article=039&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The County Gentleman'', p. 38.</ref></blockquote> ==== Amicable Gathering of Boxers and Sportsmen ==== Also on Monday, 6 January, 1890, some sports (are the men boxers or related to boxing?) aficionados gathered at Anderton's Hotel:<blockquote>An outward bounder weighs anchor from London to-day (Tuesday) in the person of Mr. Charles "Parson" Davies. It is superfluous to remark that, as the acting manager for "Peter the Great," the "Parson" has endeared himself to all classes of English sports by reason of his quiet, unassuming ways, and the impartial manner in which he has carried out all those engagements with which he has been associated. Now he held quite a "MatinĂ©e" at Anderton’s Hotel (so ably presided over by Mr. Arthur Clemow) yesterday, where he invited his friends to quaff a friendly glass with him. First and foremost to grasp his palm and bid him "God speed" was Frank Slavin. It was, indeed, gratifying to note the kindly feeling that existed all round. Not a single "jar" ensued to mar the harmony of the proceedings. Amongst those present were [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Messrs. E. Bayley, Lewis (Slavin’s manager), Frank Symes, Tom Kirby, Charlie Rowell, Baldock, Davenport (the black), George W. Atkinson and S. Richardson (''Sporting Life''), Frank Tarbanx, &c. "Parson" Davies leaves Euston Station to-night (Tuesday) by the midnight train for Liverpool, and it goes without saying that his numerous friends are bound to muster in round numbers in order give him a good train off. Mr. Davies sails for New York in the "Britannic" on Wednesday morning.<ref>"A Friendly Glass with "Parson" Davies." ''Sporting Life'' 7 January 1890, Tuesday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000893%2F18900107&page=4&article=031&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 7, Tuesday === The hundreds of newspaper reports about several boxing matches around this time lack dates, so these aggregated descriptions are still under construction. Check December 1889 and February 1890, too. The Fracas at the Trocadero and one meeting at the Pelican Club occurred on the same day. The [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|Smith-Slavin Fight]] was apparently on 23 December 1889. At least 2 [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|meetings at the London Pelican Club]] followed, as well as the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]. === 9 January 1890, Thursday === ==== The York Hunt Ball ==== This account is from the ''Irish Society'', which explains which women's costumes are the focus:<blockquote>The fashionable world and his wife are out of town just now, having good times at country houses. They shed the light of their brilliant presence on those annual functions known as county balls, and enjoy themselves also at those popular and picturesque entertainments to which they are bidden by the masters and members of the various hunts. One of the smartest dances of last week took place at York on Thursday evening. It was in fancy costume, and was in aid of funds for the York County Hospital. Once upon a time the journey from London to the Minster City of the North was a far cry, and one not lightly undertaken. Now it is luxurious and short. In consequence this hall presented the appearance of one in town in mid-season. There was conspicuous for height and handsomeness the familiar figure and face of Countess de Grey. Lady Helen Duncombe, too, who shares with her Grace of Leinster, and Lady Cynthia Graham, the family beauty of the House of Feversham, was seen in the marvellously becoming (to her) costume of the Empire period. Lady Lilian Wemyss, a lady "divinely tall,” and appropriately fair, was garbed in pink and white of a fashion hailing from the Empire. A "square;” in which the lady dancers were all gowned empirically, was the event of the evening. An event worth remembering it was. The costumes were superb, but their attractions were nowhere in comparison with the charms the [Col. 1c–2a] wearers. These were all tall and each one handsome. Lady de Trafford’s pretty face and fine figure showed to great advantage in her gown of white satin, veiled with gold-bordered ''chiffon'', and with an Empire trained cloak from her shoulders of Rose du Barri velvet lined with white satin, and bordered with gold galon. The colour of the velvet in what is seen in the half-yellow, half-scarlet petals of the soft textured nasturtium bloom. [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Mrs Algernon Bourke]] looked a picture in a Gainsborough gown. The white satin skirt was flounced with sable and veiled with ''chiffon'', the setuage of which was left to show without being hemmed up. There was a broad sash of rose-pink silk and each buttonhole was filled round with crimped lisse. One might go on for long enough describing costume after costume, and then leave them half out. Therefore, we shall, like the judge "sum up” and "charge” for a verdict of the utmost brilliancy.<ref>"Our London Letter." ''Irish Society'' (Dublin) 11 January 1890, Saturday: 17 [of 24], Col. 1b–2a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001939/18900111/042/0017. Same print title, p. 29.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 10, Friday === The [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. === 1890 January 13, Monday === ==== Wallace-Camp Boxing Match ==== An Important Boxing Match between two 8-stone (112-pound, Bantam-weight) boxers. Lord Mandeville seems to have been an organizer. Nunc (Edwin) Wallace in June of 1890 fought American George Dixon, who defeated Wallace to become the first Black fighter to win a world prize in boxing.<blockquote>Nunc Wallace and G. Camp for ÂŁ1,000. On Monday night, at the Ormonde Club, London, the above-named met to do battle for the largest sum of money that has ever been "put up" for a glove contest. That a couple of 8st [8 stone] men could be brought together in a glove contest for the sum of ÂŁ1,000 would, even in the palmy days of the Prize Ring, have been scouted by the merest tyro in ring matters. Celebrities like Peter Morris, George Holden, Joe Nolan, and Dan Thomas never fought for more than ÂŁ200, but here we have a stake of ÂŁ500 a-side freely put down to see who is the better man of the  two. This money, when the match was made last autumn, would have been gladly increased by either side to double the amount, therefore "the fight of his life" is applicable to both George Camp and Edwin ("Nunc") Wallace. The match, made so far back as October last was really the outcome of the bout between Camp and Wallace in the second round of an 8st competition, decided at the Royal Aquarium in December, 1888. A very close struggle ensued, so close, indeed, that the judges ordered a fourth round of two minutes. Wallace eventually get- [Col. 2c–3a] ting the award. From the moment the decision was given Camp's friends were dissatisfied, and hence the contract which was signed for Monday night's battle. With thirteen weeks in which to get fit, neither man was in a hurry to commence work, and the match had been ratified neatly a month before  Wallace took up his quarters at Sutton Coldfield, with Ben Garrington to look after him. Camp journeyed to Brighton with his old trainer, George Bagnall, and it is needless to say neither man wanted for anything. Thinking a change desirable, Wallace a mouth ago also made a move to Brighton, where his interests were studied to the minutest detail by Mr. Sam Mordecai. Both men were waited on hand and foot. Mr. Sam Blandford, representing Camp's backer, took up residence in the famous watering-place, and hardly ever lost sight of the Bermondsey youth. On the other hand Wallace hardly ever drank out of a pot that Mr. Sam Mordecai did not examine, and in this way the men progressed satisfactorily in their training. Lords and Dukes begged for the "tip" as to where the meeting would be in vain, and letters from legal luminaries, magistrates and city magnates came in shoals to those entrusted with the management. The backers on each side were obdurate, and at the final deposit the names of the fortunate <nowiki>''</nowiki>thirty" agreed upon, were handed in. The men were articled to weigh at twelve o'clock on Monday, and so as not to attract attention it was decided this important part of the programme should be performed at Brighton. Accordingly the scales having been fixed in Camp's bedroom, the rivals, in the presence of Lord  Mandeville, Mr. E W Bayly, Mr. Derriman, Mr. Sam Blandfold, and Mr. Dunning, and their trainers, "tipped the beam[.]" Wallace was the first to "pass," weighing 8ths 8st 1 1/2lb stripped. Camp failing to reach this by half a pound, also clothed in Nature's garb. Both looked in splendid trim, though Camp's ruddy complexion was more taking to the eye than the pale appearance of "Nunc." Wallace was attired in black drawers with a gold stripe, red socks, and black rubber-soled shoes. Camp was all in white, with canvas shoes, and amidst almost oppressive silence they faced each other at 8.50 p.m. The Contest ... Round 15 and Iast. The doctoring of Harper and Habbijam brought Camp round before he had again to face the music, but he looked very bad indeed when the watch holder gave the word to start once more. It was only a question of a few minutes, for Wallace was as yet little the worse for the struggle so far, while on Camp's part there was everything to fear. The latter, however, without the slightest trace of the "white feather," sprang up and met Wallace full of confidence, the latter coming at his weak opponent with a straight left on the face. The "Brum forced" Camp back to the ropes, and then smashed the left on the mouth, and only just missed with the right. Still having the best of it he popped in the left again, and down Camp went Iike a log through the ropes. In quicker time than it takes to tell the Surrey boxer was up and at it once more, but with a manifest disadvantage. Receiving right and left on the head he again went down, and in falling strunk his head against the skirting board outside the ring. Wallace stood over him, but at respectable distance, like a Roman gladiator, and the smile which played round his features, was one of victory, for Camp this time was beaten. Failing to rise within the stipulated ten second[s], Mr Angle awarded the fight to Wallace, the round having lasted 2min 45sec. The award was received with exulting shouts by the friends of Wallace, and the clever little boxer was at once raised shoulder high and lifted from the ring. Poor Camp soon came to, but was terribly cut up over his defeat, and for a time refused to be comforted. Wallace, recognising the pluck and ability of his vanquished foe, shook hands in kindly fashion, and thus ended one of the best conducted of modern contests with the gloves. Time of contest, 58 min 45secs.<ref>"A Great Glove Fight." ''Dublin Sporting News'' 17 January 1890, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 2c–4x [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004807%2F18900117&page=3&article=022&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> ===16 January 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>About two hundred members of the newly formed Dulwich Literary and Scientific Association attended the conversazione given on Jan. 16 at Surrey House Museum, Forest Hill, when Mr. Horniman, F.R.G.S., acted as cicerone round the rooms, richly stored with historical relics, ornithological curiosities, and art treasures.<ref>''Illustrated London News'' (London, England), Saturday, January 25, 1890; pg. 120; Issue 2649, Col. 3.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 21, Tuesday === The marriage of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins:<blockquote>In the church of St. Mary Abbotts, Kensington, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred von Oppenberm and Miss Florence Hutchins, daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of Palace-gate. The Hon. and Rev E. Carr Glyn and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., officiated. Among those who attended the reception afterwards held were Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, and General Du Plat.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900122&page=5&article=080&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Daily Telegraph'', p. 5.</ref></blockquote>The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' has a description that is slightly more full. Is Count von Alten related to [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]]?<blockquote>At St. Mary Abbots, Kensington, yesterday, the marriage took place of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim, only son of Baron Edward Von Oppenheim, of Cologne and Schloss Schlenderham, and Miss Florence Hutchins, only daughter of Mrs. Parkinson Sharp, of 10, Palace-gate. The service was fully choral, the officiating clergy being the Hon. R. E. Carr-Glyn, rector of St. Mary Abbots, and the Rev. Henry White, M.A., chaplain in ordinary to the Queen. The bride, who was given away by her stepfather, Mr Parkinson Sharp, wore a plain dress of rich white ivory satin, elaborately draped with real orange blossoms. Count C. Von Leyden, Councillor of the German Embassy, attended the Baron as best man. Half a dozen bridesmaids followed the bride elegantly attired in costumes of white cashmere, with white corded silk sashes. They were Miss Aim e [sic] Winslow, Miss Emry Von Oppenheim, Miss Vitty Von Oppenbeim, Miss Potter, Miss Eleanor Heywood, and Miss Seymour. The reception was given at Mrs. Parkinson Sharp's town residence, 10, Palace-gate, Kensington, which was largely attended among those present being Prince and Princess Malcom Khan, Baron and Baroness E. von Oppenheim, Baron Max Oppenheim, Baron von Wedd Yarlsberg, Countess de Bunsen, Baron and Baroness de Plency, Count von Alten, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Dowager Countess of Harrington, Admiral Sir Edward Inglefield, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Lady Cottenham, General Du Plat, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Baron S. Alfred Von Oppenheim." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 January 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 8m], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900122&page=7&article=016&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 28, Tuesday === According to the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' on 28 January 1890 people were buying "Exploration" shares, which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<blockquote>Royalty and the peerage have gone in for "Exploration" shares. The Duchess of Albany is the possessor of fifty shares, which hardly seems to assume the dimensions of a royal investment. Certainly the general public would incline to the idea that a princess would never condescend to invest so small a sum as ÂŁ25 in anything unless it were a hat or a jacket. The Duke of Fife, on the other hand, has been allotted a thousand shares. The Duchess of Manchester and the Countess of Mandeville have thirty each.<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === 1890 January 29, Wednesday === [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29]] === 1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least 1890 February 8, Saturday === Kim, Lord Mandeville was in Brighton — at 80, King's-road — at least as early as 30 January.<ref>"Brighton Visitors." ''Brighton Gazette'' 30 January 1890, Thursday: 3 [of 8], Col. 2a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000938%2F18900130&page=3&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Brighton Gazette and Sussex Telegraph'', p. 3.</ref> The ''Lady's Pictorial'' lists "recent arrivals" in Brighton:<blockquote>Though a good many people have left Brighton, still fresh visitors arrive, and the front is crowded when the weather is a little kind. Amongst the most recent arrivals may be mentioned the Countess of Strafford, Lady Susan Byng, Lady Chelmsford, Lord and Lady Seaton, Lady Jane Grimston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Lord Romilly and the Hon. John Romilly, Viscount and Viscountess Hampden, the Hon. R. Somerset, the Hon.  Thomas Dundas, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. A. W. Verney Cave, Lady Elizabeth Cartwright, Colonel Sir Alfred and Lady Kirby, Mr. Bazley White, M.P., and Lady Bazley White, Sir Hugh Montgomery, Sir Frederick and Lady Perkins, Lady Ellis, General Seymour, &c., &c.<ref>Dorothy. "Brighton Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 8 February 1890, Saturday: 51 [of 60], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900208&page=51&article=671&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 203.</ref></blockquote> ==February 1890== === 1890 February 6, Thursday === Before 6 February but not long before. The prize-fighter Pete Jackson fought a match at the New Pelican Club.<blockquote>It is always well to hear that distinguished visitors have enjoyed the hospitality which we have extended to them. This satisfaction is afforded us in full measure by the eminent "Parson" Davis, manager of Pete Jackson, the prize-fighter, who has just been regaling an American interviewer with an account of his experiences in England:— He had been treated in splendid style, and Jackson was received well everywhere. Nothing would give him greater pleasure than to revisit England, and he hoped soon to do so. "I shook a paw with the Prince,” said the parson. "We had a high old time with Albert E. His Royal Highness was exceptionally friendly with Jackson, and actually made a pump handle of his arm. He shook hands with him again and again. The Prince is in capital  health, and" —— But at this point the interviewer mysteriously breaks off. The Prince, however, was not the only British notable to whom Parson Davis referred. He explained that the cause of the trouble with Smith at the New Pelican Club was that the gloves furnished Jackson were too small in the fingers, and when he closed his hand he almost split them, and could not fight. The matter was explained to the officers of the Club, where the fight took place, and other gloves were procured for Jackson:— Fair play was given, and the audience, which included [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lords Mandeville]] and Lonsdale, were loud in their admiration of Jackson's skill.<ref>"The Tittle Tattle of the Week." ''Pall Mall Budget'' 6 February 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 36], Col. 1b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005967%2F18900206&page=4. Same print title, p. 162.</ref></blockquote> ==== The Fracas at the Trocadero ==== This report from the ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'', 12 January 1890, has paragraphs with gossip; the middle paragraph is not about Lord Mandeville, and the paragraph that follows these is about an epidemic in London; could it be the Russian flu?<blockquote>A great stir has been caused in London by the repert [sic] — only too well authenticated I regret to say — to the effect that a certain individual, who for some years past has been connected somewhat prominently alike with journalism and theatrical enterprise, has suddenly levanted [sic] in consequence of his name being associated with the recent West End scandals. What makes the matter all the more talked about is the fact that the person most concerned has for a long time posed as a conspicuous figure in Society, having given numerous receptions and himself being strongly to the fore at most of the big banquets, first nights and similar gatherings. He has hob-nobbed, in fact, with the wealthy and illustrious, but there is every reason to believe that his pleasant career has been prematurely cut short by a series of disclosures, which are too gross and too scandalous to be referred to in detail. The report is all the talk at the clubs.<ref>"Notes of the Week." ''Eddowes's Shrewsbury Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 3 [of 12], Col. 2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001504%2F18900115&page=3. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 12 February 1890, Wednesday === ==== Lady Constance Leslie's Reception ==== <blockquote>On Wednesday last Lady Constance Leslie had an evening party at her residence in Stratford-place. {{paragraph break}} The numerous guests included Prince Ernest of Hohenlohe, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and the Countesses Gleichen, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Mensdorf, Count and Countess Henry LĂŒtzow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Baroness de Brienen and Mdlles de Brienen, the Duke of Abercorn, the Duchess of Cleveland, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, Earl and Countess of Portarlington, Earl Stanhope, the Earl of Northbrook, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Earl and Countess of Erne and the Ladies Cole, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr. Brandling, Viscount Clifden, Viscountess Bary, Viscount Torrington, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscount and Viscountess de Vesci and Lady Sarah Spencer, Viscountess Galway, and Mr Caryl Ramsden, Lord de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Alcester, Lord and Lady Wantage, Lord Ashbourne, Lady Henry Grosvenor and Lady G. Ogilvy, Lady Cloncurry, Lord Morris and Mr. M. Morris, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Rowton, Lady Blanche Hozier, Lady Colville, Lady Rayleigh, Lady Constance Lytton and Mr. Charles Earle, Lady Evelyn Sutton, Lady Ernest Seymour and Ladies Fortescue, Lord and Lady Sandhurst, Lady Mary Lloyd, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Windsor, Lord and Lady William Seymour, Lady Guy Campbell, Lady Egerton, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron d'Erlanger and Mr. Charles Derenberg, Hon. R. C. Spencer, M.P., and Mrs. Spencer, Hon. Evelyn Ashley, Hon. W. Mansfield, Hon. Lionel Ashley, Hon. A. Hood, Hon. William Lowther and Miss Lowther, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Fitzroy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Frederick Leveson Gower, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Francis Villiers, Hon. Francis Bertie, Hon. Arthur Walsh, Colonel the Hon. Charles Edgcumbe, General Hon. John Bourke, General and Hon. Mrs. Ellis and Mrs. R. Sneyd and Miss Ellis, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], Hon. Alan and Hon. Evan Charteris, Hon. Alexander Yorke, Hon. Derek Keppel, General Sir Dighton Probyn, Hon. Percy Wyndham, Hon. Everard Baring and Hon. Susan Baring, Hon. Mrs. Brett, Hon. Claud Hay, the Right Hon. Henry Matthews, Sir George Arthur, Sir George Maude, Sir Philip Currie, C.B., Sir Redvers and Lady Audrey Buller, Sir Charles Grant, Sir Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P., Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Robert Gresley, Sir Algernon West and Mr. Horace West, Sir George and Lady Russell and Miss Brackenbury, Sir Henry and Lady Longley, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, General Crealock, General Charles Fraser, Colonel Saunderson, M.P., and Hon. Mrs. Saunderson, Colonel and Mrs. Stewart and Miss Streatfeild [siv], Colonel and Miss Balfour, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and Miss Clarke, Colonel R. Baring, Captain and Mrs. Jekyll, Captain and Mrs. J. Bagot, Captain Lambert Ward, Captain A. Bagot, Mr. Charles Hall, Q.C, M.P., Mr[.] Hussey Walsh, M.P., Mr and Mrs. W. Hartpole Lecky, Mr. and Mrs. Richard Combe, Mr Henry Foley, Mrs. Arbuthnot and Miss Guthrie, Mr. and Mrs. Heseltine and Miss Dorothy Heseltine and Lord Cantelupe, the Miss Stopford Brooke, Mr. and Mrs. Thackeray Ritchie, Mr Edmund Byng, Mr. and Mrs. Wilton Phipps, Professor Sidney Colvin, Mr. and Miss Tennant, Mr. Godfrey Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Turton and Mr. Sidney Ponsonby, Mrs. Adare, Mrs Cecil Paget and Mr. Hugo Wemyss, Mrs. L. Drummond, Mr. and Mrs E. Hope, Mrs. L. Seymour and Miss Seymour, Mr. Guy Repton, Mr. and Mrs. Julian Sturgis and Miss Beresford, Mr. Poynter, R.A., Mrs. Daniel Cooper, Mr. Hamilton AĂŻdĂ©, Mr. Alwyne Maude, Mrs. C. Bentinck, Mrs. Bingham Mildmay, Mr. Philip Habord, Mr. and Mrs. George Bulteel, Mrs. Beerbohm Tree and Miss Julia Neilson, Mr. HallĂ© [Halle?], Mr. Rudolph Lehmann and Miss Lehmann, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. R. Ronalds]], Mr. Ellice, Mr. Arthur, Madame Blumenthal, Miss Julia Leslie, Mr. and Mrs. Jeune, Mr and Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley and Misses Millais, Mrs. Arkwright, Mr Joachim, Mr. Gillett, Mr. Pulteney (Scots Guards), Colone| Cuthbert Larking, Mr. Harry Higgins, M. Tividar Nachez, Mr. G. Ross, Herr Johannes Woolff, Mrs. Charles Bagot and Miss Bagot, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Henry Petre, Miss Balch, Mr. and Lady Maud Ramsden, Mr. Adolphus Liddell, Mr Knowles, Mr. Grenfell, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mrs. Henry Gordon and Miss Gordon, Mr. Henry James, Mr. St. Leger, Mrs. Dacre Hamilton and the Misses Nugent, Mr. Harbord, Mr Somerset, Mr. Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Miss Hughes of Kinmel, Mr. and Mrs Douglas Freshfield, Mrs. Homer, Mr. W. H. Mallock, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Benson, Mr. H. Seymour, Mr. Ernest Law, Mr. Hugh Grimston, Mr. Lionel Cust, Mr. Chappell, Mr. and Mrs. Du Maurier, Mr. Boughton, R.A., and Mrs. Boughton, Mr. R. Roche, Mr. Montagu Wilson, Mr. Herbert Hope, &c.<ref>"Lady Constance Leslie's Reception." ''Morning Post'' 15 February 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900215/008/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 24 February 1890, Monday === Lilly Langtry starred in Shakespeare's ''As You Like It'' at the St. James's Theatre. The Daily Telegraph had a long review and mentioned more names:<blockquote> The motto of Petronius, which is said to have adorned the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's time, "Totus mundus agit histrionem," and which is reproduced in Jaques' famous speech, may be said to have received a novel illustration in the brilliant audience which completely filled the St. James's Theatre last evening. A very distinguished section of the world "played the actor" in the stalls, boxes, and dress-circle, and evinced the keenest dramatic interest in the long-deferred production of "As You Like It." The Prince and Princess of Wales, with the Duchess of Fife, surveyed the scene from the Royal box, while amongst the many who secured seats for the first were the Austrian Ambassador, the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Duchess of Manchester]], Countess de Grey, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lady Colin Campbell, Lord Wolverton, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Baroness de Stern, and Mr. Alfred Rothschild. Naturally enough there was much curiosity in seeing once more on the London stage an actress who has since her last appearance devoted so much serious study to her profession, and gained so much success both before American and provincial audiences; while the sympathy evoked by her recent severe illness, delaying for four weeks the production of the comedy, added an almost pathetic note to the general excitement and enthusiasm. In the second scene of the first act, when the tenderly attached cousins make their earliest appearance on the stage, Celia's first words, "| pray thee, Rosalind, sweet, my coz, be merry," answered by Rosalind’s "Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of," were almost drowned in the applause which accompanied the recognition of Mrs. Langtry. From time to time, whenever opportunity served, enthusiasm broke out anew, culminating in the triumph of plaudits which formed the fit ending to the gracefully-delivered epilogue with which Rosalind takes her farewell of her audience. There can be no doubt that, with all due allowance for the inevitable nervousness which accompanied a first production before a critical though sympathetic house, the revival of the immortal comedy was generally pronoanced to be a success. The fancifally-named "As You Like It" — where even in nomenclature the author confesses his indebtedness to the romance of Thomas Lodge — with greater dullness than is usually the case with Shakespeare's plays. Indeed interest is hardly aroused till the scene before the Duke's Palace, where Rosalind and Celia witness the wrestling — which after a few more performances will probably go less stagily than it did last night — between Charles and Orlando. It is only when we are transported to the Forest of Arden that Shakespeare's romantic fancy allows itself full course, and it was only when she was accoutred in the doublet and hose that Mrs. Langtry exercised her full charm upon the audience. The difficulty for the actress in the character of Rosalind is the contrast between the early abandon of her frankly-expressed love for the son of Rowland de Bois and the subsequent archness and reserve with which she plays with her lover in the forest. Orlando goes through precisely an opposite change. From the careless desperateness of a man who is out of favour with fortune in the opening scene, he changes to the sentimental devotion of a "love-shaked fancy-monger" in the sylvan glades. If that interchange of parts be missed much is lost in the sprightly  contrasts of the drama. Unfortunately, no sooner did Orlando enter on the wrestling-ground last night, than he started and caught at his heart in obvious suggestion of love at first sight. Much is lost of the utter wonderment at Rosalind’s unexpected graciousness in giving him her chain, which keeps him tongue-tied later, if he betrays so early the fatal ravages of Cupid — a betrayal which is hardly likely in a man whom neglect and misery have driven to the last stage of reckless hardihood. Rosalind must love her champion before her winning thanks for his prowess have made the starred younger brother first marvel at and then adore the frank and generous advances of his benefactress. In the fine words, "My father was no traitor," Mrs. Langtry rose to the full height of the character she was depicting. Throughout the greater part of the first act there was grace, loveableness, charm, but also a kind of flatness, or, at all events, an even and somewhat uninteresting level of characterisation which did not convey the promise of all that this loveliest creation in Shakespeare's gallery could do, when the Court life was exchanged for the freer and less conventional existence in the woods. All the more praise, therefore, is Mrs. Langtry’s due, that when she finds herself in the Forest of Arden, she brings before us a truer Rosalind. The beautiful first scene between the disguised Ganymede and her amorous swain showed Mrs. Langtry at her best. The quick and nimble wit, the archness and pretty coquetry of a girl who is sick at heart with love and feeds her passion in a playful and adorable tyrannising over the unconscious lover, were depicted with a reality which won instant recognition from the spectators. For the rest, however, Mrs. Langtry’s Rosalind was an unequal performance, now rising with unexpected force into the regions of pure comedy, now sinking to an ordinary level of  uncomfortably-disguised womanishness. There were bright patches of power in the midst of a somewhat dull and colourless expanse. Much of this was, no doubt, due to the excitement and fatigue of a first night, to which also may be attributed possibly the sameness of some of her gestures and a restlessness which was something more than Rosalind's anxiety to win in her own incomparable way the happiness of which she was in search. A few nights hence firmness of carriage and self-control of manner will fill in the details of a character which was most graphically and sympathetically sketched in outline at the St. James’s last night. Mr Laurence Cautley as Orlando made most favourable impression on his audience. Through all the earlier scenes — with the exception of that wholly unnecessary lapse into amorousness on the lawn of Duke Frederick, which has been already noted — he sustained the character of a picturesque and youthful gallant with considerable success, though, possibly, a stronger dash of manly independence might not have come amiss to the Shakespearean hero. Touchstone is a more difficult part to play. Indeed, in some respects, he is the most difficult of all Shakespeare's clowns. He is on the borderland between the earlier, more conventional style of Costard, Launce, and Launcelot, and the far more elaborate and important clowns in "Twelfth Night" and "King Lear." He is not so clever as Feste, not so human and real as that inimitable and tender-hearted Edgar who tries to solace the wild ravings of his discrowned king. He is halfway between such farcical beings as Kempe and Tarlton probably depicted, and that witty, self-conscious, irresponsible Jester, which Shakespeare ultimately made an entirely new creation on Elizabethan boards. It is no discredit to Mr. Sugden that he failed to realise so ingenious a conception. He presented a Touchstone who was full of amusing quips, and he went through all the catalogue of points in the Book of Honour in the fifth act with admirable skill; the Touchstone of "As You Like It" we are probably not likely to see often on the modern stage. Mr. Bourchier’s Jaques was a far higher piece of portraiture, grave and bitter and cynical as that early disciple of Schopenhauer should be, with touches of humour which only serve to show the depths of a naturally perverse and misanthropical nature. The celebrated "Seven Ages" speech  was capitally delivered, with a conscientious care and easy mastery which are rare enough in an actor who has so lately left the ranks of the amateurs. For the rest, the Adam of Mr Everill, and the Andrey of Miss Marion Lea seemed to give most pleasure to the audience, though she was sometimes — espectally in the pronunciation of the word "poetry" — inclined to represent the boorishness of the wench with an accent  which reproduced simulated inebriation rather than native clumsiness. Miss Armbruster as Hymen also deserves a word of praise. The piece was produced under the direction of the Hon. Lewis Wingfield, and the scenery, which in the Forest Glade of Acts II., III., and IV., formed a beautiful stage picture, was designed by Messrs. Perkins and Bruce Smith. After all, was any one ever wholly satisfied with the representaton of one of Shakespeare's comedies? No thing is further from the truth as a general statement than the pedant’s theory that Shakespeare is for the study, and not for the boards. If ever, however, the paradox be true that a great dramatic artist suffers when his plays gain a dramatic representation, it is when "As You Like It," "Twelfth Night" and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are brought face to face with a modern audience and amid nineteenth century surroundings. It ts not with impunity that the light that never was on sea and land is parodied by the glare of the footlights. For, honest stage-craftsman as Shakespeare was, in the full spring-tide of his poetic genius there was a divine and masterful intolerance of the real and the commonplace, a reckless flight into an ideal world, peopled by beings coined in the mint of his dainty imagination — aerial and disembodied creations whose actions and characters refuse to submit themselves to the narrow rules of the every-day world. In such a sphere banished lovers shall be predestined to meet and cement their happy unions, and lions and snakes shall be the habitual denizens of a forest where shepherds and shepherdesses prattle their erotic strains, and even a crafty Oliver shall repent of his past sins and fall in love with gentle Celia, owing to the poetic exigencies of Cloud Cuckoo Land. How can one  see all these things with the cynical eye of the modern ''Fin de SiĂšcle'' and not feel an inevitable shock of dissatisfaction and surprise? How is it possible to avoid the jarring sense of discord when the dream picture is realised in the setting of prosaic reality? For Shakespeare's comedy is a romantic work of the mind, a refuge for all those delightful improbabilities which an indolent or whimsical fancy strings together to construct a series of complications and incidents which interest us, while they elude the sober tests of reason and judgment. But we must not carry this vein of thought too far. It is true that we have in such plays comedies of incident rather than of character. Yet Shakespeare is too and heart-whole to linger only at the Ivory gate. He throws even into these merry plots the force of that instinctive knowledge of human nature which produces real personages, tricked out in witty and imaginative guise. Shakespeare was able to pour everything into his comedies which he did into his tragedies, though in the one there is only suggestion, while in the other there is the elaboration of that is deep and tragic as well as humorous in life. Rosalid, Orlando, Touchstone, and Jaques are none the less real because they are ideal; and it is on these grounds that we can praise the conscientious and capable artists who presented these characters in flesh and blood on the St. James's stage. Nor does Shakespeare, as some have thought, intend in this play to preach [Col. 1c–2a]  any polemic against the life of the town, or compose any passionate encomium for the simple graces of the country. He is too great to be didactic on such narrow issues. Wherever men and women live, there they can be happy; or, as Touchstone says to Corin, when he expresses ignorance of the Court, one-sided enthusiasts for either streets or hedge-rows are truly damned, "like an ill-roasted egg, all on one side." Equanimity, such that of the Duke and old Adam, carries with it, wherever it be, the gracious gentleness of an eternal Eden.<ref>"St. James's Theatre." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 12], Col. 6a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900225&page=5&article=048&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote> The ''St. James's Gazette'' reported:<blockquote> We came intending to like it very much, and we succeeded in our intention. Indeed, we spent a really pleasant evening at the St. James's Theatre, Many of us knew one another to nod to, and some of us had bowing acquaintance with the author of the play; so it was all very sociable and comfortable. There were just enough shop-window celebrities to give an air of distinction to the rest of the audience, and everybody had a right to hope that his neighbours were wondering who he was. The critics were quite at their ease, having nothing to criticise except the acting; not being expected to suggest any slight alterations in the play (such as cutting out Acts I., III., and V., and rewriting Acts II. and IV.), but just to accept it as it stood, without even tracing it back to the French vaudeville from which it was, no doubt, originally adapted. The performance had many individual merits, but it also had two general faults. The first and least striking fault was that the interludes were  slurred over instead of being played up to. Now, the plot of "As You Like It" is so loose that a lengthy interlude (provided it be pretty) does not check the flow of interest; indeed, it gives a welcome rest and allows you to pick up your thoughts again. The other fault is one which may be, and is likely to be, remedied the play goes on. But at present it is neither smart nor spontaneous: the parts do not hang well together, and there is none of the enthusiasm which helps to pass off the interior performances of less skilful actors. The deficiency which we have noted was probably due to the serious illness from which Mrs. Langtry had been suffering and from which it was evident last night that she had not made a complete recovery. She worked very hard as Rosalind, and worked very well, and several times she made a really good hit; she was, perhaps, at her best in her indignant appeal to the usurper Duke against his unexpected and unjust decree of banishment. She was charming, again, in her embarrassment (as Miss Litton was charming before her) when she had her first meeting with her unconscious lover and she suggested very cleverly the absence of her skirts. She did her love-making archly and merrily; but though the pretended pretence gave her a right to go beyond the limits of maiden coyness, she seemed occasionally to assume the masculine Initiative when the feminine Suggestive would have been prettier. it was a pleasant though uneven performance, with plenty of grace in it and plenty of brains. The Touchstone of Mr. Sugden was in every way admirable — crisp, humorous, and distinctive. That his clowning was occasionally tedious was no fault of his. The palate of a modern audience does not relish these long-drawn pedantries of buffoonery. Our sense of humour is not more refined — it is different, and that's the end of it. But in the scenes with Audrey (and Miss Marion Lea made a capital Audrey — open-mouthed and innocently wicked or wickedly innocent) Mr. Sugden had a better opportunity and he made the most of it. There the humour was not conventional, and the audience enjoyed a laugh which was not scholarly. A word of praise must given to Mr. Brodie for his conscientious and effective rendering of the difficult and ungrateful part of the moonstruck lover of the wayward Phoebe. The first appearance of Mr. Bourchier in London attracted much interest. As an amateur at Oxford and elsewhere he was believed Iikely to to great things upon the stage, and his performance of Jaques was by no means a disappointment. The fault of it was that he did not suggest either the melancholy or the sententiousness which we associate with the character. The melancholy was but skin-deep, and the sententiousness simply was not there. But every actor has a right to read a part in his own way if it is a good way. And there is much to said for Mr. Bourchier's interpretation of Jaques. The temptation is to be stagy; Mr. Bourchier's tendency is to be natural. And he carried it out with great success in speaking the lines of the Seven Ages of Man. He caught up the Duke's phrase just as if it had dropped in the course of an ordinary conversation; and he played with it for a time until it seemed of itself to suggest to his mind the famous soliloquy. Certainly Mr. Bourchier’s method was effective, as it drew one of the heartiest rounds of applause in the whole evening. Among the company were noticed the following well known persons:— His  Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Fife, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord De Grey, Mr. Alfred De Rothschild, Lord Lurgan, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Curzon, Lady Londonderry, Lady Hothfield, Hon. Alan Charteris, Mr. Oscar Wilde, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin McCarthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lord and Lady Coleridge, the Austrian Ambassador, the Spanish Ambassador, Lady Hozier, Mr. George Lewis, Mr. Whistler, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?].<ref>"As You Like It."  ''St James's Gazette'' 25 February 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 16], Col. 1b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001485%2F18900225&page=5&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> This report is from ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'':<blockquote>Happily, there was no disappointment in store for the friends and admirers of Mrs. Langtry, who gathered on Monday night at the St. James’s Theatre in great force, to welcome this popular lady back to London and receive her with an extra warmth of cordiality in token of satisfaction at her recovery from her recent severe illness. Eight years have elapsed since she last played Rosalind in London. Since then she has travelled much, both at home and abroad, and followed the study and practice of her art with unfailing spirit and determination. She returns to the character which all leading actresses aspire to play in Shakespeare’s glorious dream of the Court of Duke Frederick and the forest of Arden a far riper artist, and, says the ''Daily News'', she presented us on Monday with an impersonation which compared to her former efforts is as the finished portrait to the crude sketch. Her performance may lack the great high tide of girlish impulsiveness, but first nights before an exceptionally critical audience and some remains of the languor of her recent indisposition doubtless contributed to rob her acting of something of its force and impulse. But her ''Rosalind'' remains a most winning and beautiful performance. A handsomer ''Rosalind'', or one that has worn the doublet and hose with more grace and picturesqueness (Mrs, Langtry, we may here note, scorns the modern heresy of boots, and appears in the more orthodox hose cross-gartered), has certainly not been seen in our time. The performance is full of good points; as when at the words, "here on the skirts of this forest like the fringe of a petticoat," she remembers with a momentary touch of maidenly shyness that petticoats no longer form part of her attire. Again, when in bantering her lover, who exhibits so strange an inability to recognize the voice and features of the woman whom he passionately loves, she pauses at "a beard neglected," and pointing at ''Orlando’s'' smooth chin bursts into uncontrollable laughter; again, when in the mock marriage scene, with ''Celia'' for the priest, her mind for the moment seems to wander away into such a dream as this mockery might suggest to one so deeply in love. The distinguishing feature of the impersonation, indeed, is the subtle suggestion of serious passion that underlies the frolicsome and bantering moods, and exhibits itself again and again in many subtle forms. The play is beautifully put on the stage, and if some of the performers fall a long way short of ideal excellence there are several impersonations that stand forth in strong relief and are of far more than common excellence. The ''PhƓbe'' and ''Silvius'' of Miss Beatrice Lamb and Mr. Matthew Brodie deserve special note: but the most brilliant success of all in the case of the minor characters was undoubtedly the ''Audrey'' of Miss Marion Lee, whose hoydenish, but not ungraceful antics, whose happy, contented ignorance, whose mingled wonderment and admiration at ''Touchstone's'' philosophical utterances were admirable. Everything that taste can suggest has been done to embellish the play; the musical features are strengthened by an efficient chorus, and the costumes designed by the Hon. Lewis Wingfield are rich and handsome. Perhaps it might be objected that Mrs. Langtry’s beautiful green velvet doublet, with its slashes, tags, and laces, her cinnamon jerkin, her black cap and jewelled buckle, and her rich and massive cloak were hardly suited to her daring enterprise on the highways and in the forests of the Duke’s dominions. The restoration of Hymen, gracefully represented by Miss Violet Armbruster, and the final morris dance in honour of the nuptials, gave the crowning fanciful touch to the performance, and prepared the spectators for the playful epilogue, which was spoken by Mrs. Langtry, in her simple nuptial white robe and leopard skin, with rare elocutionary grace and effect,. [sic] The audience which greeted Mrs. Langtry was at once distinguished and interesting. The Royal box was occupied by the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Fife, the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and the Duke of Fife. Among the representatives of "Society" were Lady Londonderry, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord de Grey, Lord and Lady Coleridge, Lady Curzon, Lady Hothfield, Lord Lurgan, Lady Greville [<nowiki/>[[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]]?], Lady Hozier, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Sir Charles Russell, Sir Edward Guinness, Mr. Coningsby Disraeli, Mr. Akers Douglas, M.P., Mr. Justin M‘Carthy, M.P., Sir Allen Young, Lady Colin Campbell, Lady Monckton, Mrs. Labouchere, and the Austrian and Spanish Ambassadors. Pictorial art was represented by Mr. Whistler; music by Mdme. Antoinette Sterling; dramatic writing by Mr. H. A. Jones; and theatrical interests by Mrs. Bancroft, Miss Genevieve Ward, Mr. and Mrs. John Lart, Mrs. John Hare, Mr. M. L. Mayer, Mr. Augustus Harris, &c.<ref>"Mrs. Langtry." ''Bladud'' 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 9 [of 16], Col. 2b–c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005771%2F18900226&page=9&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Blalud, The Bath Society Paper'', p. 9.</ref></blockquote> === 25 February 1890, Tuesday === On 5 March, the ''World'' reports on a party hosted by Mrs. Adair that must have been held the week before:<blockquote>Many smart people were present at Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon Street on Tuesday night. The rooms, lighted by electricity, looked their prettiest with floral decorations consisting entirely of tulips, the hostess appearing in a gown of terra-cotta velvet trimmed with dark fur. The Austrian Ambassador and Madame Waddington were among those who listened to Miss Damian’s rendering of a new song by Tosti, and to the glees sung by Mr. Avon Saxon's American quartet; and among others present were Lady Charles Beresford, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], the Duchess of Marlborough, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks, who brought her sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Sir Arthur Sullivan (just back from his annual sojourn at Monte Carlo), Lord and Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, General Charles Fraser, Lady Conyers, Madame de Brienen, and Sir Philip Currie.<ref>"What the World Says." ''The World'' 5 March 1890, Wednesday: 19 [of 44], Col. 2a [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0006339%2F18900305&page=19&article=061&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Daily Telegraph'' covered the party with a few additional names:<blockquote>A casual passer-by in Curzon-street last night might almost have imagined from the long string of carriages assembled there that, in spite of the cold east wind blowing, the London season had already begun. Mrs. Adair had together to hear some beautiful music, including a celebrated quartette of American singers, a large and fashionable crowd, composed of the ''Ă©lite'' of London society, comprising among many others, the Austrian Ambassador, the French Ambassadress, the Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddale, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Fanny Marjoribanks and Lady Sarah Spencer-Churchill, Earl and Countess of Wharncliffe, Countess Howe and Lady Edith Curzon, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord George Nevill, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Viscountess Mandeville, Julia Countess of Jersey and Mr Brandling, Viscount and Viscountess Bury and the Hon. Mary Keppel, the Countess of Crawford, the Earl of Clonmell, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Viscountess Melgund, Lady Conyers, Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lord Alington, Lord Alcester, Lord Greenock, Viscount de Vesci, Lady Hilda Brodrick, Hon. W. Lowther, M.P., and Mrs. Lowther, Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, Hon. Hallyburton Campbell, Mrs. and Miss Campbell, Hon. Kenneth Howard, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Lady FitzGerald, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Madame de Brienen, Lieutenant-General Sir Seymour Blane, General C. Fraser, M.P., Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs Vincent, Mr. Charles Hall, M.P., Mrs. Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir C. Rivers Wilson, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Philp Currie.<ref>"London Day by Day." ''Daily Telegraph & Courier'' (London) 26 February 1890, Wednesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001112%2F18900226&page=5&article=094&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Daily Telegraph'', p. 5. </ref></blockquote>The ''Sporting Gazette'' also had a report, on 1 March:<blockquote>Mrs. Adair's party in Curzon-street on Tuesday night was, as usual, exceedingly smart and dressy. The "smarties" turned out strong for this Anglo-American function, and wore their best frocks and jewels. Lady Tweeddale, Lady Howe, with Lady Edith Curzon, Lady Fanny Majoribanks chaperoning her younger sister, Lady Sarah Churchill, Lady Curzon, Lady Antrim with Lady Louisa Beauclerk, Lady William Nevill with some lovely diamonds, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lady Mandeville]], Lord Alington, Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mrs Cavendish Bentinck, and others. The singing of an American quartette was ''the'' feature of the evening.<ref>"The Man About Town." "The County Gentleman." ''Sporting Gazette'' 1 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 38], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002525%2F18900301&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, p. 274.</ref></blockquote> ==March 1890== === 10 March 1890, Monday === The Prince and Princess of Wales hosted a ball in celebration of their wedding anniversary. This report from the ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' is very brief:<blockquote> The Prince and Princess of Wales, in celebration of the anniversary of their wedding on March 10, 1863, gave a dance at Marlborough House on Monday night. The Danish Minister and Madame de Falbe were among the company invited, also the Earl and Countess Brownlow, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Alwyne Compton, Baron F. de Rothschild, &c.<ref>"Notes of the Aristocracy." ''Bedfordshire Mercury'' 15 March 1890, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001290%2F18900315&page=7&article=073&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> The report from the ''Morning Post'' suggests that this was a smaller party than usual for the Prince and Princess of Wales:<blockquote>In celebration of the anniversary of the Prince and Princess of Wales's wedding day, their Royal Highnesses gave an evening party (dancing) at Marlborough House last night. His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, her Royal Highness Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg) and his Royal Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise of Wales (Duchess of Fife) and the Duke of Fife, his Royal Highness Prince George of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Victoria of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Maud of Wales, her Royal Highness the Princess Mary Adelaide (Duchess of Teck), and his Highness the Duke of Teck and her Serene Highness the Princess Victoria of Teck and his Serene Highness Prince Francis of Teck, and their Serene Highnesses the Prince and Princess Victor of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countess Victoria Gleichen were present. The following had the honour to receive invitations, but some amongst them were unavoidably prevented from attending: — The French Ambassador (M. Waddington) and Madame Waddington, the German Ambassador (Count Hatzfeldt) and the Countess Marie Hatzfeldt, the Turkish Ambassador (Rustem Pasha), the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (Count Deym) and the Countess Deym, the Italian Ambassador  (Count Tornielli), the Countess Tornielli, and Mademoiselle Virginia dei Conti Lazzari, the Danish Minister (M. de Falbe) and Madame de Falbe, the Russian ChargĂ© d'Affaires (M. Bontineff), his Serene Highness Prince Louis Esterhazy, M. A. Kroupensky, M. A. de Stoeckl, Count Leyden, Count Albert Mensdorff, Count Reventlow, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, M. de Soveral, the Marques and Marquesa de Santurce, Mr. A. de Murrieta, Mr. C. de Murrieta. The Duke and Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alice Osborne, the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, the Duke and Duchess of Portland, the Duke and Duchess of Westminster, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Frances Spencer Churchill, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and Lady Gwendolen Cecil, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, Count Gleichen, the Earl and Countess Brownlow, the Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily  Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Clarendon, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl of Dudley, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Florence Wyndham Quin, the Earl and Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson Gower, the Earl and Countess of Hardwicke, the Earl and Countess Howe and Lady Evelyn Curzon, the Earl and Countess of  Kilmorey, the Earl and Countess of Lathom and Lady Alice Wilbraham, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosalind Bingham, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and Lady Albertha Edgcumbe, the Earl and Countess of Romney and Lady Florence Marsham, the Earl and Countess of Rosebery, the Earl of Shaftesbury, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Earl and Countess of Sefton and Lady Gertrude Molyneux, the Earl and Countess Spencer, Viscount Drumlanrig, Lord and Lady Randolph Spencer Churchill, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscountess Mandeville]], Lord Charles Montagu, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount and Viscountess Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount Curzon, Lady Georgina Curzon and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, Viscount Fincastle, Viscount Royston, Viscount Valletort, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lord Burghersh, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Norreys and the Hon. Coralie Glyn, Lady Charles Beresford, Lord Marcus Beresford, Lord Alwyne Compton, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, Lord Henry Paulet, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Admiral Lord Alcester, Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Lord Alington and the Hon. Winifred and Hon. Mildred Sturt, Lord and Lady Colville of Culross  and the Hon. Blanche Colville, Lord and Lady De  Ramsey, Lady Hastings, Lord and Lady Hindlip, Lord Lurgan, Lord and Lady Revelstoke and the Hon. Susan Baring, Lord and Lady Rothschild,  Lord Rowton, Lord Suffield and the Hon. Judith and Hon. Eleanor Harbord, Lord and Lady Wimborne and the Hon. Frances Guest, Lord Wolverton, Baron Ferdinand Rothschild, Captain the Hon. Maurice Bourke, R.N., Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and the Misses Byng, the Hon. Alan Charteris, Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. C. Edgcumbe, the Hon. Sir Spencer and Lady Ponsonby Fane, the Hon. Sidney Greville, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, the Hon. C. R. and Mrs. Spencer, the Hon. S. M'Donnell, the Hon. Alexander Yorke, the Hon. H. and Lady Feodora Sturt, the Hon. Arthur Walsh, the Hon. R. Winn, the Right Hon. W. E. and Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Gladstone, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, the Right Hon. H. Chaplin, the Right. Hon. Sir Henry James, the Right Hon. Sir C. L. Wyke, the Hon. S. C. Colville, the Hon. Assheton Harbord, the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. E. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Henry White, Sir Edward and Lady Guinness, Sir Charles Hartopp, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, Sir James and Lady  Mackenzie, Colonel Sir Nigel and Lady Emily Kingscote, Admiral Sir R. and the Hon. Lady Macdonald and Miss Macdonald, General Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, Sir Francis and the Hon. Lady Knollys, Major-General Sir Christopher Teesdale, Sir Oscar Clayton, Sir Allen Young, Lieutenant-General Bateson, Lieutenant-General Charles Fraser, Major-General and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, Colonel J. P. Brabazon, Colonel and Mrs. Stanley Clarke and the Misses Clarke, Captain H. F. Stephenson, R.N., Lieutenant-Colonel F. H. Poore, Lieutenant-Colonel R. Vivian, Major C. Swaine, Captain Douglas Dawson, Captain C. H. A. Hervey, the officers of the Queen's Guard, St. James's Palace, Mr. G. Byng, Mr. Henry Calcraft, Mr. Victor Cavendish, Mr. Henry Ellis, Mr. Horace Farquhar, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mr. Montagu Guest, Mr. Charles Hall, Mr. E. W. Hamilton, Mr. and Lady Hilda Higgins, Mr. Holzmann, Miss Knollys, Mr. and Mrs. F. R. Knollys, Mr. Ronald Moncrieffe, Mr. Alfred Montgomery, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mr. Henry Petre, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. Reuben Sassoon and Miss Sassoon, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Edgar Sebright, Mr. and Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Mr. Christopher Sykes, and Mr. O. G. St. George Williams. Messrs. Coote and Tinney's band was in attendance.<ref>"Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 11 March 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8]. Col. 6b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000174%2F18900311&page=5&article=055&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> ==April 1890== Arnold Dolmetsch took out a three-day ticket to the Reading Room in April 1890 (Campbell 22). === 9 April 1890, Wednesday === ==== The New Forest United Hunt Ball ==== <blockquote>This annual ball was beld at the New Forest Hall, Lyndhearst, on Wednesday night, and was a most brilliant gathering, upwards of 200 being present, not only the New Forest but also neighbouring hunts being well represented. Among those present were Earl and Countess of Londesborough, Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Lilian Denison, Hon. Louis Johnstone, Hon. Gerald and Mrs Lascelles, Major Downman, Capt. Sandbach, R.H.A., Col. and Mrs Sinkins, Col. Fitzroy Smyth, Lady Thursby and party, Mr Stanley Pearce (Master of the Foxhounds), Mr F. Lovell (Master of the Deerhounds) and party, Lady Adela Goff and party, Hon. Miss St. Leger Glyn and party, Mr A. H. Jeffreys, M.P., and Mrs Jeffreys, Hon. Mrs A. Peter, Mr Somerset H. Onslow, Mr Lancelot Orde, Lord Garioch, Mr and Mrs C. K. Francis, the Countess of Normandy, Lady Mary Agar, Lord Montagu, Hon. John Scott Montagu, Viscount Cantelupe, Prince Dhuleep Singh, Hon. D. Keppel, Col. Charles Needham (1st Life Guards), [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Mrs Cornwallis West, Mr and Mrs Shelley Bontein, Col. Gridley, Col. Newton, Col. Elliot, R.H.A., Lady Meyrick and party, Sir W. Jervois, Lady Jervois and party, &c.<ref>"The New Forest United Hunt Ball." ''The Sportsman'' 11 April 1890, Friday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001055/18900411/024/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==May 1890== Leonora Braham appeared at the Opera Comique as Ruth Ferns in ''Gretna Green''. ===21 May 1890, Wednesday=== It was his pupil the young Countess Valda Gleichen who found a sponsor for Dolmetsch's first but brief appearance at a London concert on 21 May 1890, when the 'Magpie Minstrels' 
 gave one of their bi-annual performances at the Princes' Hall" (Campbell 30). ==June 1890== === 3 June 1890, Tuesday === ==== Dinner and Concert Hosted by Mrs. Arthur Williams and Ball by Mrs. Menzies ==== <blockquote>Yesterday evening society passed a large proportion of time on wheels, and the number of receptions was more than the most inveterate could get through wvith comfort. ... Meanwhile, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale dined with Mrs. Arthur Wilson in Grosvenor-place, and a small and select concert followed. The Duchess of Leinster was, as ever, the most beautiful among many beauties, the Hon. Helen Henniker, after her long mourning, was warmly greeted by swarms of friends, and the Countess of Lovelace, in grey satin, chaperoned her dĂ©butante niece, Miss Milbank. Prince "Eddie" went from Mrs. Arthur Wilson's hospitable mansion to that of Mrs. J. Graham Menzies. It is unusual to find mother and daughter entertaining this illustrious young man on the same evening. Mrs. Menzies, who has succeeded Lord Suffield in his beautiful house in Upper Grosvenor-street, had one of the smartest and most successful balls of the present season. The Blue Hungarians played with immense vigour and owing to the postponement of Lady Carnarvon's ball, there was no competition for men and married women. Countess Howe, Lady Brougham and Vaux, Lady Aveland and Miss Willoughby, Viscountess Stormont, the Hon. Lady Grey Egerton and Miss Egerton, the Duchess of Buccleuch, the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], the Earl of Craven, Countess of Coventry, Mrs. Mackay, Lady Sykes, the Marchioness of Granby, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Lord Garioch, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lawson, and many others were present.<ref>"Yesterday Evening Society." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 4 [of 8], Col. 3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18900604/015/0004. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==== MĂŒnster-Hay Wedding ==== Account of the wedding of Count Alexander MĂŒnster and Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay. Count Bismarck sent a gift.<blockquote>St. Andrew's Church, Wells-street, was completely filled yesterday afternoon on the occasion of the marriage of Count Alexander MĂŒnster, son of Count MĂŒnster, German Ambassador in Paris, with Lady Muriel Henrietta Constance Hay, younger daughter of the Earl and Countess of Kinnoull. The ceremony was fixed for half-past two o'clock, but all the seats in the body of the church were occupied long before that time by invited guests. The rood screen was hidden with white flowers, and a number of tall palms were skilfully arranged in and about the chancel. The bridegroom was early in his place, and wore the splendid white and gold uniform of the Garde du Corps of the Emperor; his best man, Prince Hans Heinrich Pless, wearing the scarlet and gold uniform of the Garde Hussars. The six bridesmaids were Lady Mildred Denison, Lady Dorothea Stewart Murray, Hon. Marie Hay, Hon. Marjory Murray, Miss Rosalind Lovell, and Miss Gladys Hadow (niece of the bride). They wore pretty dresses of pale blue satin, veiled with white chiffon; the skirts were edged with a frill, and the bodices finished with quaint fichus of the chiffon, fastened in front with a bunch of forget-me-nots. They wore drawn hats of the chiffon, covered with forget-me-nots, and their posies were of the same flowers, intermixed with pink roses, and tied with narrow pink ribbons. Each wore a gold bangle with centre forming the initials "A.M.," and a single turquoise drop. The bride entered the church at half-past two, and was received by her father, who led her to the chancel steps, preceded by the choristers singing a nuptial hymn. The bride's dress was of ivory satin made with a very long train. The front was fringed round the hem with orange blossoms and veiled with old Brussels lace, the gift of her mother; the bodice was entirely covered with beautiful old lace, and finished at the neck on one side with a cluster of orange blossoms. She wore a small wreath of orange blossoms and myrtle arranged in the hair at the back and a tulle veil falling almost to the end of the train and held by diamond stars, the gift of the bridegroom. The bride's other jewels included two diamond drop hairpins, the gift of Count MĂŒnster; an emerald and diamond brooch, from the bridegroom; enamel and diamond heartsease brooch, from Lady Mary Mills; a diamond and emerald bracelet, from the Duke of Beaufort; and a diamond bracelet, from the Duke and Duchess of Athole. Her train was held by her two little nephews, Masters Roland and Patrick Hadow, wearing Scotch dress with lace ruffles. The service, which was fully choral, was performed by the Rev. Provost Rorison, of St. Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, assisted by the Rev. W. T. Houldsworth, rector of St. Andrew's. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull afterwards entertained the bridal party at the residence of the Earl of Londesborough, uncle of the bride, in Grosvenor-square. Among the numerous guests were the Russian Ambassador and Madame de Staal, the German Ambassador, the Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym, Count MĂŒnster and the Countesses Marie, Julia, and T. MĂŒnster, Prince Pless, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Count Donhoff, Baroness von Beckendorff-Hindenburg, Baron E. FĂŒrstenberg, Count Paul Metternich, Geheimrath Schmettau, Countess Valentin, [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de]] [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Soveral]], Captain Hasenclever, Count Leyden, Herr von Rath, Count Francis Deym, Baron and Baroness Deichmann, Count Mensdorff, Herr Pilgrim Baltazzi, Count and Countess Henry LĂŒtzow, Baroness d' Erlanger [?], Herr von Kemnitz, Baron Cramm, Vicomte de JanzĂ©, the Duke of Beaufort, the Duchess of Athole, and the Ladies Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Countess of Dunraven and Ladies Wyndham Quin, the Countess of Kilmorey, the Countess of Galloway and Miss Stewart, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Countess of Strathmore and Lady Constance Lyon, the Earl and Countess of Roden, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Miss Willoughby, the Countess of Westmorland. Viscount and Viscountess Raincliffe, Viscountess Coke, Viscountess Stormont and Hon. MabeI Murray, Viscountess Malden and Hon. Miss Capel, Lord Hay of Kinfauns [?], Lady Delamere and Miss Cholmondeley, Lady Brougham, Lady Esher, Lord Saye and Sele and Hon. Maud and Hon. Gertrude Fiennes, Lady Helen MacGregor and Miss MacGregor, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Lady Raglan, Lord Charles Innes Ker, Lady Elizabeth Bertie, Lady Frances Pratt and Lady Clementine Pratt, Lady Geraldine Somerset, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lady Mary Mills and Miss Pereira, Lady Dorchester, Lady Louisa Moncreiffe and Misses Moncreiffe, Lady Norreys, Lady Petre, Lady Jane Trefusis, Lord Frederic Hamilton, Baroness de Brienen and Miss de Brienen, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Lady Scott, Miss Scott and Mrs. Green, Lord Zouche and Hon. Miss Curzon, Mr. and Lady Constance Hadow, Hon. Lady Campbell, Lady William Nevill and Miss Bannerman, Hon. Alastair and Mrs. Hay, Hon. Miss Greville, Captain Hon. Randolph Stewart, Hon. FitzRoy and Mrs. Stewart, Hon. Charles Walsh, Hon. William Walsh, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Algernon Bourke]], Colonel Hon. Charles and Mrs. Hay and Miss Maude Hay, Hon. Mrs. Greville Nugent, Hon. Mrs. Colville and Miss Streatfeild [sic], Hon. Claude Hay, Sir Charles and Lady Forbes of Newe, Laely Borthwick, Sir Francis Montefiore, Sir Henry Hoare, Sir George Arthur, Sir William Gordon Cumming, General and Mrs. Wilkinson, Colonel and Mrs. Chaine, Colonel Arthur Paget, Colonel H. M. Hozier, the Provost of St. Ninian's, Major Finch, Major Candy, Colonel Lloyd, Captain and Mrs. Stewart, Mr. and Mrs. Hay Drummond, Captain and Mrs. Lloyd, Mr. William Gillett, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Captain Lumley, Captain Barrow, Major Anstruther, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mr. Arthur Hay, Mr. Raglan Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mrs. Villiers, Mr. Henry Petre, Mrs. Keighley, Mrs. E. Balfour and Miss Balfour and Miss Ellice, Mrs. Dick Cunynghame and Miss A. M'Gregor, Rev. C. Weidemann, Miss Balfour and Miss E. Balfour, Mrs. and Miss Halford, Mr. and Mrs. Toler, Mrs. and Miss Townley, Rev. Dr. M'Ewan, Mr. A. F. Levita, Mr. F. Stephens, Mrs. and Miss Leigh, Mr. and Mrs. George Forbes and Miss Forbes, Mrs. Luke Wheeler, Mrs. J. Beerbohm, Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Collins, Mrs. and Miss Orde, Mrs. Murray, Miss Glyn, Mrs. Godfrey Pearse, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Leopold Goldberg, Mr. and Miss Oswa d [Oswald], Mr. and Mrs. C. Bulteel, Mrs. Brydges Wyllyams, Mr. H. Balfour, the Misses Codrington, Miss Finch, Mrs. Barron and Miss Sullivan, Mr. Hamilton AidĂ©, Mr. Granville and Miss Berkeley, Mr. M'Gregor, Mrs. and Miss Needham, Mr. and Mrs. A. Consett and Miss Consett, Mrs. Herbert Naylor LeyIand, Mr. and Mrs. A. Darby, Mrs. Montefiore, Mrs. Charles Murray and Miss Murray, Mrs. Thomas Legh, the Rev. John F. Mitchell, Mr. and Mrs. Claud Hay, Mr. Fiztalan Manners, Mr. Albert Stopford, Mr. Hervey Pechell, and Mr. and Mrs. Charles Orde. Later in the day Count Alexander MĂŒnster and his bride left for Hillingdon Court, Uxbridge, the residence of the Hon. A. Mills, where they will pass the early days of the honeymoon, and then proceed to ChĂ let Sans Souci, Bellaggio, Lake of Como, lent by Mr. Hervey Pechell. They will afterwards go to Wiesbaden, and thence to Count MĂŒnster's German country seat, where a great reception awaits them. The wedding presents were very numerous. Count Munster presented the bride with a diamond necklace and pair of diamond drop hairpins. The bridegroom's gifts to his bride included a tiara of three diamond stars, a brooch formed of an emerald of unusual size set in diamonds, large pearl pendant, gold bracelet set with turquoises, and diamond and turquoise ring. The Duke of Beaufort presented Lady Muriel with an emerald and diamond bracelet. The Earl and Countess of Kinnoull's presents included a quantity of plate and other articles. Prince Henry of Battenberg sent a large silver-mounted claret jug; Count Bismarck, a silver box; the Marchioness of Waterford, gold snake bracelet, with pearl head and ruby eyes; the Duke and Duchess of Athole, diamond "M" bangle; Lady Ermyntrude Malet, massive silver bowl; Countess Marie MĂŒnster, silver tea set and tray; Baron E. FĂŒrstenberg, pair of gold-mounted claret jugs; Baron and Baroness Erlanger, large silver bowl; Baron and Baroness Gungberg, pair of antique silver mounted jugs.<ref>"Marriage of Count Alexander MĂŒnster and Lady Muriel Hay." ''Morning Post'' 4 June 1890, Wednesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900604/064/0007. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===4 June 1890, Wednesday=== Derby Day. According to the Morning Post, <quote>Lady Thurlow's first dance. / Mrs. Coddington's Ball. / The Fourth of June celebration at Eton. / ... Royal Society of Literature — Paper on "Early England," by Mr. Carmichael, S. </quote> ("Arrangements for This Day." The Morning Post Wednesday, 4 June 1890: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 6A). ===13 June 1890, Friday=== ? or on the 12th? Arnold Dolmetsch had a concert at which his students performed (Campbell 31). It was reviewed very positively in the 13 June Daily Graphic, especially Helene Dolmetsch's performance. They did Purcell's Fairy Queen. They used a harpsichord. ===26 June 1890, Thursday=== There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]], Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902. ==July 1890== ===3 July 1890, Thursday=== <blockquote>On July 3, 1890, Besant’s house at 19 Avenue Road, St. John’s Wood, was inaugurated as a new center of Theosophical work, serving as the European headquarters of the [[Social Victorians/Theosophical Society|Theosophical Society]] and as HPB’s residence. That house became also the meeting place of HPB’s Inner Group, twelve of her students who were eager for more intense training than was feasible in a larger, more general gathering.</blockquote>That Inner Group is different from the Esoteric Section.<ref>"Esoteric World Chapter 23." ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53</ref><blockquote>The hall had a seating capacity of about 200. On the opening night [July 3, 1890] [sic] the room was crammed, and many were unable to gain admission. The speakers were Mrs. Besant, Mr. Sinnett, a Mrs. Woolff (of America), and Mr. [Bertram] Keightley. HPB was present but said nothing, on account of the critical state of her health.<ref>"23a. Henry S. Olcott, July 1890, London [Olcott 1931, 4:254–6]." Esoteric World Chapter 23. ''The Theosophical Society of America, Online Resources''. http://www.theosophical.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=23&id=1725&Itemid=53.</ref></blockquote> === 4 July 1890, Friday, 11 p.m. === ==== The Queen's State Ball at Buckingham Palace ==== The Prince and Princess of Wales were hosts of this ball, as Queen Victoria was not present. Many of the Queen's children and their spouses were present.<ref>"State Ball at Buckingham Palace." ''Morning Post'' 5 July 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a–7b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900705/038/0005. Same print title and p.</ref> The dancing commenced shortly after the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at 11:00. === 1890 July 15, Tuesday === ==== Garden Party at Marlborough House to Meet the Queen ==== The beginning of the ''Morning Post'' article, which is followed by a very long list of people invited:<blockquote>Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a garden party at Marlborough House yesterday afternoon to meet the Queen. Her Majesty was accompanied by their Royal Highnesses the Princesses Victoria and Margaret of Prussia, and was attended by the Duchess of Roxburghe, Miss M'Neill, the Hon. Evelyn Moore, the Hon. Bertha Lambert, and Major-General Sir Henry Ewart and Major F. A. Bigge. Madlle. De Perpigna was in attendance on the Princesses Victoria and Margaret. The following were present: — Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh and Prince Alfred, and the Princesses Marie, Victoria, Alexandra, and Beatrice of Edinburgh; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and Prince Arthur, and the Princesses Margaret and Patricia of Connaught; their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Princess Victoria and Princess Louisa of Schleswig-Holstein, her Royal Highness the Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, and the Marquis of Lorne. Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Albany, her Royal Highness the Princess Frederica and the Baron von Pawell-Rammingen, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide Duchess of Teck and his Highness the Duke of Teck and Princess Victoria of Teck, his Royal Highness the Duke d'Orleans and Princess HĂ©lĂšne d'Orleans, his Imperial Highness Don Pedro Augustus of Coburg and Braganza, his Serene Highness the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, his Serene Highness the Prince of Leiningen and their Serene Highnesses Prince and Princess Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and the Countesses Gleichen, and Count Gleichen.<ref>"Garden Party at Marlborough House." ''Morning Post'' 15 July 1890, Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 3a–7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900715/044/0005. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === 19 July 1890, Saturday === ==== Wedding of James Francis Harry St. Clair-Erskine and Violet Aline Vyner ==== This report from the ''Fife Free Press'' is missing a big piece of the 2nd paragraph, where the bridesmaids' and bride's dresses are described, because the page was damaged. The digitized copy is also generally poor.<blockquote>On Saturday forenoon, in Michael’s Church, Chester Square, London, was celebrated the marriage of Lord Loughhorough, eldest son of the Earl of Rosslyn with Miss Violet Aline Vyner, younger daughter of Mr R. C. Vyner, of Fairfield, Yorkshire. The chancel was beautifully decorated with palms and a profusion of lilies most artistically arranged. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge. Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess and the Duke of Teck, and Princess Victoria, and the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone were among those present. The wedding party began to arrive at 11 o’clock, the bridesmaids being early in attendance. They were the Ladies Sybil and Angela St Clair Erskine, sisters of the bridegroom; Lady Anne Lambton, Miss Musgrave, Miss Rachel Gurney, and Miss Fleming. They were charmingly dressed in soft cream crepon, with violet velvet Zoave jackets, forming half sleeves and capes at the back, and pretty turn-down collars and cravats of white mosseline [mousseline?] chiffon, and the skirts were very plainly made. They wore large white hats lined with a band of violet velvet near the face, and trimmed on the crown with white ostrich plumes, a bunch of violets fastening the brim at the back. Each wore a brooch — the St Clair cross in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of the latter, and surmounted by a baron’s cornet of the same precious stones — the gift of the bri[degroom]; and carried a bouquet of Marechal Niel [roses?] ...ging sprays of the same, and tied w... ribbons. The bride entered the ... eleven o’clock, being received at ... father, who led her to the cha... her away. The service be... procession was preceded up ... choir, who sang "The voic..." The bride’s dress was ... with a long court train, ... white velvet being embro... ...und the train, and fasten... ...ver true lover’s knot. The picture... ...gh silver waistband, had full slee... mousseline chiffon; and a small ... blossoms was most becomingly arra... with a long tulle veil. The Earl of Chesterfield discharged the duties of best man. The Rev. Canon Fleming, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen and Vicar of St Michael's, performed the marriage rite, assisted by the Rev. Edgar Sheppard, Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, and the Rev. J. Thomson, of Rosslyn, near Edinburgh. The hymn “Thine for ever! For of love,” was sung the end of the service. Canon Fleming afterwards delivered a most impressive address. After the benediction the clergy and bride and bridegroom passed to the vestry, the Prince of Wales following with Mrs Vyner. Pretty wedding favours of orange blossoms, Parma violets, and white heather were then distributed amongst the congregation. Mr and Mrs Vyner afterwards welcomed the wedding party at Ashburnham House, Dover-street. The ''dejeuner'' was served in three rooms, one being reserved for the bride and bridegroom and the Royal party. The table in the latter room was decorated with several of Mr Vynet's racing trophies. The band of the Grenadier Guards performed in the garden during the reception. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and Princess Victoria were present at the breakfast, and among the general company were Count Munster and Countess Maria Munster, the Marchese and Marchesa de Montagliari, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, the Marquis and Marchioness of Stafford, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquis of Northampton, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, the Dowager Marchioness of Conyngham and Lady Blanche Conyngham, the Marchioness of Downshire, the Countess of Rosslyn, Earl and Countess Compton, the Earl of Feversham, the Earl of Durham, the Countess of Coventry and the Ladies Coventry, Countess Howe and Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Yarborough, the Earl of Clonmell, the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, the Countess of Kilmorey, Countess de Grey, Viscount Molyneux, the Bishop of Gibraltar and Mrs Sandford, Viscountess de Labrosse and Mdles. de Labrosse, Lord Greenock, Lord and Lady Algernon Lennox, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Lady Julia Wombwell and Miss Wombwell, Hon. Lady Campbell of Blythswood, Lady Constance Harris, Lady Florence Harris, Lord and Lady Burghley, Lady Dorchester, Lord Houghton, Lady Curzon, Lady Brougham and Vaux and Miss Musgrave, Baron de Hirsch, Helen Lady Forbes and the Misses Forbes, Baroness Burdett Coutts and Mr Burdett Coutts, M.P., Lady Astley, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord and Lady Brooke and Hon. Leopold and Hon. Marjorie Greville, Lady Dalton Fitzgerald and Miss Payne, Lord Elcho, Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Misses Willoughby, Lady Ewart, Lady Hindlip, Lady Cecilia Rose, Lord Rowton, Lord Capell, Lady Mabel Compton, Lord and Lady Herries, Lady Sykes, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton, Lady Ventry and Hon. Miss de Moleyns, Hon. Lady Knollys, Lady Manners, Hon. Lady Drummond and Misses Drummond, Hon. Sydney Greville, Hon. Assheton Harbord, Hon. Derek Keppel, Hon. Captain Bourke, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Philip Harbord, Hon. and Rev. L. Tyrwhitt, Hon. Coralie Glyn, Hon. M. Lambton, Hon L. Greville, Hon. Alwyn Greville, Hon[.] Eva Greville, Hon. Frances Dawnay, Hon Evelyn Paget, Hon Mrs Algernon Grosvcnor, Hon and Mrs Lambton. Hon. Mrs Evelyn Pelham, Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], Hon. W. Maxwell, Hon. G. and Mrs Dawnay, Hon. Captain Lambton, General Sir Seymour Blane, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir Archibald and Miss Edmunstone, Sir Henry and Lady Meysey Thompson, Mrs Gladstone, Mr and Lady Margaret Cameron, Mr and Lady Florence Astley, Mr and Lady Elizabeth Melville Cartwright and Miss Melville Cartwright, General and Mrs Duff and Miss Duff, General Owen Williams, Colonel and Mrs Anstruther Thompson, Colonel Stopford Sackville, Colonel Craig, Colonel Brabazon, Colonel Forester, Colonel Stanley Clarke (in attendance on the Prince of Wales) and Miss Clarke, Major Davidson, Canon and Mrs Fleming, Captain St John Mildmay (in attendance on the Duke of Cambridge), Captain and Mrs FitzGeorge, Mrs William Portal, the Sub Dean of the Chapels Royal, Rev. W. M. and Mrs Wollaston, Rev. R. West, Mr and Miss Chamberlain. Mr and Mrs W. H. Grenfell, Mr Christopher Sykes, M.P., Mr Reuben Sassoon, Mr Arthur Sassoon, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Mr and Mrs Herbert Naylor Leyland, Dr and Mrs Anderson, Mrs Oswald, Mr and Mrs Surtees, Mr Fitzgerald, Mr and Mrs Menzies, Miss Willoughby and Miss Gertrude Willoughby, Mr Arthur Paget, Miss Christie, Mr Dowdall, Mrs Eastwood and the Misses Eastwood, Mr Frederick Warre, Mr William Williamson, Mrs Burton, Mrs Chaine, Captain and Mrs Livesey Wardle, Captain A. R. Hill, Miss Helby, Mrs and Miss Winslow, Mr and Miss Oswald, Mr Willoughby, Mr Quintin Hume, Mr F and Miss Fitzherbert, Mrs and Miss F. Hotham, Mr and Mrs Moreton Frewin, Mrs Charles Otway, Mr Calcraft, Mr Watson, Mr Fennick, Mr Montgomery, Mr Cecil Murray, Mr and Mrs Sneyd, Mr Leslie Stephen, Mr Edgar Sebright, Miss Fleetwood Wilson, Mrs and Miss Farmer of Nonsuch, Mr and Mrs Dennistoun and Miss Dennistoun, Mr and Mrs J. R. Lane Fox and Miss Lane Fox, &c. The bride and bridegroom left early in the afternoon for Easton Lodge, Dunmow, the seat of Lord and Lady Brooke, in Essex, where they will spend the honeymoon. The bride travelled in a costume of biscuit coloured armure silk, the top of the bodice and sleeves being of pale pink mousseline de soie, and the lower part of the former inserted with pink velvet ribbons to form a high band, Tuscan straw-hat trimmed with pink crepe de chine, and biscuit feathers. The presents exceeded four hundred in number. The Prince of Wales presented the bride with a trefoil moonstone and diamond brooch and the bridegroom with a sapphire and diamond pin. The Princess of Wales's gift the bridegroom was a silver-necked claret jug. The Duke of Cambridge gave an amethyst and diamond pendant, and the bridegroom a pair of silver gilt candlesticks; and Princess Mary and the Duke of Teck presented the bride with a silver sugar basin. The bridegroom’s gifts to the bride were a diamond and sapphire watch bracelet, a diamond half-hoop ring, diamond brooch with pearl centre, diamond and turquoise brooch, formed of the St Clair badge in rubies and diamonds set in a circle of diamonds, surmounted by a baron’s coronet in the same precious stones, a large salts bottle with two heart-shaped moonstones set with rubies and diamonds and a silver sugar basin. The bride presented Lord Loughborough with a turquoise and diamond stud. The Earl of Rosslyn presented the bride with diamond necklet. The Countess of Rosslyn’s gifts were diamond orchid brooch and a pink feather fan. Mr R. C. Vyner’s gifts to his daughter were a diamond and pearl tiara and gold mounted dressing case, and Mrs Vyner gave her a sapphire and diamond ring. The Marchioness of Stafford gave a ruby and diamond pin; Lady Mary Vyner antique diamond tiara; the Ladies Angela and Sybil Erskine sapphire and diamond bracelet; Hon. Fitzroy St Clair Erskine with "1890" in rubies and diamonds; Lord and Lady A. Compton large diamond star; the Earl of Rosslyn presented his son with a large silver bowl and two silver dishes; the Countess of Rosslyn's present was a travelling bag; Mr Vyner gave him a luncheon basket; Mrs Vyner a silver ''entree'' dish; the Marchioness of Stafford case containing silver coffee and tea pots, urn and stand, sugar basin, and cream jug; Lord and Lady Brooke four antique silver sauce boats; Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon ['''Col. 1c–2a'''] Lennox three antique silver ''entree'' dishes. The Earl of Rosslyn's Fifeshire tenants presented Lord Loughborough with a beautiful antique silver bowl, two antique silver dessert dishes, and two antique sugar castors; and to the bride they gave an antique silver tea service. The congregation of Rosslyn Chapel presented the bridegroom with a complete and elegant writing set, whilst Lord Rosslyn's servants gave him a silver inkstand and pair of silver candlesticks. Mr Vyner's servants presented the bride with a silver salver and six ''liqueur'' cups. The servants of Newby Hall gave a silver coffee pot, and Mr Vyner’s Cheshire tenants presented a case containing silver tea pot, sugar basin, and cream jug. The bride also received from the Duchess of Portland a travelling bag; the Duchess de Luynes, sapphire and diamond ring; the Duke of Westminister, Indian necklace; the Marquis of Northampton, diamond bracelet; the Marquis of Ripon, sapphire and diamond bracelet; the Marchioness of Ripon, turquoise and diamond bangle, the Earl of Durham, a diamond half hoop bracelet; Earl and Countess Cowper, a diamond "V V” brooch; Dowager Viscountess Downe, moonstone and diamond crescent; Lady Skyes [Sykes] ruby and diamond fish brooch; Lady Millbank, sapphire and diamond brooch Lord Douglas Compton, double heart brooch; Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, gold curb chain bracelet set with pearls; Earl and Countess Compton, bangle with “Vi” and “good luck” on it; the Duke and Duchess of St Albans, tea service with table; the Marchioness Conyngham, silver cream jug; the Marchioness of Tavistock, silver vase; the Countess of Rodin, a silver I bowl; the Countess of Yarborough, silver candlesticks; Viscountess Downe, silver tea caddie; Lady de Trafford, gold mounted salts bottle; the Hon. F. Dawnay, large silver candlesticks[;] Hon. F and Lady Lampton, travelling clock; Hon. W. Lambton, silver candlesticks; Sir R. and Lady Graham, silver salver; Sir Roderick and Miss Cameron, two silver dishes; General Williams, diamond bangle; Colonel and Mrs G. FitzGeorge, gold mounted bottle; Major and Mrs Egerton, pair of silver candlesticks; Major Stuart Wortley, diamond Swallow; Major Davidson, heart-shaped brooch in coral and diamonds; Captain and Lady Cecilia Rose, a brougham; Mr Beaumont, silver bowl; Miss Edmonstone, moonstone and diamond hat pins; Mrs Harris, sapphire and diamond bracelet; Mr Egerton, turquoise and diamond brooch; Sir Cecil Murray, sapphire and diamond pin; Mr A. Farquharson, diamond swallow brooch; Mr and Mrs Hulse, two small silver vases; Miss Fleetwood Wilson, diamond bangle; Mrs A. Wilson, tortoiseshell candlestick; Mr Quintin Hume, salts bottle mounted with diamonds and rubies; Miss Helbert, gold violet pin; Mr Chamberlain, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Arthur Coventry, gold mounted bottle with "Vi" in diamonds; Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, diamond hand brooch, together with a number of other gifts. Among the presents to the bridegroom were — from the Marchioness of Downshire, antique silver sugar sifter; the Marquis of Exeter, silver sandwich case; the Marchioness of Bath, antique Dutch silver box; the Marquis of Downshire, a gold pencil; Count Munster, cigarette case and match box; Count Alexander Munster, a hunting flask; the Countess of Lindsay, antique silver pen-tray; the Earl of Mar and Kellie, silver matchbox; the Earl and Countess of Loudoun, silver cigarette box; the Earl of Chesterfield, antique silver gilt inkstand; the Countess of Bradford, gold seal with agate; the Countess of Warwick, antique silver bowl; the Earl of Coventry, silver pen-tray; the Countess of Wharncliffe, two silver candlesticks; the Earl and Countess of Cromartie, two antique silver cups; Viscountess of Newport, silver paper knife; Mr and Mrs A. Sassoon, ruby and diamond pin; Lord John Cecil, silver salver; Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby, antique silver-mounted cruet stand; Lord William Nevtll, antique brandy carrier; Lady Margaret Spicer, silver match box; Lord Burghley, four silver salt cellars and spoons; Baron de Hirch [Hirsch?], silver inkstand; Lady W. E. Osborne Elphinstone, silver inkstand; Lord Kesteven, silver cream jug; Lord Capell, silver cigarette case; Lord and Lady Gerard, tortoiseshell and silver travelling clock; Lady Lilian Wemyss, silver cigarette case; Dad Alwyne Compton, umbrella containing matchbox and whistle; Lord and Lady Lennox, two antique silver ''entree'' dishes and bacon dish; Lord Burghersh, silver cigarette lighter; Lady Angela 8t Clair Erskine, four silver salt cellars; Lady Randolph Churchill, gold pencil case, with two sapphires; Lord Houghton, antique gold basket; Lady Sybil St Clair Erskine, umbrella; Lord and Lady Dorchester, large crystal seal; Hon. Derek P. Keppel, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. E. and Mrs Pelham, silver inkstand; Hon. G. N. Curzon, silver gilt bowl; Hon. F. St Clair Erskine, four silver candle-sticks; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. A. and Mrs Bourke]], four small silver dessert dishes; Hon. Mrs Elliot Yorke, pair of silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs L. Greville, tortoise-shell and silver box; Hon. R Somerset, diamond and pearl pin; Hon. G. H. Willoughby, silver ink-stand; Hon. H. and Mrs Grosvenor, umbrella; [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]], enamel and diamond pin; Captain Hon. Maurice Bourke, cigarette case and lighter; Hon. W. Maxwell, silver-backed clothes and hat brushes; Hon. Sidney Greville, saltspoons; Hon. M. C. Maxwell Scott, two silver ''menu'' plates; Hon. W. Edwardes, pin; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Captain Hon. A.]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Mrs Greville]], silver gilt bowl, fork, spoon, and ladle; Sir Frederick Milner, diamond and moonstone pin; Sir George Chetwynd, two long silver flagons; Sir M. and Lady Fitzgerald, two silver saltspoons; Sir N. Gordon Gumming, silver-handled paper knife, &c.<ref>"Marriage of Lord Loughborough with Miss Vyner." ''Fife Free Press'' 26 July 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 1a–2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001110/18900726/015/0002. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> === 24 July 1890, Thursday === ==== Dinner and Dance Hosted by Lord Alington ==== Perhaps the date on this is uncertain, since the article in ''Truth'' would suggest it was held in late May or early June. The newspaper story in the ''Queen'' mentions another occasion in which the flowers were notable as well. From ''Truth'':<blockquote> But not a quarter of a mile distant [from a dinner and dance hosted by Lord Rothschild featuring Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lorne] a more important event was proceeding, for Lord Alington, having previously walked down the Row and invited his friends right and left to Alington House, South Audley-street, proceeded to give a dance which was honoured by the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Princesses Victoria and Maud, the Duke of Clarence, Princess Mary Adelaide, and Princess "May" and Prince and Princess Christian. This without exaggeration, with the exception of Lady Leconfield's, Lady Willoughby de Eresby's, and Lady Cadogan's, was the best ball hitherto given this season, and the prolific way ortolans [small songbirds regarded as a delicacy] were distributed at supper will long linger in the memories of those by whom these delicacies are cherished. One lady displayed her enthusiastic appreciation by devouring five of these, and it is to be hoped her devotion did not endanger her life. As for beauty, seldom before have so many pre-eminent for good looks been present at one gathering, as a mere enumeration of a few of these will prove. Of course the Duchess of Leinster heads the list, followed in quick succession by the Duchess of Portland, Lady de Grey, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Dudley, Lady Kilmorey, Lady Brooke, Lady de Trafford, Lady Helen Duncombe, Lady Hilda Dundas, Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, Lady Olivia Taylour, Miss Rachael Gurney, Lady Cardross, Miss Bourke, Lady Rose Leigh and her sister-in-law, Miss Leigh, Miss Berens (sister to Lady Cairns), Mrs. Ralph Sneyd, Lady Gerard, and a host of others far too numerous to mention. I often wonder that no painter has yet attempted to give us in one picture a permanent record of the chief beauties of our day. It would make a most interesting and exquisite group of lovely women, such as could not be found probably in any other country than this.<ref>Marmaduke, pseud. "Letters from the Linkman." ''Truth'' 12 June 1890, Thursday: 26 [of 56], Col. 1a–b [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002961/18900612/064/0026. Same print title, p. 1212.</ref></blockquote> From the ''Queen'':<blockquote>The P<small>RINCE AND</small> P<small>RINCESS OF</small> W<small>ALES</small> and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured L<small>ORD</small> A<small>LINGTON</small> by their presence at D<small>INNER</small>, at A<small>LINGTON</small> H<small>OUSE</small>, South Audley-street, on the 24th ult., when a distinguished party was present to meet them, including, among others, the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the EarI of Chesterfield, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, and Earl Annesley. Covers were laid for sixty. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales and their daughters. As on the previous occasion, the floral decorations were exquisite. The entrance hall and the approaches to the reception rooms were decorated with tall palms and a profusion of lilies, pelargoniums, ferns in every variety, and roses in every imaginable shade. The conservatories at the back were carpeted and furnished luxuriously, and blocks of ice, lighted by fairy lamps, were placed about with artistic effect, serving to keep the atmosphere cool and fresh. Feathery palms, hydrangeos [hydrangeas] and arums were here used freely, and a particularly pretty result was obtained by the windows being framed, one in a fringe of ferns and red pelargoniums, and the other in ferns and fuschias. The ballroom fireplaces were adorned on each side with palms reaching to the ceiling, the mantelpieces being hidden by a delicate arrangement of roses in various shades springing from banks of hydrangeas, calceolarias, pelargoniums, and marguerites, and the walls of the staircase leading from the conservatory to the ball-room were hung with half-balls of floral roses. The supper was served in the dining-room, the tables being embellished with the loveliest orchids and roses of the most delicate tints, intermixed with pancretia; the arrangement was so light and elegant that it was difficult to believe that hands had ever touched the flowers. On those tables with silver candelabra in the centre, the flowers were all pure white, and those having gold candelabra were treated with mauve orchids and the palest pink and yellow roses. A tent, arranged near the conservatory for the Prince of Wales, was draped with Oriental hangings, and outside were groups of flowers and myriads of fairy lamps. The company began to arrive at eleven o'clock, when dancing commenced to the strains of the Blue Hungarian Band. The Princess of Wales was dressed in white striped satin and silk, the front being embroidered in pale shades, and wore handsome diamond ornaments. The Princesses Victoria and Maud wore white tulle over satin, the front being sprinkled all over with tiny sprays of lilies of the valley, each laid on a single leaf. The Duchess of Wellington was in black satin, with a pink sash arranged very prettily across the back of the bodice, and falling to the feet; a cluster of pink flowers and a beautiful diamond spray were fastened in the front of the bodicea and a diamond riviĂšre was arranged in the hair, a diamond necklace being also worn. The Duchess of Westminster was in white satin trimmed with gold embroidery, and veiled in white chiffon. The Marchioness of Ormonde wore white striped brocade and satin trimmed with white lace, and a splendid diamond tiara and other ornaments. Countess de Grey, palest blue satin, with front beautifully embroidered in beads, and a diamond and pearl coronet. Maria, Marchioness of Ailesbury, white brocade and lace, with splendid diamond and emerald ornaments. The Marchioness of Bath, cream an violet brocaded velvet, the front being covered with mauve [38, Col. 3c – 39, Col. 1a] violets. Lady Mary Mills, rose-pink satin, with front richly embroidered; Lady Cardross, white satin, trimmed round the bodice and train with silver embroidery; Lady William Nevill, pale yellow brocade, the front veiled with black net, trimmed up the side with jet leaves, and all round the skirt was a bordering of MarĂ©chal Niel roses, over a flounce of black net; Countess Granville wore rich white brocade and beautiful jewels; the Countess of Sefton, black satin and diamonds; Viscountess Dungan, white mousseline de soie, the skirt edged with a deep flounce; Lady Brooke, pale blue satin, trimmed with silver; Lady Emma Crichton, white satin train, with front of white lisse, prettily embroidered in red; Lady Idina Brassey, pale mauve bengaline, with front of chiffon and a handsome diamon coronet; Lady Rose Molyneux, white cross crĂȘpe de Chine, with a pale green sash, and prettily trimmed with pink roses; Lady Wimborne, pale grey satin; the Hon. Miss Guest, pink satin, veiled with white net, sparkling with silver; Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, white satin, with a chiffon frill; Lady Chesham, white silk, with pink roses; the Countess of Normanton, pale grey satin, with front of fine old lace; Mrs Hulse, handsome white brocade, diamond tiara, &c.; Mrs Bischoffsheim, white silk, embroidered with silver, and trimmed round the bottom of the skirt and train with a ruche of pale yellow crĂšpe; the Hon. Muriel Brassey, white chiffon, over satin, slightly trimmed with pink; and the [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs Algernon Bourke]] was in pink, with magnificent diamonds.<ref>"Entertainments, Balls, &c." ''The Queen'' 2 August 1890, Saturday: 38, Col. 3c – 39 [of 82], Col. 1a–1c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18900802/237/0038 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18900802/237/0039. Print: ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'', pp. 170–171.</ref></blockquote>This is the story from the ''Morning Post'':<blockquote>The Prince and Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud honoured Lord Alington by their company at dinner last evening at Alington House, South Audley-street. The guests present to meet their Royal Highnesses comprised the Duke and Duchess of Leinster, the Marquis of Hartington, the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde, Maria Marchioness of Ailesbury, Earl and Countess Cadogan and Lady Emily Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Lucan and Lady Rosaline Bingham, the Earl of Hardwicke, the Countess of Dudley and Lady Edith Ward, the Earl of Chesterfield, Earl Annesley, the Earl of Stradbroke and Lady Hilda Rous, Lord and Lady Gerard, Lady Norreys, Lord Rowton, Lord Calthorpe, Lord Frederick Hamilton, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lord Arthur Grosvenor, Lady Lilian Wemyss, Colonel the Hon. Oliver Montagu, Sir John and Lady Lister Kaye, the Hon. Humphrey and Lady Feodore Sturt, the Hon. John Baring, the Hon. Henry and the Hon. Julia Stonor, the Hon. Gilbert Willoughby, Lady Suffield and Major-General Ellis, in waiting on the Prince and Princess of Wales; Sir Henry Calcraft, Mr. and Lady Rose Leigh, General and Mrs. Owen Williams, Mr. Mildmay, M.P., Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, Mr. Montague Guest, Captain Orr-Ewing, Mrs. Bulkeley, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Caryl Craven. Lord Alington afterwards gave a dance expressly to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales. Among the company were— The Russian Ambassador, the Danish Minister, Prince Louis Esterhazy, Comte Costa de Beaunyardt, the Duchess of Buccleuch and Lady Evelyn Fitzmaurice, the Duchess of Westminster, the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough and Lady Sarah Spencer Churchill, the Duchess of Wellington and Lady Cardross, the Marquis and Marchioness of Granby and Miss Bourke, the Marchioness of Stafford and Lady Sybil St. Clair Erskine, the Marchioness of Bath and Lady Beatrice Thynne, the Marquis of Cholmondeley, the Marquese and Marquesa de Santurce and Lady Wilham Nevill, Countess Spencer, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, Countess de Grey, the Earl of Dunraven, the Countess of Lathom and Lady Edith Wilbraham, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Christian Cole, the Earl of Ilchester, the Earl of Durham and Lady Anne Lambton, the Earl of Dalkeith and Lord Ernest Scott, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, the Countess of Normanton and Lady Mary Agar and Miss Mary Liddell, Earl Craven, Viscount Clifden, Viscount Ennismore and Lady Beatrice Hare, Viscount Coke and the Hon. Violet White, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bruce, Viscount and Viscountess Melgund, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscount and Lady Violet Dangan and Lady Eva Wellesley, Viscount Dungarvan, Viscount Chelsea, Viscount Royston, Lady Hastings, Lord Capell, Lord and Lady Willoughby de Eresby and Hon. Margaret Willoughby, Lady Cloncurry and Hon. Miss Winn, Lord and Lady Brooke, Lady Wimborne and Hon. Miss Guest, Lord Sandhurst, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord and Lady Alwyne Compton and Miss Gurney, Lord and Lady Chesham, Lady Rossmore and Miss Naylor, Lord Kenyon, Lord Garioch, Lady Alice Portal, Lady Margaret Levett and the Ladies Ashley, Lady W. Nevill, Lord Paulet, Lady Charles Beresford, Lady Forbes and Misses Forbes, Lady Claud Hamilton, Lord Carlow, Lady Mary Mills, Lord Lurgan, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. W. Coventry, the Hon. G. Joliffe, the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. H. Coventry, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. Alistair and Mrs. Hay, the Hon. Mrs. Grosvenor, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|the Hon. Algernon and Mrs. Bourke]], the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. E. J. Mills, the Hon. A. Johnstone, the Hon. Claude Hay, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Mr. Dundas and Lady Hilda Dundas, the Hon. Thomas and Lady Idina Brassey and the Hon. Muriel Brassey, the Hon. Mr. Mansfield, Colonel the Hon. Henry Byng and Miss Byng, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Mr. Harbord, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P., the Hon. G. Somerset, Sir William Gordon Cumming, Sir George Arthur, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Charles Forbes, Sir William and Lady Eden, Sir George Chetwynd, Sir Frederick Johnstone, Sir John D. Poynder, Colonel and Lady Emma Crichton, the Hon. Miss Harbord, Captain and Lady Jane Combe, Colonel Paget, Captain Williams, Captain Ford, Captain Doyle, Captain Hanbury, Captain Campbell, Captain Constable, Captain Kinloch, Captain Longfield, M. Gutmansthal, Mrs. Bingham, Mr. Guthrie, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Mrs. Charles Wilson and Miss Wilson, Mr. Hulse, M.P., and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. de Murrieta, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, Mr. Spencer Portal, Mr. and Mrs. Gerald Paget, Mr. Leigh and Miss Leigh, Mr. Percy Daniell, Mr. Lister, Mr. Frederick Vincent, Mr. Cazalet, Mr. Alfred de Rothschild, Mr. John Savile Lumley, Mr. and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, Mr. and Mrs. Skeffington Smith and Miss Taylor, Mrs. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Alfred Farquhar, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mr. Reginald Ronalds]], Miss Alice Ellice, Mr. George Marjoribanks, Mr. Wyndham, Mr. Dugdale, Mr. Montagu, Mrs. Sneyd, Mr. Wynn, Mr. Edward Hamilton, Mr. Murray Guthrie, Mr. George Lambert, Mrs. Sanford, Miss Mabel Forbes. Mr. Herbert Magniac, Mr. Bailey, Mr. Milner, Mr. Charles Kindersley, Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. H. Hoare, Mr. Foley, Mr. Scott Murray, Mr. Coventry, Mr. Bertie, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. Guthrie, Mr. George Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. E. Charteris, Mr. Cholmondeley, Mr. Oswald Magniac, Mr. Cecil Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. Peploe, Mr. A. Charteris, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Robert Antrobus, Mr. Elliot, M. de Champs, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Charles Hoare, M.P., and many others.<ref>"Lord Alington's Ball." ''Morning Post'' 25 July 1890, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5 b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18900725/014/0003. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ==August 1890== ===6 August 1890, Friday=== ==== Beautiful Women ==== The ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' reprinted a story from ''Vanity Fair'' about "Beautiful Women":<blockquote>Beautiful Women. — ''Vanity Fair'' asks what country in the world can show a more beautiful bevy of women than England? When Lady Helen Vincent, with her sister, Lady Cynthia Graham; when Lady Warwick with her sisters, the Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Westmorland; and when Lady Mar and Kellie, Lady de Trafford, Princess Pless, Lady de Gray[,] Lady Naylor-Leyland, the Duchess of Portland, Lady Alington, Lady Sophie Scott, Lady Chelsea, [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Lady Algernon Bourke]], Lady Henry Bentinck, Mrs. Willie Grenfell, Mrs. Rupert Beckett, Mrs. Arthur Paget, and Countess Clary are gathered together it is a sight to make an old man young; while Mrs. Gerard Leigh and her sister, Lady Yarborough, and Lady Powis, Lady Norreys, Mrs Farquharson, Mrs. Willie James, Lady Dalkeith, Mrs. Pretyman, Mrs. Gervase Beckett, Lady Rossmore, Lady Sarah Wilson, Lady Colebrook, Lady Hartopp, Mrs. Willie Walker, and Lady Milton are almost equally admired. The many pretty girls include Miss Enid and Miss Muriel Wilson, who still head the list of the unmarried beauties, Lady Beatrice Butler, Lady Alexandra Hamilton, Miss Kennard, Miss Madeline Bourke, and Miss Leila Crichton; while among the debutantes Lady Evelyn Crichton and Lady Vivian's daughters have had a great success, and Lady Alice Montagu, petite and charmingly pretty, has been so much admired. The daughters of Lady Gosford, Lady Verulam, Lady Leitrim, Lady Inchiquin, and Lady Grey have also been admired, as well as Lady Helen Stewart, Lady Katherine Scott, and Miss Chaplin.<ref>"Beautiful Women." ''Lancaster Observer and Morecambe Chronicle'' 6 August 1897, Friday: 2 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001804/18970806/023/0002. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> ===25 August 1890, Monday=== Summer Bank Holiday ==September 1890== ==October 1890== ===22 October 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch went to the Reading Room (Campbell 22). ===25 October 1890, Saturday=== [[Social Victorians/Loder De Vere Beauclerk Wedding|Loder—De Vere Beauclerk Wedding]] ===31 October 1890, Friday=== Halloween. ==November 1890== ===5 November 1890, Wednesday=== Guy Fawkes Day ===19 November 1890, Wednesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch, with some of his students and his daughter Helene, provided musical illustrations for a lecture given by Dr. Frederick Bridge on "Mozart as Teacher," probably at Gresham College, where Bridges was professor (Campbell 34). ===21 November 1890, Friday=== Dr. Frederick Bridge's last fall 1890 lecture at Gresham College, for which Dolmetsch provided illustration. Campbell says, "it is, in fact, the first record in modern times of music by Byrd, Dr. Bull, Jenkins, Simpson, Lawes, Locke and Purcell being played 'on the instruments for which it was written'" (Campbell 34). ===25 November 1890, Tuesday=== Arnold Dolmetsch got a three-month pass to the Reading Room and "thereafter held yearly tickets until 1916" (Campbell 22). ==== 1890 November 29, Saturday ==== ===== [[Social Victorians/Dudley-Beckwith Wedding 1890-11-29|Wedding of Francis Dudley, Lord Leigh and HĂ©lĂ©ne Forbes Beckwith]] ===== ==December 1890== Sometimes in December 1890, [[Social Victorians/People/William Robert Woodman|William Woodman]], one of the founding members of the [[Social Victorians/Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], died (Gilbert 86 12). === 4 December 1890, Thursday === ==== [[Mure-Portal Wedding 1890-12-04|Wedding of Miss Mure and Mr. S. J. Portal]] ==== ===19 December 1890, Friday=== "The eleventh annual ''Truth'' Toy Exhibition for the children in London hospitals, workhouses, and infirmaries was held at the Grosvenor Gallery, Bond-street, on Dec. 19 and 20. There are over 22,000 children in these institutions, and each of them has a separate toy, besides the large and more expensive toys which are presented for the general use of the inmates. A special feature of the show was the dolls dressed by lady readers of ''Truth''. Several special donations in connection with the fund have been made, the principal of which is that of 10,200 new sixpences sent for distribution by the same liberal donor who has given a similar present on former occasions; while Mr. Tom Smith has had specially made, and has forwarded for distribution, over 22,000 crackers; and Mr. Horniman (as stated in our last issue) has given to the adults in hospitals and workhouses 1200 packets of tea, to be given to them as Christmas boxes." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 27, 1890; pg. 806; Issue 2697, Col. B) ===20 December 1890, Saturday=== "In order that the adults connected with the hospitals and workhouses may participate in the good things given to the children in the ''Truth'' toy distribution, Mr. F. J. Horniman, of Wormwood-street, City, has sent Mr. Labouchere 1200 packets of tea to be given to them as a Christmas box." (Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, December 20, 1890; pg. 774; Issue 2696, Col. B) From the ''Times'', 22 December 1890, "The Late Sir Edgar Boehm": <blockquote>On Saturday, in accordance with the special request of the Queen, the late Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral, in the south aisle of the crypt, the spot being known as “The Painters Corner.” [new paragraph] The funeral cortĂ©ge left the residence of the deceased at about 11 o’clock, there being five mourning and several private carriages. In the first carriage were the chief mourners, Sir Edgar Collins Boehm, the only son of the late baronet, and Mr. Conrad Herapath. The second and third carriages were occupied by Sir Frederic Leighton, P.R.A., Sir Nigel Kingscote, Mr. Richard Mills, Colonel Francis Baring, Mr. Alma-Tadema, R.A., Sir R. H. Collins, Mr. Edward J. Poynter, R.A., and Mr. Duncan MacGregor, all of whom subsequently, at the cathedral, acted as pall bearers. The fourth carriage contained representatives of the Council of the Royal Academy – Mr. Edwin Long, R.A., Mr. J. B. Burgess, R.A., Mr. F. Goodall, R.A., and Mr. Beavis. In the fifth carriage were the following members of the professional staff of the deceased – Mr. R. Glassby, Mr. E. LantĂ©ri, Signor Finili, and Herr Gross. The cortĂ©ge stopped for a few moments at the Royal Academy, in order that it might be joined by two carriages containing other representatives of the institution. Leaving Piccadilly, the route taken was Waterloo-place, Pall-mall, Cockspur-street, the Strand, Fleet-street, and Ludgate-hill, the cathedral being reached about noon. The procession was met at the great west door by Canon Gregory, the Archdeacon of London, the Rev. Dr. Baker, Minor Canons Milman, Russell, and Kelly, and the choir, who had a few minutes previously left the vestry; by Major Bigge, Equerry to the Queen, representing her Majesty; Colonel Stanley Clarke, who attended on behalf of the Prince and Princess of Wales; and Colonel W. J. Colville, representing the Duke of Edinburgh. The [[Social Victorians/People/Princess Louise|Princess Louise]] (Marchioness of Lorne) attired in deep mourning, and accompanied by [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Lieut.-Col. Arthur Collins]] and Lady Sophia Macnamara, arrived at the cathedral a few minutes before 12 o’clock, and was conducted to a seat in the south side of the nave, close to the late Sir Edgar Boehm’s two daughters, upon whom her Royal Highness had called earlier in the morning. As the procession came slowly up the nave towards the chancel, “I am the resurrection of life” and other sentences of the burial service were chanted to music by Dr. Croft. The coffin, which was completely hidden by splendid wreaths, was preceded by the choristers and the clergy. Then followed Sir E. C. Boehm, with Mr. Conrad Herapath and Mr. Alfred Gilbert, A.R.A., the officers and council of the Royal Academy, and members of the deceased’s studio. The coffin was deposited upon a bier, which had been placed under the dome in front of the opening into the crypt, through which the body was subsequently lowered. The mourners having been conducted to the seats which had been reserved for them, and the clergy and choir having proceeded to their places in the chancel, Psalms xxxix. and xc. Were sung to music by Purcell and Felton, followed by Spohr’s anthem, “Blest are the departed,” and the lesson 1 Cor. Xv. 20, which was read by Canon Gregory. Whilst the hymn “Days and moments quickly flying” was being sung the Archdeacon of London and Minor Canon Milman proceeded from the chancel and took up positions by the side of the coffin. The remainder of the service preceding and following the lowering of the body into the crypt was read by Minor Canon Milman, and the collect was impressively recited by Archdeacon Sinclair. The late Dr. Newman’s beautiful hymn, “Lead kindly light,” was afterwards sung by the choir, and the service was brought to a close by Beethoven’s Funeral March, which was played in compliance with the special request of her Majesty, at whose desire also Chopin’s Funeral March had preceded the service. Dr. Martin was the organist. While Beethoven’s march was being played the son and daughters of the late “Sculptor in ordinary to her Majesty,” together with other mourners, descended the crypt by the door near Howard’s monument, and saw the coffin for the last time. It bore the following inscription:- “Joseph Edgar Boehm. Born July 6, 1834; died at his work December 12, 1890. Thy will be done.” The coffin had already been deposited in the brick grave prepared for it, which is next to that of Sir Edwin Landseer. Immediately around it lie the remains of painters and sculptors of bygone days – Sir Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, Sir Thomas Lawrence, J. M. W. Turner, and John Henry Foley, while within half-a-dozen yards is the tomb of the great architect of the cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren. The coffin as last seen was covered by the floral tributes of loving friends, the symbolic laurel wreath forwarded by her Majesty surmounting them. This bore the inscription, “A tribute of gratitude for many beautiful memorial works executed for her. From Victoria, R. I.” Attached to the beautiful wreath sent by the Prince and Princess of Wales were the words, “A token of sincere regard and friendship.” Wreaths were forwarded by other members of the Royal Family, by Sir John and Lady Millais, Lord and Lady Reay, the Countess Sydney, Lord and Lady de Vesci, Mr. Henry Irving, Mr. and Mrs. Bancroft, by members of the council, students and officers of the Royal Academy, the Society of Artistic Sculptors (Vienna), and by the London Hungarian Association." (http://glassby.com/Chapter1.htm) </blockquote> ===24 December 1890, Wednesday=== "The people of South London and adjacent suburbs have to be grateful to Mr. Frederick Horniman, a well-known City merchant residing at Dulwich, for a munificent and beneficial Christmas gift. This gentleman has, during thirty years, formed a collection, worth above ÂŁ100,000, of specimens of art, European, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese, also of decorative manufactures, and of ethnology and natural history, and rare books and manuscripts, at Surrey House, Forest Hill, which he intends to present to the public. The museum was opened by Sir Morell Mackenzie on Wednesday afternoon, Dec. 24. It already comprises twenty-four rooms, containing many beautiful specimens of horse and chain armour, Elizabethan bed-room furniture, an old English parlour and pantry, an Oriental armoury, a bible and manuscript room, an Egyptian gallery, and ethnographical saloon, a book and embroidery saloon, a porcelain and glass room, and a zoological saloon, with two live Russian bears and a monkey. We may describe the museum further, after another visit. Our Artist has sketched, in the ethnograhical saloon, an idol's shrine, made of cocoanut-fibre, from Fiji. Mr. Horniman, in acknowledging a vote of thanks, said that in an adjoining house he had accumulated a vast library of bibles and entomological works and specimens. It was his intention to build a hall at the back of the present building to contain a thousand persons, while the galleries would contain a library, and a stage would be provided, so that both eye and ear could be amused. He also contemplated buying sufficient land to enable a public body to erect class-rooms and gymnasia. Three cheers were given for Mr. Horniman, and the company proceeded to inspect the museum." "(Mr. F. Horniman's Museum, Forest Hill." Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, January 03, 1891; pg. 7; Issue 2698, Col. C) ===25 December 1890, Thursday=== Christmas Day ===26 December 1890, Friday=== Boxing Day ==Works Cited== *"Besant Chronology.pdf." From Anderson, Nancy Fix, Walter L Arnstein, Deborah Logan, and Susie L Steinbach, Volume Editors. Lives of Victorian Political Figures, Part III: Queen Victoria, Florence Nightingale, Annie Besant and Millicent Garrett Fawcett by their Contemporaries. Volume 3 of Lives of Victorian Political Figures. Series Editors, Nancy LoPatin-Lummis and Michael Partridge. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2008. *Crawford, Elizabeth. The Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928. Google Books. Accessed 14 October 2010. ax5cm5n2loe78mop0vgi34la8vilhut Social Victorians/People/Mandeville 0 264381 2841941 2841746 2026-10-21T23:16:07Z Scogdill 1331941 2841941 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|"Kim," Viscount Mandeville, 1882]] == Overview == The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).<ref name=":1" /> When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], "double Duchess" of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]]. In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was "Man of the Day" (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward ("Spy").<ref>"Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg." Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).</ref> Kim Montagu, Lord Mandeville ended the relationship with Bessie Bellwood sometime during 1890, presumably after acceding to the dukedom. In November of 1890, his son secretly married Helena Zimmerman. == Also Known As == *Family name: Montagu *The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?) *Viscount Mandeville **"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855 – 22 March 1890) **[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892) **Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Viscountess Mandeville **Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890) **Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892) *Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>) ** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === ==== Friends ==== * Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford * Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore * Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === ==== Friends ==== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]. ==Organizations== === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === * Eton<ref name=":1" /> === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === * Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Edith Wharton is said to have taken details from the 8th Duke's marriage for her novel ''The Buccaneers''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Timeline == '''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families "placed in mourning" were the following, as listed in the ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record'':<blockquote>He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&page=2&article=025&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.</ref></blockquote>'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a "Notice,"<blockquote>I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.<ref>"Notice." ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&page=1&article=004&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p. </ref></blockquote>This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855. '''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and "Kim" (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref name=":0" /> '''1889 December 23''', Lord Mandeville was involved in a [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|boxing match in Bruges, Belgium between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin]], and the resulting social fallout. === 1890s === '''1890 January 1, Wednesday, New Year's Day''', the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Marchioness of Londonderry's "At Home"|Marchioness of Londonderry]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Marchioness of Londonderry's "At Home"|hosted an "At Home" on New Year's Day for 700–800 people]], including people from local neighborhoods. Lady Mandeville was invited, but the Viscount's name is not listed. '''1890 January 5, Sunday''', Viscount Mandeville is mentioned in a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#"A Very Bad Lot"|rant in Reynolds's Newspaper called "A Very Bad Lot,"]] talking about immoral practices in the aristocracy. '''1890 January 6, Monday''', Lady Mandeville was present at [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#11 January 1890, Saturday|Merton with a small party and the Prince of Wales]] during the funeral of Empress Augusta. Also on Monday, 6 January 1890, Viscount Mandeville took part in a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Amicable Gathering of Boxers and Sportsmen|gathering to see "Parson" Davies off on his trip to the US]]. The gathering was amicable, Slavin was there. '''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the "principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,"<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref> but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned. '''1890 January 13, Monday''', Lord Mandeville was an organizer of a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Wallace-Camp Boxing Match|boxing match between "Nunc" (Edwin) Wallace and George Camp]]. This match was important and Wallace was very important in the history of this sport. Lord Mandeville was also reported to be at an [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|unfair and notorious match in Bruges between a British and an Australian fighter]] that occurred on 23 December 1889. '''1890 January 14, Tuesday, probably, or January 7''', Lord Mandeville was "attacked" in a restaurant by a boxer:<blockquote>The "Evening Post" states that Charles Mitchell, the pugilist, attacked Lord Mandeville and Mr Abington at a West-End restaurant on Tuesday night. They were immediately separated.<ref>''Aberdeen Press and Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000032%2F18900115&page=6&article=097&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Aberdeen Weekly Journal'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]]. '''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 "Exploration" shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref> Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others. '''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present. '''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club. '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended. '''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:<blockquote>Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.<ref>"Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.)." ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&page=6&article=106&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6. </ref></blockquote>'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]]. '''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended. '''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York "beauty and society leader" Miss Mabel Wright.<ref>"Personal." ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&page=5&article=070&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> Presumably at least Consuelo was there? '''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned. '''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Lord Mandeville's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester and joining the House of Lords:<blockquote>While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons. {{Paragraph break}} It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his 25,000 acres of land and ÂŁ38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.<ref>"To-Day." ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:<blockquote>The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.<ref>"Notes and News." ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&page=2&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:<blockquote>Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.<ref>"An American Belle." ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&page=6&article=006&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London. '''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste GrĂ€fin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]]. == Demographics == ===Nationality=== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American. *Helena Zimmerman was American. *George, William and Alexander Montagu were British. === Residences === * 1890: "The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of ÂŁ40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh."<ref>"Men and Things." (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&page=1&article=010&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> * In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle: <blockquote>The Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&page=6&article=014&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> == Family == *Consuelo (MarĂ­a Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), nĂ©e Doña MarĂ­a Consuelo Iznaga y Clement<ref name=":0" /> *"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)<ref name=":1" /> #William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947) #Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895). #Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900) *[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962) #Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977) #Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956) #Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948) === Relations === The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London "Society": *Consuelo (MarĂ­a Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909) *Emilie Iznaga y Clement () *Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye () == Questions and Notes == *In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did "Publication date oldest first," but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to "Publication date newest first." Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards. == Papers, Memoirs and Biographies == * Personal correspondence: in the archive at Chatsworth House (group <code>CS8</code>) * The papers of Louise Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire DF14 contains correspondence to and from the 7th Duke and Duchess of Manchester. * Archives Hub: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/ (for records of UK archives, including Northern Ireland, but not the Republic of Ireland) ** Chatsworth House: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/locations/6e07905a-1893-3adb-93fa-6966fcfaf57e ** Louise Cavendish papers: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/7f2209dd-e364-3318-8a5e-62e0533d7a4c ** Devonshire Collection Archives: Family papers: https://www.chatsworth.org/visit-chatsworth/chatsworth-estate/art-archives/access-the-collection/archives-and-library/family-papers-guide/ == Footnotes == {{reflist}} rvsk16dhfc3sr8p85ru4q2oqj8c2jgp Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective 0 264916 2841954 2841818 2026-10-22T00:29:50Z Jtneill 10242 /* Books */ 2841954 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|'''Figure 1'''.Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]] (see Figure 1)? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives (see Figure 2). In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 3): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 4'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 4): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 5'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 5)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Time_Cure.html "The Time Cure" <!-- * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] (link broken) --> ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/258e61068a164af2a7e574484aa956c6 Tutorial 10] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] m64jpcbaan3zlrbq7uw3kqovjr6flwr 2841955 2841954 2026-10-22T00:30:10Z Jtneill 10242 /* Books */ 2841955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|'''Figure 1'''.Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]] (see Figure 1)? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives (see Figure 2). In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". [[File:Doctor Who (13).jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future.]] For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into (see Figure 3): * Past * Present * Future ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 4'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 4): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 5'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 5)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Time_Cure.html "The Time Cure"] <!-- * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] (link broken) --> ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/258e61068a164af2a7e574484aa956c6 Tutorial 10] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] dga0hdkwk1az7hdpp8i6zy8hl7v9jb7 2841958 2841955 2026-10-22T00:42:29Z Jtneill 10242 Remove redundant Figure 3 2841958 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|'''Figure 1'''.Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]] (see Figure 1)? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives (see Figure 2). In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into: * Past * Present * Future People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future. ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 4'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 4): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 5'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 5)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Time_Cure.html "The Time Cure"] <!-- * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] (link broken) --> ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/258e61068a164af2a7e574484aa956c6 Tutorial 10] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 4ou0eywx1ugmnof1mw9xf0k4tkgz7op 2841960 2841958 2026-10-22T00:43:04Z Jtneill 10242 2841960 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 10: Time perspective|tenth}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> ==Overview== [[File:Tardis in Snow.jpg|thumb|160px|'''Figure 1'''.Do you know how to time travel? By the end of this tutorial, you will know how to use mental time travel to optimise your wellbeing.]] This tutorial is about: * the psychology of time and, more specifically, * [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Zimbardo]]'s model of time perspective and how it relates to motivation and emotion Take-home messages: * Time perspective unconsciously influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour * The [[#Ideal|ideal]] profile involves balanced and flexible use of past, present, and future time perspectives ==Mental time travel== [[File:Person holding clock in front of head.jpg|right|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. We all travel through time by using memory and imagination]] Would you like to [[w:Time travel|time travel]] (see Figure 1)? It turns out, you are already a time traveller (see [[w:Mental time travel|mental time travel]]) because you unconsciously adopt different cognition perceptions about time—or time perspectives (see Figure 2). In particular, our cognitions can focus on the past, present, or future. Time perspective relates to cognitive psychology (it is about cognitions), personality (individual differences in thinking and behaviour patterns or styles), motivation (it influences what we care about) , and emotion (it relates to how we feel). Humans are unconsciously influenced by their cognitions about time. By understanding and measuring our individual time perspectives, we can work towards optimising our time perspective to live better lives. ==What is time perspective?== Did you know that we can travel through time (see Figure 1)? Time travel is very simple to do and we do it "all the time". For example, close your eyes and think about what happened: * 10 minutes ago * yesterday * many years ago Similarly, you imagine various futures for yourself e.g., in: * 1 hour * 1 year * 30 years Or you could focus all your thought and attention could be focused on what is happening in the present. Time perspective (TP) refers to how we think about time. It can be broadly divided into: * Past * Present * Future People unconsciously adopt different time perspectives - whether past, present, or future. ==ZTPI== {{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|100px]] '''Activity: ZTPI''' # Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory] (ZTPI) # Discuss the underlying theory # Discuss class results {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Theory=== Time perspective theory considers: * the types of time perspective * time perspective principles ====Types==== [[File:TUSSTMQ9 StructuralModel TimePerspective.png|right|thumb|450px|'''Figure 3'''. Six possible time perspective factors, based on Zimbardo (2009).]] Time perspective can be conceptualised in terms of whether it focuses on past, present, and future, but also by the valence of that focus (e.g., positive or negative). This leads to the five time perspectives suggested by Zimbardo (2009; see Figure 3): * Past Negative * Past Positive * Present Hedonistic * Present Fatalistic * Future It is unclear whether future should be separated into future negative and future positive (there is mixed evidence). Zimbardo also suggests another time perspective: * Transcendental ([https://www.thetimeparadox.com/transcendental-future-time-perspective-inventory/ TFTPI]) which is about focusing on time beyond one's lifetime. For more information, see [https://www.thetimeparadox.com/2008/08/03/an-overview-of-time-perspective-types/ an overview of time perspective types] (thetimeparadox.com) ====Principles==== * Time perspective influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unconsciously * Each time perspective has benefits, but excesses create negative consequences * Time perspectives are learned through personal experience * We can learn to change our time perspectives ===Results=== Compare your ZTPI scores with the: * Norms: **Past Negative (''Mdn'' = 3.0<!-- 0 -->) **Past Positive (''Mdn'' = 3.2<!--2 -->) **Present Hedonism (''Mdn'' = 3.9<!--3 -->) **Present Fatalism (''Mdn'' = 2.3<!--3 -->) **Future (''Mdn'' = 3.4<!-- 38 -->) <!-- ***Transcendental Future --> * {{anchor|Ideal}}[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/graph-september2012-all-v21.png Ideal profile] ** Past Negative - Low (learn from and resolve your past) ** Past Positive - High (like and draw on your past) ** Present Fatalism - Low (take control) ** Present Hedonism - Moderate (choose when to select pleasure in the present)[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ** Future - Moderately high (work for the future) * Worst profile: ** Past Negative - High ** Present Fatalism - High ** = living in a negative past and believing you can do nothing to change it[http://pollynoble.com/2013/09/time-perspective-therapy/] ==Multimedia== [[File:Philip Zimbardo (cropped).jpg|thumb|175px|'''Figure 5'''. [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]], one of the most famous 20th-21st century psychologists.]] Does the name, [[w:Philip Zimbardo|Philip Zimbardo]] ring a bell (see Figure 5)? It should for psychology students! Maybe something about the [[w:Stanford prison experiment|Stanford prison experiment]]? In the early 1970s Zimbardo contoversially tackled a fundamental question that had plagued psychologists since [[w:World War II|World War II]] – are humans fundamentally evil – or can extreme circumstances lead normal people to act inhumanely? Fast forward a few decades and Zimbardo has worked on many other areas of psychology including, more recently, time perspective. Watch: [https://youtu.be/bo4HiVetBd0?si=S0pe1QJxB_HPaCDq&t=52 Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time] (Philip Zimbardo, 5:36 min, TED talk, 2009; finish at 6:28 mins) ==Steps of time perspective therapy== Time perspective therapy (Sword et al., 2014) uses this approach to psychotherapy: # Assess time perspective # Identify and balance time biases # Develop and maintain a balanced perspective The overall aim is to replace a narrative dominated by traumatic experiences with one that incorporates: * positive past experiences * present possibilities, and * a hopeful future. ==Discussion== <!-- * What do you think about time perspective? --> * How could your time perspective be improved? * Where/how could time perspective be applied? * How do cultures differ in time perspective? ==Books== Zimbardo's two books on this topic are: * [https://www.thetimeparadox.com "The Time Paradox"] * [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Time_Cure.html "The Time Cure"] <!-- * [https://www.thetimecure.com "The Time Cure"] (link broken) --> ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/258e61068a164af2a7e574484aa956c6 Tutorial 10] (2026)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b940b077e122487faf849cf433ef54d8 Tutorial 10] (2025) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/39ff934bedf04acab0d62a7cea89dd92 Tutorial 10] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d91d9b477c544654a5acba16f786bd46 Tutorial 10] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/1a6b38b823ff473a9dc78924b598e21a Tutorial 10] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9f60d554697b4830a5e92b206af7c369 Tutorial 10] (2021) --> ==See also== <!-- ;Additional tutorial material --> ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective|Time perspective]] <!-- ;Wikipedia --> ;Lectures and tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/20 emotions|20 emotions]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Next tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Lecture) ;Wikipedia * [[w:Mental time travel|Mental time travel]] * [[w:Philip Zimbardo#Time perspective|Philip Zimbardo - Time perspective]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. ''Journal of Loss and Trauma'', ''19''(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15325024.2013.763632 Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (2009). ''[http://www.thetimeparadox.com/ The time paradox: Using the new psychology of time to your advantage]''. Free Press. Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R. M., & Sword, R. K. M. (2012). ''[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Time+Cure%3A+Overcoming+PTSD+with+the+New+Psychology+of+Time+Perspective+Therapy-p-9781118205679 The time cure: Overcoming PTSD with the new psychology of time perspective therapy]''. Jossey-Bass. }} <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 6kooun1ik3ch7r7wcciuzo3dahpa606 Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective/Instructor notes 0 268912 2841952 2568761 2026-10-22T00:27:17Z Jtneill 10242 /* Introduction */ 2841952 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tips== * When displaying the graphs of results for the ZTPI, zoom the browser so that the graphs are near full screen. ==Timing== * Intro (5 mins) * ZTPI (10 - 15 mins) * Theory (5 - 10 mins) * Scores (5 - 10 mins) * Video (10 mins) * Discussion (5 - 10 mins) ==Introduction== * Time travel isn't science fiction - we do it continuously throughout the day * We use our minds to jump between past, present, and future ==Conclusion== * TP ideal is flexibility - being able to use each TP when it makes sense to do so, but not being locked into an inflexible pattern * TP is a potentially useful mini-theory for a wide range of contexts ==Chat messages== Tutorial notes for today: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Tutorials/Time_perspective Complete the 56-item ZTPI: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Once you've finished the ZTPI check out The Time Paradox website: https://www.thetimeparadox.com and The Time Cure website: https://www.thetimecure.com Watch Zimbardo discuss the psychology of time: https://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_the_psychology_of_time (5 mins) Restart at: *+6 mins Questions to consider: How could your time perspective be improved? How could time perspective be applied? [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] rw7v4lc6n2lxvlurf4oo1667mq8r8xb 2841953 2841952 2026-10-22T00:28:22Z Jtneill 10242 /* Chat messages */ 2841953 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tips== * When displaying the graphs of results for the ZTPI, zoom the browser so that the graphs are near full screen. ==Timing== * Intro (5 mins) * ZTPI (10 - 15 mins) * Theory (5 - 10 mins) * Scores (5 - 10 mins) * Video (10 mins) * Discussion (5 - 10 mins) ==Introduction== * Time travel isn't science fiction - we do it continuously throughout the day * We use our minds to jump between past, present, and future ==Conclusion== * TP ideal is flexibility - being able to use each TP when it makes sense to do so, but not being locked into an inflexible pattern * TP is a potentially useful mini-theory for a wide range of contexts ==Chat messages== Tutorial notes for today: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Tutorials/Time_perspective Complete the 56-item ZTPI: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link Once you've finished the ZTPI check out The Time Paradox website: https://www.thetimeparadox.com <!-- and The Time Cure website: https://www.thetimecure.com --> Watch Zimbardo discuss the psychology of time: [link no longer works] The Time Cure: https://www.thetimecure.com (5 mins) Restart at: *+6 mins Questions to consider: How could your time perspective be improved? How could time perspective be applied? [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective]] 6thhaooaa5xn97bhzget64ub13o4r4b C language in plain view 0 285380 2842017 2837450 2026-10-22T03:02:20Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842017 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261009.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> phleovzpvamhyvv567gtm3ljaas2aq8 2842020 2842017 2026-10-22T03:04:21Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842020 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261010.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> 1rrv03j3pjsjm8kiieyglwub64ksrjk 2842025 2842020 2026-10-22T03:26:09Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842025 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261012.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> nnf6kywg65qglm7c2c2dpj80jgmcjii 2842027 2842025 2026-10-22T03:27:04Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842027 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261013.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> pll4607du62bsyyvtgi52ohohsfcruv 2842029 2842027 2026-10-22T03:27:58Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842029 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261014.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> dwac5ti8vuo3nvy00piqun4aobi71l6 Electromagnetic field of ball 0 329635 2842065 2809642 2026-10-22T09:21:05Z Fedosin 196292 /* Scalar potential and electric field */ 2842065 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Electromagnetic field of ball''', if we do not take into account the influence of external fields and the environment, is completely determined by the equation of motion of electric charges in the substance of the ball and by [[Maxwell's equations]]. Due to the symmetry of the ball, the components of the electromagnetic field are most simply expressed in terms of spherical coordinates <math>~ r, \; \theta, \; \phi. </math> However, in spherical coordinates, the scalar and vector Laplace operators, the gradient of a scalar function, the divergence, and the curl of a three-dimensional vector do not have the same form as their corresponding expressions in Cartesian coordinates (see [[w:Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates |Del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates]]). For the [[w:electric potential | electric scalar potential]] <math>~ \varphi </math> and for the [[w:magnetic vector potential |magnetic vector potential]] <math>~ \mathbf A </math> of a uniformly charged ball rotating about its axis, the following equations follow from Maxwell's equations in case of homogeneous and isotropic media inside and outside the ball: :<math>~ \Delta \varphi - \frac {\varepsilon \mu }{c^2} \frac {\partial^2 \varphi }{\partial t^2} = -\frac {\gamma \rho_{0q}}{\varepsilon \varepsilon_0 }, \qquad (1) </math> :<math>~ \Delta \mathbf A - \frac {\varepsilon \mu }{c^2} \frac {\partial^2 \mathbf A }{\partial t^2} = -\frac {\mu \gamma \rho_{0q}}{\varepsilon_0 c^2} \mathbf v, \qquad (2) </math> where <math>~ \Delta </math> is the [[w:Laplace operator |Laplace operator]]; <math>~ \gamma </math> is the [[w:Lorentz factor |Lorentz factor]]; <math>~ \rho_{0q} </math> is the invariant charge density of the ball; <math>~ \varepsilon </math> is the [[w:relative permittivity| relative permittivity ]]; <math>~ \varepsilon_0 </math> is the [[electric constant]]; <math>~ c </math> is the speed of light; <math>~ \mu </math> is the [[w:relative permeability |relative permeability]]; <math>~ \mathbf v </math> is the linear velocity of rotation of a charged element of matter taken in the volume of the ball. In this case, the Lorentz gauge condition is written as follows: :<math>~ \nabla \cdot \mathbf A + \frac {\varepsilon \mu }{c^2} \frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial t} =0. \qquad (3) </math> The [[w:electric field |electric field strength]] <math>~ \mathbf E </math> and the [[w:magnetic field |magnetic field]] <math>~ \mathbf B </math> are expressed in terms of the scalar and vector potentials: :<math>~ \mathbf E = -\nabla \varphi -\frac {\partial \mathbf A }{\partial t}.\qquad (4) </math> :<math>~ \mathbf B = \nabla \times \mathbf A.\qquad (5) </math> When the ball is rotating at a constant angular velocity, the field is stationary and does not depend on time. This implies that all time derivatives in (1-4) are equal to zero. The relative permittivity <math>~ \varepsilon </math> in the ball's substance and in the surrounding medium may have different values. The same applies to the relative permeability <math>~ \mu </math>. For the sake of simplicity, the results presented below correspond to the values <math>~ \varepsilon =1</math>, <math>~ \mu=1 </math> for the case where phenomena such as [[w:polarizability| polarizability ]], [[w:magnetization |magnetization]] and [[w:electrical resistivity and conductivity |electrical conductivity]] are not taken into account inside and outside the ball. It is also assumed that all electromagnetic quantities are independent of time. == Fixed ball== For a fixed uniformly charged ball, in (1) and in (4), <math>~ \gamma =1</math> , and the electric potential and electric field strength inside the ball are equal:<ref>Feynman R., Leighton R. and Sands M. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 2 (1964). Addison-Wesley, Massachusetts, Palo Alto, London. </ref> <ref > Sergey G. Fedosin. The Electromagnetic Field of a Rotating Relativistic Uniform System. Chapter 2 in the book: Horizons in World Physics. Volume 306. Edited by Albert Reimer, New York, Nova Science Publishers Inc, pp. 53-128 (2021), ISBN: 978-1-68507-077-9, 978-1-68507-088-5 (e-book). https://doi.org/10.52305/RSRF2992. </ref> :<math>~ \varphi_i = \frac { \rho_{0q} \left( 3a^2-r^2 \right)}{6 \varepsilon_0 } , </math> :<math>~ \mathbf E_i = \frac { \rho_{0q} r }{3\varepsilon_0 } \mathbf e_r , </math> where <math>~ a </math> is the radius of the ball; <math>~ \mathbf e_r </math> is a unit vector directed along the radial coordinate <math>~ r </math>. At the center of the ball, where <math>~ r =0</math>, the potential <math>~ \varphi_i </math> has a maximum value, and on the surface of the ball, where <math>~ r = a </math>, the potential decreases by one and a half. The internal electric field <math>~ \mathbf E_i </math> is zero at the center of the ball and increases proportionally to the radial coordinate <math>~ r </math>. The corresponding external electric potential and electric field strength outside the ball are as follows: :<math>~ \varphi_o = \frac { \rho_{0q } a^3 }{3 \varepsilon_0 r}, </math> :<math>~ \mathbf E_o = \frac { \rho_{0q} a^3 }{3\varepsilon_0 r^2 } \mathbf e_r . </math> Due to the absence of motion of electric charges in the fixed ball, the vector potential and magnetic induction are equal to zero throughout the system. == Rotating ball== ===Scalar potential and electric field=== When a ball rotates with a constant angular velocity <math>~ \omega </math>, the Lorentz factor of the charged particles becomes a function of the radial coordinate <math>~ r</math> and the angle <math>~ \theta </math>: :<math>~ \gamma = \frac {1}{ \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} }= \frac {1}{ \sqrt {1- \frac {\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta}{c^2} }} .</math> Taking this into account, the solution of equation (1) for the scalar potential, as well as equation (4) for the components of the electric field strength inside a rotating uniformly charged ball in spherical coordinates, is as follows: <ref>Fedosin S.G. Electric field of rotating uniformly charged ball. Journal of Electrostatics, Vol.144, Article 104397 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elstat.2026.104397. Elsevier Share Link https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1nzaO15DR-xIy7 to read or download final version of the article on ScienceDirect. No sign up, registration or fees are required before December 09, 2026. [https://www.techrxiv.org/users/977313/articles/1357526-electric-field-of-rotating-uniformly-charged-ball Electric field of rotating uniformly charged ball]. TechRxiv. November 11, 2025. https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.176289249.96428033/v1. </ref> :<math>~ \varphi_i \approx \frac {\rho_{0q} a^2}{2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^2 a^4}{12 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^4 a^6}{30 c^4 \varepsilon_0 }+\frac { c^2 \rho_{0q} }{ \omega^2 \varepsilon_0 } \left[ \sqrt {1- \frac {\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta}{c^2} } -1+ \ln 2 - \ln \left( 1+ \sqrt {1- \frac {\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta}{c^2} } \right) \right] -</math> :<math>~-\left( \frac {\rho_{0q} }{12 \varepsilon_0 } + \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^2 a^2 }{60 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } + \frac {\rho_{0q}\omega^4 a^4 }{140 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) r^2 \left( 3 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right) + \left(\frac {\rho_{0q}\omega^2 }{1120 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } + \frac {\rho_{0q}\omega^4 a^2 }{1680 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) r^4 \left( 35 \cos^4 \theta -30 \cos^2 \theta +3 \right) - </math> :<math>~-\frac {\rho_{0q}\omega^4 r^6}{22176 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \left( 231\cos^6 \theta -315 \cos^4 \theta +105 \cos^2 \theta -5 \right). </math> :<math>~E_{ir} \approx \left( \frac {\rho_{0q } }{6 \varepsilon_0 } + \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 a^2 }{30 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^4 }{70 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) r \left( 3 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right) +\frac {\rho_{0q } r \sin^2 \theta} {\varepsilon_0 \left( 1+ \sqrt {1- \frac {\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta}{c^2} } \right) } - </math> :<math>~- \left(\frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 }{280 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^2 }{420 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) r^3 \left(35 \cos^4 \theta - 30 \cos^2 \theta +3 \right) + \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 }{3696 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } r^5 \left(231\cos^6 \theta - 315 \cos^4 \theta + 105 \cos^2 \theta -5 \right). </math> :<math>~E_{i \theta } \approx - \left( \frac {\rho_{0q } }{2 \varepsilon_0 } + \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 a^2 }{10 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {3 \rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^4 }{70 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) r \sin \theta \cos \theta +\frac {\rho_{0q } r \sin \theta \cos \theta } {\varepsilon_0 \left( 1+ \sqrt {1- \frac {\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta}{c^2} } \right) } + </math> :<math>~+ \left(\frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 }{56 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^2 }{84 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) r^3 \sin \theta \cos \theta \left(7 \cos^2 \theta -3 \right) - \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 }{528 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } r^5 \sin \theta \cos \theta \left( 33 \cos^4 \theta - 30 \cos^2 \theta +5 \right). </math> :<math>~ E_{i \phi }=0. </math> Outside the rotating ball, the scalar potential and electric field strength are given by the following formulas: :<math>~ \varphi_o \approx \frac {1}{r}\left( \frac {\rho_{0q} a^3}{3 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^2 a^5}{15 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^4 a^7}{35 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) - \frac {1}{r^3} \left( \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^2 a^7 }{210 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } +\frac {\rho_{0q}\omega^4 a^9 }{315 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) \left( 3 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right) +</math> :<math>~ + \frac {\rho_{0q}\omega^4 a^{11} }{9240 c^4 \varepsilon_0 r^5} \left( 35 \cos^4 \theta -30 \cos^2 \theta +3 \right). </math> :<math>~E_{or} \approx \frac {1}{r^2} \left( \frac {\rho_{0q }a^3 }{3 \varepsilon_0 } + \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 a^5 }{15 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^7 }{35 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \right) -\frac {1}{r^4} \left( \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 a^7 }{70 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^9 }{105 c^4 \varepsilon_0 }\right) \left( 3 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right) +</math> :<math>~ + \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^{11} }{1848 c^4 \varepsilon_0 r^6 } \left(35 \cos^4 \theta - 30 \cos^2 \theta +3 \right) . </math> :<math>~E_{o \theta} \approx - \frac {1}{r^4} \left( \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^2 a^7 }{35 c^2 \varepsilon_0 }+ \frac {2\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^9 }{105 c^4 \varepsilon_0 }\right) \sin \theta \cos \theta + \frac {\rho_{0q }\omega^4 a^{11} }{462 c^4 \varepsilon_0 r^6 } sin \theta \cos \theta \left(7 \cos^2 \theta -3 \right) . </math> :<math>~ E_{o \phi }=0. </math> ===Vector potential and magnetic field=== The components of the vector potential <math>~ \mathbf A </math> and magnetic induction <math>~ \mathbf B </math> inside a uniformly charged ball rotating about its axis are given by equations (2) and (5) as follows:<ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://rdcu.be/fgOlw Analysis of solution of equations for magnetic field of rotating ball using polynomials]. Discover Physics, Vol. 2, 5 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44418-026-00008-w. TechRxiv. October 22, 2025. https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.176116289.93994332/v1. </ref> :<math>~ \mathbf A_{ir} = 0. \qquad \mathbf A_{i \theta} = 0. </math> :<math>~ \mathbf A_{i \phi} \approx \frac {c^2 \rho_{0q } }{3\varepsilon_0 \omega^3 r \sin \theta } -\frac { c^2 \rho_{0q } \left( 1-\frac {\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta }{ c^2 } \right)^{3/2} } {3\varepsilon_0 \omega^3 r \sin \theta } - \frac {\rho_{0q } r \sin \theta }{2\varepsilon_0 \omega } \left( 1- \frac {\omega ^2 a^2}{ 3c^2 } - \frac {\omega ^4 a^4}{ 15c^4 }- \frac {\omega ^6 a^6}{ 35c^6 } \right) -</math> :<math>~- \frac {\rho_{0q } \omega r^3 \sin \theta \left( 5 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right)}{40 c^2\varepsilon_0 } \left( 1+ \frac {2\omega ^2 a^2}{ 7c^2 } + \frac {\omega ^4 a^4}{ 7c^4 } \right) + \frac {\rho_{0q } \omega^3 r^5 \sin \theta \left( 21\cos^4 \theta -14\cos^2 \theta +1 \right)}{1008 c^4\varepsilon_0 } \left( 1+ \frac {9\omega ^2 a^2}{ 11c^2 } \right)-</math> :<math>~-\frac {\rho_{0q } \omega^5 r^7 \sin \theta \left( 429\cos^6 \theta -495\cos^4 \theta +135\cos^2 \theta -5 \right)}{54912 c^6\varepsilon_0 }.</math> :<math>~ \mathbf B_{ir} \approx \frac {\rho_{0q} \cos \theta \sqrt {1-\frac{\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta }{c^2}}} {\varepsilon_0 \omega } - \frac {\rho_{0q} \cos \theta} {\varepsilon_0 \omega } \left( 1- \frac {\omega^2 a^2 }{3c^2} - \frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{15c^4} -\frac {\omega^6 a^6 }{35c^6} \right) -</math> :<math>~- \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega r^2 \cos \theta \left(5 \cos^2 \theta -3 \right) } {10 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } \left( 1+ \frac {2\omega^2 a^2 }{7c^2} + \frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{7c^4} \right) + \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^3 r^4 \cos \theta \left( 63 \cos^4 \theta -70 \cos^2 \theta +15 \right) } {504 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \left( 1+ \frac {9\omega^2 a^2 }{11c^2} \right)- </math> :<math>~-\frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^5 r^6 \cos \theta \left( 429 \cos^6 \theta - 693 \cos^4 \theta +315 \cos^2 \theta -35 \right) } {6864 c^6 \varepsilon_0 }. </math> :<math>~ \mathbf B_{i \theta} \approx -\frac {\rho_{0q} \sin \theta \sqrt {1-\frac{\omega^2 r^2 \sin^2 \theta }{c^2}}} {\varepsilon_0 \omega } + \frac {\rho_{0q} \sin \theta} {\varepsilon_0 \omega } \left( 1- \frac {\omega^2 a^2 }{3c^2} - \frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{15c^4} -\frac {\omega^6 a^6 }{35c^6} \right) +</math> :<math>~+ \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega r^2 \sin \theta \left(5 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right) } {10 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } \left( 1+ \frac {2\omega^2 a^2 }{7c^2} + \frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{7c^4} \right) - \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^3 r^4 \sin \theta \left( 21 \cos^4 \theta -14 \cos^2 \theta +1 \right) } {168 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \left( 1+ \frac {9\omega^2 a^2 }{11c^2} \right) + </math> :<math>~+\frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^5 r^6 \sin \theta \left( 429 \cos^6 \theta - 495 \cos^4 \theta +135 \cos^2 \theta -5 \right) } {6864 c^6 \varepsilon_0 }. </math> :<math>~ \mathbf B_{i \phi}=0. </math> The components of the external vector potential and magnetic induction of a rotating charged ball are determined by the following formulas: :<math>~ \mathbf A_{or} = 0. \qquad \mathbf A_{o \theta} = 0. </math> :<math>~ \mathbf A_{o \phi} \approx \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega a^5}{15 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\sin \theta }{r^2} \left( 1+ \frac {2\omega^2 a^2 }{7c^2} + \frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{7c^4} \right) - \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^3 a^9}{630 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\sin \theta \left( 5 \cos^2 \theta -1 \right)}{r^4} \left( 1+ \frac {9\omega^2 a^2 }{11c^2} \right)+ </math> :<math>~+\frac {\rho_{0q} \omega^5 a^{13}}{8008 c^6 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\sin \theta \left( 21 cos^4 \theta -14 \cos^2 \theta +1 \right)}{r^6}.</math> :<math>~ \mathbf B_{or} \approx \frac {2 \rho_{0q} \omega a^5 }{15 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\cos \theta }{r^3} \left( 1+ \frac {2\omega^2 a^2 }{7 c^2} +\frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{7 c^4} \right) -\frac {2 \rho_{0q} \omega^3 a^9 }{315 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\cos \theta }{r^5} \left( 5 cos^2 \theta -3 \right) \left( 1+ \frac {9\omega^2 a^2 }{11 c^2} \right) +</math> :<math>~ +\frac { \rho_{0q} \omega^5 a^{13} }{4004 c^6 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\cos \theta }{r^7} \left( 63cos^4 \theta -70 cos^2 \theta +15 \right). </math> :<math>~ \mathbf B_{o \theta } \approx \frac {\rho_{0q} \omega a^5 }{15 c^2 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\sin \theta }{r^3} \left( 1+ \frac {2\omega^2 a^2 }{7 c^2} +\frac {\omega^4 a^4 }{7 c^4} \right) -\frac { \rho_{0q} \omega^3 a^9 }{210 c^4 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\sin \theta }{r^5} \left( 5 cos^2 \theta -1 \right) \left( 1+ \frac {9\omega^2 a^2 }{11 c^2} \right) +</math> :<math>~ +\frac { 5 \rho_{0q} \omega^5 a^{13} }{8008 c^6 \varepsilon_0 } \frac {\sin \theta }{r^7} \left( 21cos^4 \theta -14 cos^2 \theta +1 \right). </math> :<math>~ \mathbf B_{o \phi } = 0. </math> The divergence of the vector <math>~ \mathbf A </math> in spherical coordinates is written as follows: :<math>~ \nabla \cdot \mathbf A = \frac {1}{r^2} \frac {\partial \left( r^2 A_r \right)}{\partial r} + \frac {1}{r \sin \theta } \frac {\partial \left( A_\theta \sin \theta \right)}{\partial \theta } +\frac {1}{r \sin \theta } \frac {\partial A_\phi }{\partial \phi }. </math> Substituting the components of the internal vector potential <math>~ \mathbf A_i </math> and the components of the external vector potential <math>~ \mathbf A_o </math> for <math>~ \mathbf A </math> in expression for divergence gives the relations <math>~ \nabla \cdot \mathbf A_i =0 </math> and <math>~ \nabla \cdot \mathbf A_o =0 </math>, since the vector potential does not depend on the angle <math>~ \phi </math>. These relations correspond to the Lorentz gauge condition (3), since the scalar potential <math>~ \varphi </math> is independent of time. == References == <references/> == See also == * [[Field energy theorem]] * [[Fedosin's theorem]] * [[Equation of vector field]] * [[w:electromagnetic field |Electromagnetic field]] * [[Electromagnetic field of cylinder]] == External links == * [https://traditio.wiki/ЭлДĐșŃ‚Ń€ĐŸĐŒĐ°ĐłĐœĐžŃ‚ĐœĐŸĐ”_ĐżĐŸĐ»Đ”_шара Electromagnetic field of ball in Russian] [[Category:Electromagnetism]] [[Category:Electrostatics]] [[Category:Magnetostatics]] t6d3zy116tenoolfw5ctzedkpks7ibq Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Generativity 0 330076 2841936 2837071 2026-10-21T21:37:26Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2841936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Generativity:<br>What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Two_people_playing_a_Fairchild_Channel_F.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. Generative behaviour {{explain}}]] ;Imagine this... You're sitting next to a friend in a bar. They're telling you all about this new network software they created and how it's going to completely change the future of social networking. As they talk, you reflect on your own achievements and wonder why they don't seem to live up to the same standard. You watch people drawn to the atmosphere of your friend and in turn, begin to feel an internalised isolation. This feeling is an example of stagnation, the opposite to generativity in Erikson's theory of Psychosocial Development. {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Generativity|Generativity]] is part of the [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|psychoanalytic theory]] developed by Erik Erikson and Joan Erikson and encompasses the innate human desire to contribute positively to society for future generations. The generativity stage is the seventh of the eighth stages of life coined by the Erikson duo and typically occurs in middle adulthood (around 45-64 years) where most individuals are either in long-term relationships, have older children and/or are in long-term employment. The desire to contribute to future generations is an important development for adults but left unsatisfied, it can lead to stagnancy. Stagnancy is categorised as feelings of discontentment, dissatisfaction and disappointment which arise from the inability or unwillingness to help society move forward. Therefore, it is important to understand the importance of generativity in regards to life outcomes, both individually and communally. This chapter explores generativity in a cyclical model, focusing on how generativity, motivation, community and wellness intermingle and impact overall life outcomes {{ic|such as?}}. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does motivational psychology play a role in generativity? {{vague}} * How do community and motivation impact generative behaviours? {{vague}} * How can wellness and community influence generativity on a collective scale? {{vague}} * What does the relationship between generativity and wellness mean for the future {{ic|future of what}}? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development== As an attempt to negotiate his biopsychosocial background with sociocultural forces, Erikson developed the eight stage psychosocial mode{{when}} {{f}}. The stages are: {{ic|Use a list as shown in Tutorial 2}} trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair. Whilst the stages are separate and one does not need to master a previous stage to progress to the next one, the positive and negative experiences in each stage can provide resources for navigating subsequent developmental challenges {{f}}. In particular, identity provides a foundation for intimacy, intimacy facilitates the capacity to invest in others, and generativity provides a pathway toward the sense of integrity associated with later life {{f}}. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} It should be noted that while generativity is typically associated with parenthood, it also involves mentoring, volunteering, teaching and political contributions {{f}}. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Generativity and Motivation == Generativity and motivation are interlinked through social necessity in the human species. At its core, generativity can be understood as a motivational orientation toward creating value that extends beyond the individual self. Generativity therefore involves a motivational movement from self-development toward self-transcendence. {{f}} === Self Determination Theory === The motivational component of generativity becomes clear in the {{what}} model developed by McAdams and de St. Aubin (1992). Their theory distinguishes between an inner generative desire and the behavioural expression of that desire. To put it plainly, generativity is not simply something that a person does; it is also something that a person wants to do and experiences as meaningful. This distinction is important because individuals can possess considerable opportunities to contribute without necessarily experiencing themselves as generative {{example}}. Conversely, a person may possess a strong desire to contribute but encounter social, physical, or institutional barriers that prevent them from doing so {{example}}. This dimension can be connected directly to contemporary motivational psychology, one of which is the highly influential theory of [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-Determination Theory]] (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan (2000). SDT proposes that human motivation is strongly influenced by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Table 1) '''Table 1.''' {{ic|Add an APA style table caption here}} {| class="wikitable" |+SDT Needs |Autonomy |Experiencing oneself as an agent of their own actions |- |Competence |Feelings of capableness and effectiveness |- |Relatedness |Experiencing meaningful connections with others |} Generative behaviour can satisfy all three psychological needs simultaneously {{f}}. For example, an older adult who chooses to mentor young people may experience autonomy because the activity reflects personally held values, competence because accumulated knowledge is being used effectively, and relatedness because the activity creates meaningful relationships across generations. Generativity can therefore become intrinsically or autonomously rewarding rather than simply an obligation imposed by society. {{ic|What research evidence exists about this proposed connection between generativity and SDT?}} It is important to note that the distinction between autonomous and controlled motivation is particularly significant {{f}}. A person may volunteer because they genuinely value contributing to the community, or because they feel pressured to demonstrate that they are still useful. These two motivations may produce superficially similar behaviours but very different psychological experiences. Deci and Ryan (2000) argued that goals pursued for autonomous reasons are more likely to support psychological wellbeing than goals pursued primarily because of external pressure, guilt, or contingent self-worth. Therefore, in the pursuit of meaningful generativity, individuals should consider their social environments and whether their contributions feel meaningful and self-directed or compulsory and taxing. === Achievement Goal Theory === When considering generativity from a motivational psychology viewpoint, it might surprise some to consider that Achievement Goal Theory should be included. Although the theory was primarily developed within achievement oriented research, it provides a useful conceptual lens for understanding generative behaviour {{f}}. Elliot and McGregor (2001) developed a 2 × 2 achievement goal framework that distinguishes goals according to whether people are oriented toward demonstrating competence or avoiding incompetence and whether they focus on attaining success or avoiding failure (See table 2) {{ic|Use APA style for table citations}}. '''Table 2.''' {{ic|Add an APA style table caption here}} {| class="wikitable" |+2x2 Achievement Goal Theory | |'''Absolute (intrapersonal mastery)''' |'''Normative (performance)''' |- |'''Positive (approaching success)''' |Mastery-approach goals |Performance-approach goals |- |'''Negative (avoiding failure)''' |Mastery-avoidance goals) |Performance-avoidance goals |} Generativity can involve mastery-oriented goals, such as learning how to mentor effectively or developing knowledge that can benefit younger people. Alternatively, it can become performance-oriented, where the individual seeks recognition as a successful, productive, or socially valuable person. This distinction matters because generativity is not automatically psychologically beneficial. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Consider this...''' Two people volunteering in the same organisation: {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}} The first volunteers because they value supporting young people and believe their experience can make a difference. The second volunteers primarily because they fear becoming irrelevant after retirement and need evidence that they remain valuable. Both may perform substantial amounts of volunteer work, but the motivational quality is different. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The first example resembles autonomous, mastery-oriented motivation, whereas the second may involve controlled motivation and avoidance of perceived failure (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Elliot & McGregor, 2001). [[File:HandsOnMiamiVolunteersZooMiami.jpg|thumb|244x244px|'''Figure 2'''. Generative Volunteering {{expand}}]] Similarly, {{ic|what type of ?}} research examining environmental volunteering has identified generativity, usefulness to others, socialisation, and environmental concern as important reasons older adults participate in environmental activities (Chen et al., 2022). Generative motivation in this context extends beyond direct interpersonal relationships. Environmental action can represent a form of generativity in which the "next generation" is conceptualised not only as younger people but as future inhabitants of a shared ecological environment. This expands Erikson's (1963) original framework {{how}} and reiterates that generativity is not solely about parenthood. (See figure 2.) {{ic|Use APA style for figure citations}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Important note:''' Consider whether the individual is investing in something perceived as extending beyond the immediate self. {{explain}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} Interestingly however, longitudinal evidence challenges the idea that generativity simply increases continuously with age and that there may be more subtle nuances within individuals motivations which increases or decreases generative behaviour. TörmĂ€kangas and Kokko (2023) followed adults {{where}} from approximately 42 to 61 years and found substantial individual variation in the development of generativity. Whilst average levels {{ic|of what?}} declined somewhat across the sample, individuals demonstrated different developmental trajectories for generative behaviour. Similarly, Hösch et al. (2023) found considerable individual variation in perceived generativity over a six-year period. Generativity was associated {{ic|in what way/direction?}} with subjective remaining life expectancy and perceptions of psychological obsolescence, demonstrating that generativity depends not only on chronological age but also on how individuals perceive their future and their continuing relevance. Generativity should not be regarded as an automatic psychological consequence of reaching middle age. Rather, it represents a developmental possibility shaped by motivation, opportunity, social relationships, and perceptions of personal usefulness (Hösch et al., 2023; TörmĂ€kangas & Kokko, 2023). == Motivation and Community == Social support is vital in developing and maintaining motivation in all aspects of life {{f}}. If generativity is a motivational orientation toward contributing beyond the self, the community provides one of the major social contexts in which that motivation can become behaviour {{f}}. Interestingly however, when considering generativity in a community sense, more emphasis is needed in developing a clear generative culture towards aging adults rather than simply assuming older adults should be partaking in generative behaviours {{f}}. === Generativity and its impact on community === The relationship between motivation and community can be understood through Erikson's concept of intimacy versus isolation {{f}}, which ties in nicely to the next topic of community and wellness. Generative community involvement provides opportunities for individuals to experience relationships in which their contributions are both needed and valued. It is through this that community participation can provide continuity between intimacy and generativity: close relationships teach individuals to care for others, while generative relationships expand that care into broader social networks {{f}}. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} '''Recognition {{ic|of what?}} is particularly important because generativity involves an individual having the belief that their actions matter.''' If a community repeatedly uses someone's labour without acknowledging its value, the motivational benefits of contribution may diminish. Generative relationships should therefore be reciprocal rather than purely extractive. {{f}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} Community organisations therefore have an important role in supporting healthy generativity. They can provide meaningful choice, opportunities for skill development, reciprocal relationships, and recognition. Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found that {{ic|how many?}} older volunteers {{where}} experienced greater wellbeing when their volunteering involved appreciation, meaningful engagement, and a perception that their contribution benefited others. Community participation can help resolve aspects of the transition between Erikson's stages, particularly in later stages in life {{f}}. During adulthood, individuals may experience changes in employment, family roles, and social status. Retirement, for example, can remove established sources of identity, competence, and social recognition. If retirement results in social withdrawal, individuals may experience something resembling stagnation. However, if community roles provide meaningful opportunities to mentor, volunteer, teach, or lead, retirement can become a transition toward a different form of generativity. {{f}} === Building meaningful community to support generativity === Community is important as generative intentions require opportunities for expression. A person may want to teach, mentor, care, protect, create, or contribute, but those motivations only become psychologically and socially meaningful when an environment provides legitimate roles through which they can be enacted. {{f}} [[File:Political volunteers.jpg|thumb|244x244px|'''Figure 3'''. Community supported generative tasks {{expand}}]] Erikson's (1963) psychosocial theory is inherently social in that development occurs through the interaction between the individual and the social environment rather than solely within the individual. Consequently, generativity should not be understood as an isolated personality characteristic and communities determine, at least partly, who is given opportunities to contribute, whose knowledge is valued, and whose participation is recognised. {{ic|What type of?}} Research with {{ic|how many?}} older Australians demonstrates how community involvement can provide opportunities for generative action. Warburton et al. (2006) examined family and community involvement among older Australians and demonstrated how participation could support positive experiences of ageing. Community involvement allowed older adults to continue exercising social responsibility and assisted in helping them reframe their later years as a period of contribution rather than decline. In this case, the community became a social mechanism through which older adults could express generativity to then better the community. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} '''Generativity is often something an individual brings into a community but community helps foster generative incentives as well.''' {{RoundBoxBottom}} Productive ageing should not be interpreted narrowly as continued paid employment. Community-oriented activity can be productive because it creates social, cultural, and relational value. Pinazo-Hernandis et al. (2023) found {{how}} that different forms of productive activity were associated with different aspects of generativity, demonstrating the importance of the type and meaning of activity rather than simply the quantity of participation. Community therefore creates what might be called a generative infrastructure: institutions, relationships, and social roles through which individuals can convert motivation into contribution. However, this infrastructure is not equally available to everyone. Social inequalities, ageism, disability, economic circumstances, and cultural expectations can constrain generativity {{f}}. A person may possess strong generative motivation but lack access to meaningful roles. Conversely, communities may expect older people to provide unpaid care without adequately recognising the psychological and physical costs involved. This distinction is particularly important when we look at caregiving. Homan et al. (2020) examined {{how}} generativity and wellbeing among midlife and older parents raising children with developmental or mental health problems. Their {{what}} findings illustrate the complexity of generativity because caregiving can provide meaning and purpose while simultaneously creating substantial psychological demands {{vague}}. The community is therefore more than a setting in which generativity occurs. It is an active psychological environment that can produce, strengthen, constrain, or undermine generative motivation. == Community and Wellness == This section focuses on linking the human need for community to improve wellness to in turn, remove feelings of stagnancy and increase generativity {{g}}. The impact of generative motivation and community directly ties into the impact community has on overall wellness. This section focuses on the direct application of community to wellness and how this applies to generative behaviour. === Social support through life changes === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Important note:''' When we refer to wellness, we are encompassing a broad scope of measures. These include psychological wellbeing, meaning in life, life satisfaction, social connectedness, perceived usefulness, and, where supported by evidence, physical and mental health.{{RoundBoxBottom}} The relationship between community and wellness is significant in later adulthood as ageing can involve major changes in employment, family roles, physical capacity, and social networks {{f}}. Community participation can provide stability at precisely the time when previous sources of identity may be changing {{f}}. Research indicates that volunteering and community participation can be associated with positive psychological outcomes among older adults. Jongenelis et al. (2022), for example, examined longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and wellbeing among retired older people {{where}}. Their findings suggest that volunteering can contribute to wellbeing, although the strength and consistency of these effects depend on the nature and extent of engagement {{vague}}. This specification is significant as not all community involvement is necessarily beneficial. Concepts such as excessive responsibilities, poorly designed roles, or activities undertaken under pressure can undermine wellbeing {{f}}. What seems to matter most is the psychological quality of participation. [[File:Gratitude prayer.jpg|thumb|368x368px|'''Figure 4'''. Expressing gratitude to foster generativity {{explain}}]] Jongenelis and Pettigrew (2021) found {{how}} that older volunteers' {{where}} psychological wellbeing was associated with feeling appreciated, experiencing social and cognitive engagement, and knowing that others benefited from their contribution. These findings map closely onto Self-Determination Theory. Appreciation can reinforce competence and social value; meaningful social interaction supports relatedness; and cognitively engaging activities can strengthen competence and mastery (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The community therefore provides an environment in which psychological needs can be satisfied. This may explain why generative community activities can contribute to wellness even when they are not explicitly designed as mental health interventions. Hofer et al. (2014) provide further evidence through their cross-cultural study of generativity and meaning in life among {{ic|how many}} older adults. Their findings support the proposition that generativity is associated with meaning in later adulthood. Meaning is particularly important because Erikson's final stage, '''ego integrity versus despair''', involves the individual's evaluation of their life as coherent and worthwhile as a whole (Erikson, 1963). === Legacy, life meaning and the impact of interpretation === Generative activity can contribute to this process by allowing individuals to perceive continuity between their own life and the lives of those who follow them, also known as legacy. This is one of the largest drivers of generative behaviour and is heavily based in an individual's perception of community and their impact on it. This notion of legacy can occur through direct intergenerational relationships. An older teacher may pass knowledge to students. A grandparent may transmit family stories etc. In each case, the individual encounters a form of psychological continuity: something of the self continues through what has been contributed. This is one reason legacy is closely related to generativity. Neller et al. (2023) examined {{how}} how older adults created "legacies of values" and found that legacy creation involved preserving knowledge, communicating values, and reflecting on one's life. Rather than representing exclusively an end-of-life activity, legacy-building encouraged participants to consider how they wanted to live in the present. This provides an important bridge between generativity and [[wikipedia:Ego|ego]] integrity {{explain}}. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} '''Generativity''' asks: What can I give to the future? '''Ego integrity''' asks: Can I look back on my life and recognise it as meaningful and coherent? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Becchetti and Bellucci (2021) similarly demonstrated {{how}} relationships between generativity and subjective wellbeing among {{who}} older adults. Their findings support the broader proposition that generative activity can be associated with life satisfaction and meaning, which is significant as wellbeing may emerge not simply from pursuing happiness directly, but by pursuing meaningful goals. The complex relationship between community and wellness is also visible in research on civic engagement where Chen et al. (2023) examined {{how}} civic activities and mental health in later life and found {{ic|what sort of}} associations between generative civic participation and psychological wellbeing {{where}}. This would suggest that generative concerns may influence the psychological effects of civic engagement, reinforcing the distinction between ''activity'' and ''generativity''. Interestingly, this implies that simply participating in an organisation does not necessarily constitute generativity. The individual's '''interpretation''' of the activity matters. {{example}} This is particularly evident in the growing realm of environmental concern. Chen et al. (2022) found {{how}} that environmental volunteering among older adults could provide social connection, meaningful purpose, empowerment, and wellbeing, while generativity was one of the motivations for participation. Here, individual wellbeing and community or environmental wellbeing become interconnected. The individual protects something that will outlast them while simultaneously experiencing social and psychological benefits. This has implications for the way communities conceptualise ageing. If older adulthood is represented primarily as a period of dependency and decline, opportunities for generativity may be reduced whereas if older adults are recognised as knowledge holders, mentors, carers, leaders, and contributors, communities can create opportunities for continued psychosocial development. {{f}} Community therefore becomes a mechanism through which wellness can be sustained across developmental transitions. == Wellness and Generativity == The final relationship in this {{what}} framework is the reciprocal connection between wellness and generativity. The evidence {{f}} suggests that generativity can support wellbeing, but wellbeing can also make generative engagement more possible. A psychologically healthy person might possess greater energy, confidence, social capacity, and perceived agency with which to contribute to others, particularly if the community nurtured or supported them in their youth. However, this must be carefully balanced between value and meaning, where in later stages of life, individuals should not feel pressured to do extraneous generative activities out of the necessity to "prove their worth." === Tying in the cycle === An increased capacity to give back to the community that has nurtured an individual is an important aspect of generative behaviours. Now that we have gone over the rest of the generative cycle components (generativity, motivation, community, wellness) {{f}} we finish by looping wellness back to generativity. This reciprocal model {{f}} can be represented conceptually as: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} '''Psychological resources > {{ic|what does this symbol indicate? explain}} generative motivation > community participation > contribution > meaning, connection and competence > wellbeing > further capacity for generativity.''' {{RoundBoxBottom}} The cycle {{f}} also explains why generativity should be considered across the entire life course rather than exclusively within middle age, where the inclination for those behaviours emerge more extensively. {{f}} When relating back to the origins of the theory {{f}}, the first four Eriksonian stages provide the earliest foundations for this cycle. '''Trust versus mistrust''' establishes the expectation that the social world can be reliable {{f}}. '''Autonomy versus shame and doubt''' contributes to a sense of agency {{f}}. '''Initiative versus guilt''' supports purposeful action, while '''industry versus inferiority''' develops a sense of competence (Erikson, 1963). These psychosocial strengths later become resources for identity formation, intimacy, and, most importantly, generativity {{f}}. Neller et al. (2023) found {{how}} their {{who}} participants described legacy creation as simultaneously future-oriented and present-oriented and that creating a legacy helped individuals reflect on their lives while also encouraging them to live intentionally in the present. It should be noted that whilst generativity is preferred over stagnance, aforementioned as the state opposite to generativity in Erikson's model, not all generative behaviours should be treated as universally positive. Balance is required to ensure healthy generative behaviours as generativity can involve emotional and physical costs, particularly when caring responsibilities become excessive {{f}}. Homan et al. (2020) demonstrated {{how}} the complexity of generativity among parents of children with developmental or mental health problems. Generative commitment can coexist with substantial demands on psychological and physical resources, so it is important to balance the need to be generative with labour costs. === Maintaining balance in the cycle === The healthiest form of generativity may therefore involve '''reciprocity rather than self-sacrifice''' {{f}}. Generative relationships should allow individuals to give and receive. The older adult can mentor younger people while also learning from them. A volunteer can support a community while receiving friendship and recognition. A grandparent can transmit cultural knowledge while gaining renewed connection and purpose. [[File:Circle of Life - geograph.org.uk - 240319.jpg|thumb|244x244px|'''Figure 5'''. Generativity as a human cycle {{ic|Explain more clearly how this image matches the caption}}]] A strong empirical illustration of this reciprocal model came from Gruenewald et al. (2016), {{g}} who found {{how}} that intergenerational volunteering could strengthen {{who}} older adults' perceptions of generative achievement. The community therefore benefited from older adults' contributions while the volunteers themselves experienced developmental benefits. Generativity may therefore be understood as a form of '''developmental reciprocity'''. Individuals shape their communities, while communities provide the conditions through which individuals continue to develop. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Important note:''' Consider that human development never truly ceases, even in later stages of life. There is always something more to learn or do. How do you think this impacts feelings associated with stagnancy or generativity? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in Erikson's theory {{f}} for, if generativity is a developmental task of middle adulthood, why does it remain important among older adults? The answer is that developmental stages may be better understood as continuing psychosocial themes rather than strictly age-bound psychological compartments. Later adulthood can contain generative activity alongside reflection, adaptation, and integrity. Indeed, generativity may become particularly significant when individuals begin thinking explicitly about legacy and continuity. This can also put to question at what age is an appropriate one to consider future generations and how your activities may impact them. {{f}} Hösch et al. (2023) found {{how}} that perceived generativity fluctuated within individuals over time and was associated with perceptions of remaining life and psychological obsolescence rather than simply chronological age. Similarly, TörmĂ€kangas and Kokko (2023) identified {{how}} substantialindividual differences in developmental trajectories, demonstrating that people of the same chronological age can experience generativity in very different ways. Consequently, interventions designed to promote healthy ageing should not merely encourage older people to "stay active." Activity is insufficient on its own. Instead, programs should create opportunities for meaningful contribution, autonomy, competence, social connection, and future-oriented purpose. {{f}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} '''The four relationships developed throughout the chapter can be understood as a developmental system with components that work in cohesion with each other.''' Generativity motivates contribution. Contribution requires community. Community can promote wellness. Wellness creates psychological resources for further generativity. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;Quizzes <quiz display="simple"> {When observing a friend discussing their achievements and you feel a sense of isolation, this is called? |type="()"} + Stagnance - Supplicant {Having a desire to improve the lives of future generations applies solely to adults. |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Generativity is a chronological stage within Erikson's psychosocial model theorized to occur at the middle adulthood of 40-60 years of age. However, generativity has a much broader reach than originally thought and is not so easily defined as simply participating in activities meant to influence future generations. Generativity is a life long pursuit that involves a complex interrelationship between motivation, community and wellness. People do not need to be of a certain age to participate in generative activities and societies should work towards implementing cultures that foster genuine, healthy generative behaviours, starting from adolescence all the way through to elderly life, to reduce stagnancy, isolation and stigma for the people who came before us. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' Generativity is a complex human desire to contribute to their society for future generations. The cultivation of generativity stems from middle adulthood and beyond and should be encouraged throughout life to support overall wellness, motivation and community. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Generativity|Generativity]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|Erikson Theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Generativity|Generativity]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Functional approach to volunteerism|Volunteerism]] (Book chapter, 2024) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Becchetti, L., & Bellucci, D. (2021). Generativity, aging and subjective well-being. International Review of Economics, 68, 141–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12232-020-00358-6 Chen, P.-W., Chen, L.-K., Huang, H.-K., & Loh, C.-H. (2022). Productive aging by environmental volunteerism: A systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 98, 104563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2021.104563 Chen, Y.-C., Morrow-Howell, N., Hung, N., & Chan, C. L. W. (2023). Civic activities and mental health in later life: The moderating role of generative concerns. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 66(7), 844–863. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2023.2183297 Cox, K. S., Wilt, J., Olson, B., & McAdams, D. P. (2010). Generativity, the Big Five, and psychosocial adaptation in midlife adults. Journal of Personality, 78(4), 1185–1208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00647.x Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_DeciRyan_PIWhatWhy.pdf Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 501–519. https://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2001_ElliotMcGregor.pdf Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. Gruenewald, T. L., Tanner, E. K., Fried, L. P., Carlson, M. C., Xue, Q.-L., Parisi, J. M., Rebok, G. W., Yarnell, L. M., & Seeman, T. E. (2016). The Baltimore Experience Corps Trial: Enhancing generativity via intergenerational activity engagement in later life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 71(4), 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv005 Hofer, J., Busch, H., Au, A., Ć olcovĂĄ, I. P., Tavel, P., & Wong, T. T. (2014). For the benefit of others: Generativity and meaning in life in the elderly in four cultures. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 764–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037762 Homan, K. J., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2020). Generativity and well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with developmental or mental health problems. Research on Aging, 42(3–4), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027519884759 Hösch, H. S., Rupprecht, F. S., & Lang, F. R. (2023). Psychological obsolescence and subjective remaining life expectancy are predictors of generativity in a six-year longitudinal study. Journal of Adult Development, 30, 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-023-09441-y Jongenelis, M. I., Jackson, B., Newton, R. U., & Pettigrew, S. (2022). Longitudinal associations between formal volunteering and well-being among retired older people: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial. Aging & Mental Health, 26(2), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1884845 Jongenelis, M. I., & Pettigrew, S. (2021). Aspects of the volunteering experience associated with well-being in older adults. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 32(Suppl. 2), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.399 McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ed-Aubin/publication/232504200_A_Theory_of_Generativity_and_Its_Assessment_Through_Self-Report_Behavioral_Acts_and_Narrative_Themes_in_Autobiography/links/550047010cf28e4ac347f1b3/A-Theory-of-Generativity-and-Its-Assessment-Through-Self-Report-Behavioral-Acts-and-Narrative-Themes-in-Autobiography.pdf Neller, S. A., Cloyes, K. G., Edelman, L. S., Wong, B., Baines, B., & Towsley, G. L. (2023). Preparing for the future while living in the present: Older adults' experiences creating a legacy of values. The Gerontologist, 63(9), 1488–1496. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad019 Pinazo-Hernandis, S., ZacarĂ©s, J. J., Serrat, R., & Villar, F. (2023). The role of generativity in later life in the case of productive activities: Does the type of active aging activity matter? Research on Aging, 45(1), 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275221122914 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf TörmĂ€kangas, T., & Kokko, K. (2023). The development of generativity in middle adulthood and the beginning of late adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 42 to 61. Journal of Adult Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-022-09436-1 Warburton, J., & Gooch, M. (2007). Stewardship volunteering by older Australians: The generative response. Local Environment, 12(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549830601098230 Warburton, J., McLaughlin, D., & Pinsker, D. (2006). Generative acts: Family and community involvement of older Australians. https://doi.org/10.2190/9te3-t1g1-333v-3dt8 Yamashita, T., LĂłpez, E. B., Soligo, M., & Keene, J. R. (2017). Older lifelong learners' motivations for participating in formal volunteer activities in urban communities. Adult Education Quarterly, 67(2), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713616688957 }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Ageing]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Developmental]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] kij1a9891aatscixjeamj0xws5sz72u Bartending/Bartending Basics 0 330824 2841905 2841563 2026-10-21T19:15:16Z Littenberg 507264 /* Vodka */ Grammer 2841905 wikitext text/x-wiki = Bartending Basics = What is a [[wikipedia:Bartender|bartender]]? At its simplest, a bartender serves drinks at a bar. In reality, a bartender selects, mixes, pours, and serves drinks while hosting patrons and creating a hospitable atmosphere at a bar, pub, restaurant, nightclub, living room or [[wikipedia:Parking_lot|parking lot]]. A bartender must have a variety of skills, both technical and interpersonal in order to be successful. A bartender can work in many locations, but this course will focus on bartenders that tend to tend in bars. This lesson covers: # [[Bartending/Bartending Basics#Sources of Alcohol|Sources of Alcohol]] # [[Bartending/Bartending Basics#Types of Alcohol|Types of Alcohol]] # [[Bartending/Bartending Basics#Tools of Bartending|Tools of Bartending]] # [[Bartending/Bartending Basics#Safety|Safety]] == Sources of Alcohol == Behind the bar, you are the expert in the room on alcohol. While no one can claim to know everything on alcohol, it's important to have the basics. This and the next lesson focus on learning what alcohol is and what kind of drinks and liquors are made with it. Every alcoholic drink you've ever had has included the same basic type of alcohol: '''[[wikipedia:Ethanol|ethanol]]'''. Ethanol is an alcohol with a two-carbon backbone and the only alcohol that humans can safely drink in non-negligible amounts. All alcoholic beverages (be it beer, wine or a spirit) contain ethanol. There are hundreds of different beverages and liquors that are served at bars around the world. The method of refining raw ingredients into a final product with ethanol is what distinguishes each type of beverage. Fortunately they're all related to each other (since they all contain ethanol) and have some major categories to guide us in understanding what they are. The first step to make any type of alcohol is [[wikipedia:fermentation|fermentation]]. === Fermentation === [[File:40168_2022_1274_Fig6.webp|thumb|People get very scientific with it.]] Using a process that has existed for thousands of years, we can employ a fungus called [[wikipedia:Yeast#Uses|yeast]] to create alcohol. This process is called fermentation. At its base, fermentation for alcohol production is the process of using yeast to convert sugars to ethanol. "Sugars" is intentionally plural. There are many places you can find sugar suitable for fermentation, and you can derive sugar from grains, fruits and vegetables. The source of the sugar is often what defines what type of final alcoholic beverage you get. We'll talk more on how fermenting different materials yields different drinks in a moment. Fermentation happens in a couple of steps. # '''Mashing''': Grains like barley or rice are milled into a coarse flour and fruits are mashed into a pulp. These are sometimes mixed with hot water, where enzymes convert starches to sugars. For beer, this mash is then often boiled. # '''Fermentation''': The mash is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added, and fermentation begins. Over a varying period of time (often 5-10 days), yeast consumes the sugars, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called primary fermentation. # '''Conditioning and Packaging''': After primary fermentation, there is often secondary fermentation or conditioning to add or mature flavors and to clarify. It’s then sometimes carbonated and packaged. Now fermented, there is some amount of alcohol in your drink. But what if ''some'' isn't enough? A secondary process called [[wikipedia:Distillation|distillation]] allowed for fermented drinks and solutions to be concentrated into spirits. === Distillation === [[File:Alambins_industrials_per_a_la_destil·laciĂł_de_licors_a_Catalunya.jpg|left|thumb|Industrial stills for liquor production in Catalonia]] Distillation is a process by which brewers can concentrate the level of alcohol in a drink. Fermentation alone cannot make alcohol concentrations like that of vodka or gin. To reach that level of concentration, [[wiktionary:distiller|distillers]] (referring to both the apparatus that distills and the person that runs it) can boil off and collect the alcohol produced by fermentation. Distillation happens in a few steps: # The fermented substance is placed into a vessel called a [[wikipedia:Still|still]] (this is where di''still''ation gets its name). # The ferment is heated slowly from room temperature until it reaches the boiling point of ethanol. The boiling point of ethanol is lower than the boiling point of water, so the ethanol will vaporize, leaving the water behind. # The ethanol vapor rises through a column until it reaches the condenser. In the condenser, the vapor makes contact with the a cold surface that cools it back into a liquid state. # The ethanol is collected, and the process is often repeated to further concentrate and purify the result. Sometimes the process is done without having to stop and restart in a process called continuous distillation. The result of distillation is a liquor with a higher amount of alcohol by volume (ABV) than before. === Alcohol By Volume === The amount of alcohol in a drink is calculated based on the percent of ethanol compared to non-ethanol in the total beverage, which is called Alcohol by Volume or ABV for short. For example, if a beverage has an ABV of 50%, half of liquid in the drink will be ethanol and the other half will be everything else. ABV is important to understand, because it is the basis of drinking and serving drinks safely as well as how many drinks are categorized. While all alcohol is made through fermentation, the process of fermentation alone can only create a concentration of alcohol of about 5% to 20% ABV. Spirits are generally distilled liquids that have a higher ABV (20% or more, as high as 95%). This distinction lower-ABV drinks like wine, beer and cider versus higher-ABV spirits like vodka, gin and whiskey. == Types of Alcohol == Fermentation and distilling are the core of all alcohol production, but there many more ways that brewers and distillers affect their final product. This incredible flow chart shows many of the processes of fermentation, distillation, carbonation, ageing and processing that make different alcoholic drinks. Take a look at it and compare the different starting ingredients with each other, and then compare the starting ingredients with their final products. [[File:Alcohol_Flow_Chart.svg|center|frame|Alcohol Flow Chart]] There is so much to learn about alcohol, and while you should be knowledgeable on the different types, you by no means need to be an expert (see: sommelier) to be a bartender. Below follows an overview of each family of alcohol, but if you want to learn more you can click on the links to Wikipedia pages in each subsection below, or I recommend browsing the [[wikipedia:Portal:Liquor|Liquor Portal]] to view all that Wikipedia has to offer. Hopefully it's easier to see now how beverages and spirits can both be categorized based on what they're fermented from and how concentrated their alcohol content is. Let's use these categories to talk more about each major type of alcohol. === Wine, Beer and Cider (Low-ABV Drinks) === ==== Wine ==== We call fermented grape juice [[wikipedia:wine|wine]]. Yeast is added to pressed grapes to develop it into one of four types: [[wikipedia:Red_wine|red]], [[wikipedia:white_wine|white]], [[wikipedia:rose_wine|rosĂ©]], and [[wikipedia:Orange_wine|orange]]. The type of grape and the duration of the contact with the skins of the grapes help to define which type of wine is produced. The table below is from the Wikipedia page on wine. {| class="wikitable" |+Colors of wine ! !Long contact with grape skins !Short contact with grape skins |- !Red grapes |'''''Red wine''''', made from dark-colored red grape varieties. The actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. The juice from red grapes is actually pale gray; the color of red wine and some of its flavor (notably tannins) comes from phenolics in the skin, seeds and stem fragments of the grape, extracted by allowing the grapes to soak in the juice. |'''''RosĂ© wine''''', which gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red. There are two primary ways to produce rosĂ© wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of maceration after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine. |- !White grapes |'''''Orange wine''''', sometimes called amber wine, is made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent result. |'''''White wine''''', typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to bitterness. |} ''Common names: There are thousands of wine varietals. Red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Malbec, Zinfandel; white wines like Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, Riesling; and rosĂ© wines like Provence, White Zinfandel and Pink Moscato.'' In addition to the colors of wine, wine can be [[wikipedia:Sparkling_wine|sparkling]] or still. Wine can also be [[wikipedia:Fortified_wine|fortified]]. Fortifying a wine is the process of adding a distilled spirit to the fermented wine. ''Common names: Sparkling wine includes Champagne, Prosecco and other Brut wines. Fortified wines include Port, Sherry and Vermouth.'' ==== Fruit Wine, Cider and Perry ==== [[wikipedia:Fruit_wine|Fruit wine]] is mostly what it sounds like: wine made from fruits other than grapes. A variety of fruits can be used, some common ones include cherry, plum, dandelion and pineapple. Fruit wine is far less common than traditional grape wines, and is often called by the fruit it's fermented from (ex. "cherry wine" or "dandelion wine"). [[wikipedia:Cider|Cider]] is a beverage made specifically from fermenting apples. Despite being a sort of wine fermented from fruit, it isn't considered a fruit wine due to its unique cultural history as a beverage. Its name can cause some confusion particularly in the United States and Canada, where "cider" also refers to unfiltered and sometimes spiced apple juice that has not been fermented. The term "hard cider" is sometimes used to distinguish the alcoholic beverage due to this overlap. Cider can also be carbonated to make a sparkling cider. [[wikipedia:Perry|Perry]], or Pear Cider, is another fruit wine exception. Fermented pears create a drink called perry, that though technically is a wine made from fruit, is considered its own thing. ''Common names: There are thousands of brands of fruit wine, cider and perry. You may have some on tap or bottled; it's mostly important to know the names of what you have.'' [[File:Beer_in_glasses_and_steins_on_a_table_with_bottles_in_the_background_and_a_brick_wall_(15700131777).jpg|thumb|264x264px|There are many varieties of beer.]] ==== Beer ==== [[wikipedia:beer|Beer]] is an ancient drink that has been brewed around the world for hundreds of years. Most beers have four basic ingredients: grain, hops, yeast and water. [[wikipedia:Hops|Hops]] are a type of dried flower that give beer flavor. While there are thousands of brands of beer, there are only a few main types: * '''Lagers''' - One of the two main types of beer, with Ales. Lighter and crisp, refreshing, less bitter than Ale. ** Amber Lager - A medium, amber color with a slight bitterness. ''Common Names: Yuengling'' ** Pale Lager - Light in color and flavor, not very bitter. Easy drinking and very popular. ''Common Names: Red Stripe, Heineken, Pabst Blue Ribbon (PBR), Hamms'' ** Pilsner - Medium amber in color. Hoppy and flavorful. ''Common Names: Modelo Especial, Stella Artois, Pilsner Urquell'' * '''Ales''' - The other main type of beer, with Lager. Richer and flavorful, more bitter than Lager. ** Pale Ale - A diverse group of beer that various depending on its country of origin. Generally balanced taste that pairs with many foods. ''Common Names: Sierra Nevada, Boulevard'' ** Indian Pale Ale (IPA) - Often very bitter and fruity. A unique tasting beer with bite. ''Common Names: Voodoo Ranger, many other large brands have an IPA'' ** Stouts and Porters - Dark beers that have rich, roasted flavors often imitating chocolate or coffee. These beers can feel like a meal. ''Common Names: Guinness, Imperial Stouts, Breakfast Stouts'' ** Wheat Beer - Ales that have some wheat added to them. It can give them a fruity, almost banana like flavor. ''Common Names: Blue Moon'' * Radlers and Shandys - Beers that have been mixed with a fruit juice. Radlers can be any type of citrus while Shandys are always lemon juice. Very refreshing, summary drinks. * Sour Beer - Beer that's, well, sour. Tangy and punchy, usually served in a smaller "sour beer" glass since they pack a punch. * Light Beer - Any beer with an especially low ABV is a light beer (less than 4% ABV), though the term is sometimes also used for low-calorie beers. ''Common Names: Bud Light, Coors Light'' ==== Sake ==== [[wikipedia:sake|Sake]] is a drink brewed from rice, and is sometimes also called rice wine though it is brewed more similarly to beer. Like beer and wine, sake has a wide range of flavor profiles though it is often fruity and light. It is sometimes served lightly warmed in ceramic cups depending on the variety of sake. ''Common Names: Dassai, Hakutsuru, Kubota'' === Spirits (High-ABV Drinks) === [[File:Alcoholic_beverages.jpg|thumb|High-ABV spirits like vodka and brandy.]] ==== Vodka ==== [[wikipedia:vodka|Vodka]] is a spirit that can be distilled from many sources including grains, potatoes and sugarcane before the pure ethanol is diluted with water. It is generally a neutral spirit, meaning it has little taste and is mostly pure ethanol and water. This isn't entirely true though, as each vodka has its own impurities and subtle flavor profiles. Vodka is also commonly flavored, as its neutral taste allows it to take on flavor easily. It can be served up, often freezer chilled, or mixed into many cocktails. ''Common Names: Absolut, Smirnoff, Kettle One'' ==== Gin ==== [[wikipedia:Gin|Gin]] is a spirit flavored with [[wikipedia:juniper_berries|juniper berries]] and other botanicals. It has a distinct herbal flavor, and different brands will have their own flavor profile, and perceived dryness. [[File:Agave_tequilana_2.jpg|thumb|Agave is a plant native to Mexico.]] ''Common Names: Beefeater, Tanqueray, Hendrick's, Plymouth'' ==== Mezcal (Tequila) ==== [[wikipedia:mezcal|Mezcal]] is a spirit distilled from Agave. The most common type of mezcal is [[wikipedia:tequila|Tequila]], which is distilled only from [[wikipedia:blue_agave|blue agave]]. Many people mistake mezcal for a type of tequila due to tequila's popularity, but it is the other way around. Mezcal and tequila are often aged, which impart a darker, more amber color the longer it sits. Mezcal often has a smokey flavor and can also be sweet, fruity or earthy, and can be enjoyed chilled, up or in many popular cocktails. ''Common Names: Casamigos, PatrĂłn, Jose Cuervo'' ==== Rum ==== [[wikipedia:rum|Rum]] is a spirit distilled from [[wikipedia:sugarcane|sugarcane]] then aged in barrels. The less-aged rum has a lighter color, and is called "light rum". It is most commonly used in cocktails, like the Mojito and the Daiquiri. "Aged" or "Dark" rum has a much deeper flavor is often drank straight or on the rocks. Rum originates from and maintains strong ties to the history of the people of the [[wikipedia:caribbean|Caribbean]] and appears commonly in cultural cuisines as well as drinks. I encourage you to learn about the history of rum, as it can teach a lot about sugarcane as a [[wikipedia:Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean|plantation crop]] and the[[wikipedia:Atlantic_slave_trade|Transatlantic Slave Trade]]. ''Common Names: Baccardi, Captain Morgan, Malibu'' ==== Brandy ==== [[wikipedia:Brandy|Brandy]] is made by distilling wine. While most brandy is made from grapes, it can be made from any fruit to yield a [[wikipedia:Fruit_brandy|fruit brandy]]. ''Common names: Cognac and Armagnac'' ==== Whiskey ==== [[wikipedia:whiskey|Whiskey]] is made by fermenting, distilling then aging in barrels various grains. Whiskey drinkers can be particular, as there are many types of whiskey. Some whiskey is "malted", meaning it uses grains that have been malted. Malting is the process of allowing grains to germinate (begin to sprout), before heating them to halt the germination. This yields "malt whiskey". The specific grain used also yields different types of whiskey, for example fermenting rye yields "rye whiskey". "[[wikipedia:Scotch_whisky|Scotch]]" is simply whiskey from Scotland and is also called Scotch Whiskey. ''Common Names: Jameson, Jack Daniel's, Crown Royale'' ==== Soju ==== [[wikipedia:soju|Soju]] is a made by distilling rice or other grains. Similarly to vodka, it is a neutral spirit that is most flavorless. It is often flavored with fruits and florals. It can be served up or mixed into cocktails. ''Common Names: Jinro'' ==== Liqueurs ==== [[wikipedia:liqueur|Liqueurs]] are spirits that have been heavily flavored and sweetened. They are used very frequently in cocktails to impart their particular flavor. Liqueurs can be used to add a flavor that would otherwise be troublesome, like coffee, liquorish, or almond. Sometimes they're served up as a dessert or a [[wikipedia:digestif|digestif]]. ''Common Names: Kahlua, Aperol, Campari, Amaretto, Cointreau, and many, many more'' == Tools of Bartending == You'll be using both common and specialty tools as a bartender. A collection of such tools are below. Start by trying to name as many of them as you can. Note how many are familiar to you, how many you've seen but cannot name, and how many are unfamiliar. A key to the image follows. [[File:Bartools2.jpg|border|center]] Answer key: (1) champagne bottle stopper, (2) kitchen knife, (3) ice tongs, (4) ice scoop, (5) ice bucket, (6) small bar spoon, (7) cocktail-pick, (8) jigger, (9) mesh strainer, (10) boston shaker (metal bottom), (11) bar spoon, (12) lime/lemon squeezer, (13) hawthorn strainer, (14) zester, (15) boston shaker (mixing glass), (16) muddler, (17) citrus reamer, (18) fine grater, (19) Y-peeler, (20) wine key. How'd you do? Some of these items you'll see more often than others. I want to draw special attention these crucial pieces: * '''Jigger''' (8) - A small double sided measuring device used to quickly portion spirits and other ingredients. Though the exact measurements may change depending on where you are and the manufacturer, in the US most jiggers measure 1.5 oz on one end and 0.75 oz on the other. * '''Juicer and Peeler''' (12 & 19) - Many cocktails rely on citrus for flavor and fragrance. The handheld juicer and the peeler are commonly used both at the start of the shift to prep the citrus for the day, collecting fresh citrus juice and peels for adding to cocktails. * '''The Boston Shaker''' (10 & 15) - This is the industry standard for fast, versatile and accurate cocktail mixing. Coming in two parts, often one side is glass and the other is metal, though often both are metal. The two parts are sealed together allowing for a cocktail to be shaker vigorously inside before being cracked apart without spilling. * '''The Hawthorn Strainer''' (23) - The final piece to any Boston Shaker. This uniquely shaped strainer allows for cocktails to be poured into a glass while leaving the ice in the shaker. These are tools you will see every time you step in to bar to make a cocktail. == Safety == A good bartender is the difference between a safe time for your bar patrons and an unsafe environment. It is your responsibility to keep both yourself and your bar patrons safe. It is important first to understand how alcohol affects the body in order to understand how to properly make and serve drinks, so first let's review ABV. Alcohol by Volume is a percentage of ethanol to all other contents of a drink. However, ABV does not tell you everything about drink. A standard beer has about 5% ABV while a shot of whiskey has about 40% ABV, but because you would only drink about 1.5 oz of whiskey, and would drink 12 oz beer, the total amount of alcohol ingested would actually be about the same. This is the idea behind a "standard drink". A standard drink contains one "unit" of alcohol regardless of how much liquid it contains in total. The chart below shows some examples of standard drink equivalents. Each of the below drinks contain one unit of alcohol. [[File:NIH_standard_drink_comparison.jpg|center|frame|National Institute of Health's "standard drink".]] Some general best practices when consuming alcohol: * One unit of alcohol per hour is around what a liver can process. This is generally a safer cadence of drinking. * Drink a glass of water for every unit of alcohol consumed to stay hydrated. * Avoid drinking on an empty stomach. Eating while consuming alcohol slows the alcohol's absorption into the blood and curbs its effects. * Don't order a double. Ordering and serving drinks with more than one standard unit of alcohol in it can cause you or others to become more impaired more quickly than intended. Try to keep it to the cadence of one standard drink per hour. Standards should be upheld both with your own drinking and the drinking of the patrons at your bar. Some standards to uphold in your bar are: * '''Never drink and drive'''. Alcohol impairs motor coordination and clouds judgement. Drinking and then driving puts your own life and the lives of everyone around you in immediate danger. Even if you are under the legal limit in your area, you are impaired after one drink. This should be enforced both for yourself and for your bar patrons. * '''You can say no'''. It's always okay to say no to a drink. Ordering something without alcohol is always an option. Good friends don't pressure you to drink when you don't want to. You can leave a situation when you are uncomfortable. * '''Alcohol is not medicine'''. Addiction is real and treatable. Help is available. * '''Abuse isn't acceptable'''. You are not a punching bag. It is not bad hospitality to stand up for yourself. Sometimes people drink more than they intended and may become too inebriated to be served. Some signs that this is the case are: * Slurred speech * Stumbling * Glazed over or unfocused eyes * Speaking too loudly or two softly * Repeating questions or ordering from multiple bartenders If you meet a bar patron who has had too much to drink, you can help by offering water, tea, coffee or food, helping them find their group, or asking another member of the staff at your bar for help. It may be that what's needed is to no longer serve the bar patron. This is called "cutting them off". When a bar patron is cut off, they will no longer be served alcohol for the rest of the service. This can be embarrassing, both for the bar patron and the bartender, so it's best practice to be kind, clear and discrete. If a patron is aggressive however, all bets are off and they should be removed from the bar. Bartenders have legal obligations depending on where you work. This can include checking the legal age of the patrons at your bar and monitoring the alcohol intake of the patrons at your bar. Sometimes, a bartender can be held individually liable for the failure to meet these obligations. Take the time to find a reputable source to discover what the legal obligation of bartenders in your area are now. This concludes Lesson 1: Bartending Basics. You can move on now to [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks|Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks]]. [[Category:Professional and vocational studies]] [[Category:Professions]] [[Category:Drinks]] {{BookCat}} 972bwa8i0ystsbo2qs2wv6j6e4on9jt Bartending/Mixing Drinks 0 330825 2841907 2835806 2026-10-21T19:23:19Z Littenberg 507264 /* Sour Cocktails */ Grammar 2841907 wikitext text/x-wiki = Mixing Drinks = Congratulations! You've made it to the fun part of the course. Mixing and serving drinks are fundamental to bartending, and they're fun to do. In this lesson we'll focus on the most common and most important recipes you'll encounter working at a bar along with the basic techniques and know-how needed to complete them. In this lesson we'll discuss: # [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Glassware|Glassware]] # [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families)|Typology of cocktails]] # [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Preparation and Skills|Preparation and Skills]] # [[Bartending/Mixing Drinks#Essential Cocktails|Essential Cocktails]] This is the part of the course that really benefits from hands-on practice. When we talk about preparing fruit and mixing cocktails, follow along! It isn't necessary to build an entire bar in your home in order to practice, but having some of the basics and making substitutions when needed will go a long way to making these actions feel natural and easy. If you have a bartending gig in your future, even doing each of these recipes once will put you leagues ahead of your first try being on the clock. == Glassware == Before you can mix a drink, you have to know what glass you're gonna pour it in. Wikipedians have done an excellent job of creating a near comprehensive list of the glasses commonly used to serve alcohol. I've transcluded a navigation box below to all of their pages. Take the time to familiarize yourself with these glasses and their uses by clicking on the pages and digesting the contained information. You don't have to know the history and origin of every glass, just be familiar their shape and general use. The most important ones for this course are: * Collins * Highball * Old fashioned (or Lowball or Rocks) * Champaign Coupe (or just Coupe) * Champaign Flute * Cocktail Glass (or Martini glass) * Hurricane Glass * Wine Glass (Red and White) When we get to cocktails, each recipe will place the drink in a specific type of glass, and you can return here as a reference tool if you need it.{{Navbox|name=Glassware|title=[[:wikipedia:List of glassware|Glassware]]|listclass=hlist|state=expanded|group1=[[:wikipedia:Tumbler (glass)|Tumblers]]|list1=* {{Nowrap|[[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Collins glass|Collins glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Granyonyi Stakan Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Faceted glass|Faceted glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Highball glass|Highball glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Old fashioned glass|Old fashioned glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Shot glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Shot glass|Shot glass]]}}|group2=[[:wikipedia:Beer glassware|Beer glassware]]|list2=* {{Nowrap|[[File:beer stein.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer stein|Beer stein]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Pilsner glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Beer glassware#Pilsner glass|Pilsner glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Pint glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pint glass|Pint Glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Pony Glass Silhouette.svg|14x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Pony glass|Pony glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Tankard Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Tankard|Tankard]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Wheat beer glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wheat beer glass|Wheat beer glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:yardglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Yard of ale|Yard glass]]}}|group3=[[:wikipedia:Stemware|Stemware]]|list3=* {{Nowrap|[[File:Absinthe Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Absinthiana#Absinthe glass|Absinthe glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Chalice Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Chalice|Chalice]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Coupe|Champagne coupe]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:flutesil.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Champagne glass#Flute|Champagne flute]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Cocktail glass|Cocktail glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Glencairn Whisky Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Glencairn whisky glass|Glencairn whisky glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Hurricane glass|Hurricane glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Margarita Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Margarita#Glass|Margarita glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:Alcohol glass nick and nora.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Nick & Nora (glass)|Nick & Nora]]}} * [[:wikipedia:Rummer|Rummer]] * {{Nowrap|[[File:Sherry Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass#Sherry glass|Sherry glass]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:brandysnifsi.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Snifter|Snifter]]}} * {{Nowrap|[[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert]] [[:wikipedia:Wine glass|Wine glass]]}}}} == Typology of Cocktails (Cocktail Families) == One last thing before we starting preparing garnishes and mixing drinks! I promise! Cocktails and their recipes didn't just appear from nothing in a vacuum. They were developed over time as tastes changed and different ingredients became available or popular. Because of this process, we can group cocktails into broad categories called Cocktail Families. Not all bartenders and mixologists agree on how cocktails should be grouped or how many families there are, but by understanding generally how cocktails relate to each other you can prioritize your learning and remember what goes in which cocktail easier. The families we're going to talk about are: * Sour Cocktails * Ancestral/Aromatic Cocktails * Lengthened Cocktails * Frozen Cocktails This isn't by any means comprehensive, but they'll cover most the cocktails we'll explore shortly. === Sour Cocktails === [[wikipedia:Sour_(cocktail)|Sour cocktails]] are an old family of cocktails who's drinks are all, well sour. The template for a sour cocktail is simple: <u>Shake</u> with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Something Sour + Egg (sometimes) The "Something Sour" is most often a citrus juice like lemon or lime. Many sour cocktails will have "sour" in the name, like a Gin Sour, Rum Sour, Whiskey Sour, or Amaretto Sour. Some other notable sour cocktails are the Daiquiri, Cosmopolitan and Margarita. Note that it doesn't matter what base spirit you use, any base spirit can be used in a sour. A sub-family of sour cocktails replaces the traditional sweetener of simple syrup with a liqueur. These cocktails are called a "Daisy". === Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails === Ancestral or Aromatic Cocktails are spirit-forward drinks that use bitters and sometimes liqueur to give an aromatic taste. The template to an aromatic cocktail is: <u>Stir</u> with ice: Spirit + Sweetener + Bitters These cocktails let the taste of the spirit shine while deepening the flavor with bitters. Some common aromatic cocktails are the Martini, Manhattan, Old Fashioned, Sazerac and Negroni. === Lengthened Cocktails === Lengthened Cocktails are drinks that have been "lengthened" by adding a carbonated beverage. Two major sub-families of lengthened cocktails are "Highballs" and "Spritz" cocktails. A Highball is just a spirit lengthened with non-alcoholic mixer, think Gin and Tonic or Rum and Coke. A Spritz is a wine lengthened with a mixer, most often soda or sparkling wine. An example you'll find more in Spain is the Kalimotxo (KAL-EE-MO-KO), a drink with Red Wine and Coca Cola. Don't knock it 'till you try it! There are hundreds of combinations to make Lengthened Cocktails, Highballs and Spritz are just the major subtypes. === Frozen Cocktails === Frozen drinks are frozen! They are just so unlike a non-frozen drink that they get their own family. Frozen drinks are either blended with ice or churned over frozen metal to make a slushy consistency. Many frozen cocktails were adapted from classic cocktails, like a Frozen Daiquiri, but others are always frozen, like a Piña Colada. These are often "batched" or made ahead of time, especially if they're going to come from a slushy machine. == Preparation and Skills == In a bar, preparation is all the steps that are taken before a service starts to get ready in advance. Sometimes this is things that are done at close the night before, and sometimes these are things done in the hours before a service. Some examples of prep are: * Stocking fridges with beer and wine * Stocking the bar's backstock of spirits * Juicing citrus * Cutting garnishes for drinks * Making syrups * Topping up bottles * Cleaning and preparing tools for the service All of these make a good bartender. We'll talk more about how good prep is good hospitality, and how it defines a good bartender later. Some of these are self explanatory, but some merit further investigation to make you a more effective and efficient bartender. While you go through this section, I recommend you actually follow along and prepare the ingredients listed ''especially the lemons and limes''. Immediately following prep, we'll start mixing cocktails that use these ingredients. Store them in an air tight, labeled and dated container if you plan on mixing some drinks within the next day or two. Cut citrus doesn't last that long, so don't overkeep it. You can always get more practice by preparing more garnishes. A lemon wedge can be used for a dozen other things anyway (I like one with my Coke). [[File:Hellingshoek_antoineren_02.png|left|thumb|241x241px|This isn't me. I don't know who this man is. Thanks to him for uploading this picture though. Curl your fingers away from the knife.]] === Before you prep === Most preparation can and should be done with a small paring knife. A larger chef knife can be used for large fruits but is harder to maneuver especially when working with small, round fruits and fragile herbs. When cutting something with a knife, curl the fingers of your non-dominant hand away from the blade. This will help protect your fingertips and cut faster with less risk. You should always have clean hands when you handle food. Before touching food, wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, and dry them with a clean towel. Rewash your hands whenever you step away from your task or touch something dirty like your phone. === Juicing Citrus === [[File:Citrus_×_aurantium_-_fruits_cut.jpg|thumb|The lengthwise cut (left) is unsuitable for juicing. The widthwise cut (right) is perfect to juice.]] Most bars will have one or two types of juicer: a handheld citrus squeezer and/or a countertop citrus reamer. The handheld squeezer is faster and more efficient but cannot fit larger citrus like grapefruit. There are few wrongs ways to juice citrus, but doing it well will save you a lot of time during the prep. There are a few things to keep in mind when juicing citrus at the bar: # Start with room temperature citrus. Cold citrus will yield less juice. If you have a particularly hard lime or lemon, place it on the counter and put your palm on top. Roll the citrus back and forth while applying firm pressure. This can free up some juice. # Cut the fruit widthwise down the middle, so that you have two even sections. The cut face of the citrus should look like a wagon wheel with dot of pith in the center. # Place your fruit cut-side down in the squeezer. Squeeze the citrus through a mesh strainer to remove any seeds or pulp. Squeeze with strength from your arms, not your wrists to avoid injury over time. # Always label and date fresh juice and store in a sealed container in a refrigerator (Ex. Lime Juice Date: 2/27). === Making Simple Syrup === Simple syrup is an appropriately named combination of sugar and water made by combining a ratio of 1 parts granulated sugar and 1 parts water. It's a common ingredient used to sweeten cocktails by pre-dissolving the sugar. Here's the recipe: # Place your sealable storage container on a scale and tare the scale so that it shows zero. # Add a quantity of white granulated sugar to your container and note the measurement (ex. 200 grams of sugar). # Add an equal amount of room temperature water (ex. 200 grams of water, making a total measurement of 400 grams). # Seal the container and shake the mixture until the sugar has dissolved. It may be cloudy, but it with clarify as the mixture settles. # Label and date your syrup (ex. Simple Syrup Date: 8/29). If you're preparing this at home and don't have a scale (you're probably American), you can measure by volume, but it will be less accurate and may affect the final result. In a bar, always measure by weight. === Preparing Garnishes === There are so many things that can be put in drinks to improve their overall look and taste. There are a few, however, that you will find at most bars. If your bar has a specialty garnish, they should train you on how to prepare the house garnishes. For fruit garnishes, they should be used the same day they're cut and discarded at the end of the service. Let's go over some garnishes you'll find just about anywhere. [[File:Knife_by_Bob_Kramer_(17970647591).jpg|thumb|How beautiful [[File:Face-kiss.svg|20x20px]]]] ==== Cutting Citrus Half-Moons ==== # Cut the fruit in half lengthwise pole-to-pole. The cut-side of the fruit should have a stripe of pith down the center. # Place the halves cut-side down, so that the nubs on each end are facing to your left and right. # Cutting straight ahead, make slices about a quarter inch thick. # Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed. ==== Cutting Citrus Wedges ==== # Trim the top and bottom of the fruit to create two flat surfaces. The flat surfaces should look like a wagon wheel with a white dot of pith in the center, or may be entirely pith. This step can be skipped for grapefruit, as they are large enough to rest on a side without additional cuts. # Rest the fruit on its end, and cut it in half lengthwise. This should reveal a stripe of pith down the center of the cut face. # Looking at the cut-side, make a shallow cut perpendicular to the pith extending about a half inch either side. Cut through about half of the meat of the fruit, but not all the way through to the peel. # Placing the fruit cut-side down, cut the half further into quarters, then angling your knife, cut those fourths in half as well. Smaller fruits may only yield three wedges per half fruit. # Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed. ==== Cutting Citrus Wheels ==== # Trim the nub off one end of the fruit. The cut should be deep enough to reveal a small wagon wheel shape with a dot of pith in the center. # With the cut side facing to your left or right depending on your dominant hand, slice straight away from you creating about quarter inch thick circles until you no longer have enough fruit to safely hold while cutting. # You many way to score a slit in the wheels depending on if you are putting them on the rim of a glass. # Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed. ==== Cutting Citrus Peels and Twists ==== # Holding the fruit in your non-dominant hand, drag a y-peeler starting away from you and pulling towards you. # If peeling an orange or grapefruit, using a paring knife, trim away excess pith from the back of the peel. # Optionally, using a paring knife, trim the edges of the peel to make straight even sides. ==== Cutting Grapefruit "Horses Neck" ==== # Holding the grapefruit in your non-dominant hand, use a y-peeler to peel around the circumference of the fruit creating a long peel. # Optionally, trim the ends with a paring knife for a cleaner look. ==== Preparing Pineapple Wedges ==== # Using a large chef knife, cut off the top of the pineapple. # Resting on its bottom with the cut-side up, cut the pineapple in half from top to bottom. # Resting the pineapple on its cut-side, angle your knife and cut the fruit into three equal parts creating triangle shapes. # Take each section and slice into about inch thick wedges. # You may way to score the point of each wedge to be able to hang it on a glass. # Store in a sealed, labeled and dated container in a refrigerator until needed. ==== Preparing Mint ==== # Place a damp paper towel in the bottom of a sealable storage container. # Take a sprig of mint in one hand, and pick the leaves at the bottom of the stem. Leave the ones at the top of the sprig attached to the stem. Place the leaves in the prepared container. # Bunch the stems of the picked sprigs together and trim them to be only a couple inches long. === Essential Skills === There are a couple techniques that are used over and over in bartending. The two most essential to mix cocktails are shaking and stirring. Refer back to these steps the first few times you mix a cocktail in the next section. [[File:Bartender_Photo.jpg|thumb|Shaking a sealed Boston shaker horizontally.]] ==== Using a Boston Shaker ==== A Boston shaker comes in two parts. One will be a large metal mixing cup, and the other will either be a smaller metal mixing cup or a glass mixing cup. Using a shaker comes in a few steps: # We will start by building a shaken cocktail in the small or glass mixing cup. Add the liquid ingredients (including egg, if being used), then add the ice after. The longer the liquids are in contact with the ice, the more they will be diluted as the ice melts. # The large mixing cup is placed over top the smaller mixing cup with enough force to create a seal. Feel free to tap the back of the large tin with the palm of your hand to ensure a seal. # With one hand on either cup holding them together, the assembled cups are then flipped over so that the drink is primarily in the larger mixing cup. # The most efficient way to shake is horizontally, so that the drinks sloshes vigorously from front to back. Shaking vertically will achieve the same result, but it is more energy intensive and slower as it throws the drink upwards before slamming it back down. You will feel the metal become cold, and it may frost as the drink is chilled. These are signs that you can stop shaking. # At this point, the cold from the ice has caused the metal tins to contract and shrink slightly which will bind them together tightly. To unseal the shaker, hold the larger cup or place it on a counter. Identify which was the smaller cup is leaning. With the palm of your hand, strike the smaller cup away from the direction it's leaning. There should be a crack as the seal is broken (this is called "cracking" a shaker open). You can also twist or squeeze the larger tin to release the seal if it's made of metal. # To strain, place the Hawthorn strainer over the mouth of the larger cup, and pour the drink through the strainer. You can watch an example of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ai70a6xjSzo someone using a Boston shaker] on YouTube (not my video), if you'd like more instruction. [[File:Stirring_with_a_bar_spoon.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Stirring with a Bar Spoon]] ==== Stirring a Cocktail ==== It sounds simple, but there's a right way and a wrong way to stir a cocktail. The goal is to incorporate and chill the ingredients without agitating, decarbonating or introducing air. Here are a few simple steps: # Insert a bar spoon to the bottom of the mixing glass containing you ingredients and ice. Push the spoon all the way to the bottom edge of the mixing glass. # Swirl the spoon so that it stays in contact with the edge of the glass, rotating the ice in a circle. ==== Serving Sparking Wine ==== # Use the tab to peel away the foil. # Keep one hand on top of the cage and cork. Lift the handle and twist it open. # Keep the cage on the cork. Hold the cage and the cork with your dominant hand. # Holding the bottle in your non-dominant hand, twist the bottle back and forth. The goal is to gradually release the pressure in the bottle, not to make a loud "pop". Ideally, you should open the bottle almost silently. # Holding the bottle at the base with one hand (if possible), pour slowly into the glass as the bubbles will climb. [[File:Pouring_wine_into_a_decanter.jpg|left|thumb|296x296px|Pouring wine]] ==== Uncorking Still Wine ==== # Find a wine key with a double-hinge. # Using the knife, cut the foil around the lip of the bottle. Using the bottle opener end of the key, peel back to foil to expose the cork. # Insert the corkscrew into the center of the cork by twisting until most of the screw is embedded. # Place the first hinge on the lip of the bottle, and use it as leverage to lift up on the wine key (lifting the cork partially). # Place the second hinge of the lip of the bottle, and completely remove the cork. '''Serving Beer''' # Whether pouring from a bottle or a tap, tilt the glass 45° and pour the beer down the side of glass to prevent too much foam, or "head", from developing. # At the end of the pour, straighten the glass to allow for some head to form. == Essential Cocktails == Here we are, finally mixing some drinks! It can be overwhelming to open a book of cocktail recipes and see the hundreds of drinks with unique names and recipes. Take a deep breath, because there isn't a bartender in the world that knows all of those cocktails by heart, and you aren't expected to either. Over time, you'll pick up on more drinks and their makeup, but that takes time! That's why it's important to focus on the essential cocktails that every bartender knows and that any bar patron might order. What follows are 20 cocktail recipes for classic cocktails that you might make every day at a bar. I highly encourage you to make these drinks at home. If you intend to become a bartender, the difference between your first attempt at a recipe being in the privacy of your home and on your first day on the job is ''enormous''. That raises the question, "How am I supposed to supply all the ingredients needed to make all these drinks“" Start with things you can buy at the grocery store: * Lemons, Limes and Oranges * Club Soda * White Sugar You may already have these things from trying out the preparation techniques above. If you don't, go out and grab these ingredients, cut some garnishes, and prepare some simple syrup. The most expensive part of any cocktail is the spirit. I've color coded the following recipes by which spirit they use. The list generally starts with easy recipes and becomes more complicated as you descend. I recommend staring with one type of spirit and trying a few recipes that use that spirit. For example, with only vodka, you can make a Highball, Cosmopolitan, Moscow Mule, Bloody Mary and a (Vodka) Martini. That's one fifth of the list done, with a spirit you likely already have at home. I don't recommend buying fancy or expensive spirits for this. Buy something cheap or middle-of-the-road to practice with. That's like what your bar patrons are going to be ordering most often anyhow. All that being said, 20 recipes is a lot to learn. Take your time, maybe make one or two a day. The recipes aren't changing, and some are very simple. You by no means have to drink what you make. You DO have to TASTE what you make. Bartenders, when trying a drink on the job, will smell a drink, swirl it in their mouth and spit it out. Do this at least twice for each drink if you don't intend to drink them. Take note of the taste, the balance of the drink and your personal preference for or against it. Please don't make all 20 in one night and get hammered. A daiquiri will be a daiquiri tomorrow, and it'll be sweeter for the waiting. Well, get started! === Spirit Color Key === {{RoundBoxLeft|theme=1|width=50}} Vodka {{RoundBoxRight|theme=2|width=50}} Gin {{LeftRightBoxClose}} {{RoundBoxLeft|theme=3|width=50}} Rum {{RoundBoxRight|theme=4|width=50}} Tequila {{LeftRightBoxClose}} {{RoundBoxLeft|theme=5|width=50}} Whiskey {{RoundBoxRight|theme=11|width=50}} Other/Mixed {{LeftRightBoxClose}} === Highball === Highballs are a class of cocktail sometimes called "plus one" cocktails because they're a blend of a spirit plus a mixer. Some common highballs are Gin and Tonic, Rum and Coke, Whiskey and Ginger Ale, and Scotch and Soda.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Wedges with soda, Lime Wedges with Tonic, Cola and Ginger Beer/Ale '''Ingredients''' 2 oz of Spirit Mixer of choice, to top '''Combine''' Spirit and ice. Stir. Add Mixer to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Cosmopolitan === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Glass:''' Coupe or Martini Nowrap|[[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist '''Ingredients''' 1 Âœ oz Vodka (Preferably Citron Vodka) ⅓ oz Lime Juice ⅓ oz Cointreau (or other orange liqueur) ⅓ oz Sweet Cranberry Juice '''Shake''' all ingredients with ice until chilled. Strain into glass. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Margarita === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lime Wedge and ask preference for Salt, Sugar, or Tajin rim '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Tequila Âœ oz Agave Nectar 1 oz Lime Juice Âœ oz Triple Sec '''Moisten''' the rim of the glass with a lime wedge, then roll exterior of glass in rimming material careful to avoid getting any inside the glass. Combine all ingredients in shaker with ice. Shake. Add ice to glass. Strain. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Paloma === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Grapefruit Wedge or Lime Wheel '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Tequila Âœ oz Lime Juice Dash of Salt Grapefruit Soda, to top '''Combine''' Tequila, Sale and Lime Juice in glass with ice. Stir to chill. Add Grapefruit Soda to fill. Drag spoon through drink a few times to gently combine. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Whiskey Sour === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Glass:''' Sour or Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Whiskey 1 oz Lemon Juice Âœ tsp. Sugar or Simple Syrup '''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Moscow Mule === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Glass:''' Mule Mug [[File:Alcohol_glass_copper_mug.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional) '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Vodka Âœ oz Lime Juice 3 oz Ginger Beer '''Combine''' ingredients in a copper mug filled with ice. Stir. Garnish, optionally. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Spritz === Spritz are a class of cocktails that follow the same general 3-2-1 recipe of 3 oz Prosecco, 2 oz liqueur, 1 oz club soda. The most common is the Aperol Spritz.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Glass:''' Highball or Wine Glass [[File:wineglass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Orange Wheel '''Ingredients''' 3 oz Prosecco 2 oz Liqueur (Aperol, for an Aperol Spritz) 1 oz Club Soda '''Combine''' Prosecco and Liqueur with ice in glass. Stir gently. Top with Club Soda. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Mojito === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Glass:''' Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Mint Sprig '''Ingredients''' 1 Âœ oz White Rum 5 to 6 mint leaves 1 oz Lime Juice 2 tsp Sugar Soda water '''Muddle''' the Mint, Lime Juice and Sugar until well mixed but not mushy. Add the Rum and fill the glass with ice. Top with Soda Water. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Daiquiri === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lime wheel (optional) '''Ingredients''' 1 Âœ oz White Rum 2 tsp Sugar 1 oz Fresh Lime Juice '''Shake''' ingredients with ice until chilled and frothy. Strain into a coupe glass. Garnish, optionally. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === French 75 === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Glass:''' Champagne Flute [[File:flutesil.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist '''Ingredients''' 1 oz Gin Âœ oz Lemon Juice Âœ oz Simple Syrup 3 oz Champagne (or other sparkling wine) '''Shake''' Gin, Lemon Juice, and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Top with Champagne. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Gimlet === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Glass:''' Coupe [[File:Coppa Asti sagoma.svg|24x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lime Wheel '''Ingredients''' 2 Âœ oz Gin Âœ oz Lime Juice Âœ oz Simple Syrup '''Shake''' Gin, Lime Juice, and Simple Syrup with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Manhattan === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Twist and/or Cherry '''Ingredients''' 1 Âœ oz Rye Whiskey Âœ oz Sweet Vermouth 1 Dash Angostura Bitters '''Chill''' rocks glass by combining ice and water, or use pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients in a mixer with ice. Stir. Strain. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Mai Tai === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge, Cherry, and Mint Spring '''Ingredients''' 1 oz Light Rum 1 oz Gold Rum Âœ oz Orange Curaçao Âœ oz Orgeat Âœ oz Lime Juice '''Shake''' ingredients with ice. Strain into ice filled glass. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Pina Colada === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Glass:''' Hurricane [[File:Hurricane Glass Silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Pineapple Wedge '''Ingredients''' 1 Âœ oz Rum (Preferably Coconut, like Malibu) 1 Âœ oz Coconut Cream 1 oz Pineapple Juice Âœ oz Lime Juice '''Combine''' ingredients with ice in a blender. Blend on high for 20-30 seconds or until a flowing slushy consistency. If too stiff add water, if too thin add ice and re-blend for 2-3 seconds. Pour into glass. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Bloody Mary === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Glass:''' Pint or Highball [[File:Highball glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel or Celery Stalk (or anything savory) '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Vodka 6 dashes Worcestershire sauce 3 dashes Tobasco Sauce Pinch of Salt Pinch of Ground Black Pepper Âœ Lemon, juiced 5 oz Tomato Juice '''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice and stir. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Negroni === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Orange Twist or Orange Wheel '''Ingredients''' 1 oz Dry Gin 1 oz Sweet Vermouth 1 oz Compari 1 oz Sparkling Water '''Combine''' all ingredients in a glass. Add ice, preferably 2 large rocks. Stir. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Old Fashioned === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Glass:''' Rocks [[File:Ofgcup.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Orange twist '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Whiskey 1 Sugar Cube 4 dashes Aromatic Bitters 1 dash Soda Water '''Muddle''' Sugar, Bitters and Soda Water in a glass until a uniform syrup is made. Add Whiskey. Add Ice. Stir. Express Orange Twist over drink then add to glass. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Tom Collins === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Glass:''' Collins or Highball [[File:Collins glass silhouette.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon Wheel and Cherry (optional) '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Gin 1 oz Lemon Juice Âœ oz Simple Syrup Club Soda, to top '''Combine''' Gin, Lemon Juice, and Simple Syrup in glass. Add ice to top. Fill with Club Soda. Stir gently. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Martini === Martinis are kind of their own thing, and there's some vocab to go over. There are many drinks that call themselves a martini, and the Classic Martini itself has many variations to suit each bar patron's taste. To make a Martini to order, first you have to have a conversation with your bar patron. # First, ask if they prefer Gin or Vodka. Gin is traditional, but it can be made with either. # Second determine how much Vermouth they would like. The amount of Vermouth will determine how "Dry" or "Wet" the Martini is. "Extra Dry" or "In and Out" = Vermouth is swirled in the glass then poured out, then the drink is entirely Gin or Vodka "Dry" = 1 part Vermouth to 5 parts Gin or Vodka "Wet" = 1 part Vermouth to 2 parts Gin or Vodka "50/50" = 1 part Vermouth to 1 part Gin or Vodka "Dirty" = 1 part Olive Brine to 5 parts Gin or Vodka, instead of Vermouth. Garnish with Olives instead of lemon. The following recipe is for a Dry Martini. You can modify it to make it a Dirty Martini or to suit your taste of Vermouth. Martinis are often stirred, but they can be shaken on request. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' Lemon twist '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Gin or Vodka (patron preference) Âœ oz Dry Vermouth '''Chill''' glassware by pouring water and ice in a glass, or use a pre-chilled glass. Combine ingredients with ice in a mixing glass. Stir until chilled. Strain into chilled glass. Garnish. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Espresso Martini === The Espresso Martini is really not much like a Classic Martini at all. The word Martini really gets thrown around. Nonetheless, it's delicious. If your bar has an espresso machine, you'll be trained on how to pull an espresso shot. Otherwise, your bar may use cold brew concentrate made in house or from a can.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Glass:''' Martini [[File:Coctail glass.svg|16x28px|alt=|link=|class=skin-invert|right]] '''Garnish:''' 3 Coffee Beans '''Ingredients''' 2 oz Vodka Âœ oz Coffee Liqueur (often KahlĂșa) 1 oz Espresso, or cold brew concentrate 1/4 oz Simple Syrup '''Chill''' glass with water and ice, or use pre-chilled glass. Shake ingredients with ice. Strain into glass. Garnish by place 3 coffee beans in center. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Hey! Congrats! You've made it to the bottom of the list. These 20 recipes are just the beginning of the possibilities when it comes to mixing drinks, but if you can nail these down you can get through just about any shift at any bar. That was an undertaking, and you did a great job. This concludes Lesson 2: Mixing Drinks. You can move on now to [[Bartending/Hospitality|Lesson 3: Hospitality]]. [[Category:Professional and vocational studies]] [[Category:Professions]] [[Category:Drinks]] {{BookCat}} s59szg83frik81vgly4shc7vvqwsk6z Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Melatonin and seasonal mood 0 331050 2841871 2841666 2026-10-21T12:11:41Z U3224236 3106774 /* Seasonal Mood Disorders */ 2841871 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Melatonin and seasonal mood:<br>What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This book chapter will be addressing the role that melatonin plays in seasonal mood changes through, seasonal changes, light pattern changes within seasonal changes as well as the correlation of melatonin production within these conditions.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Case study: '''Seasonal levels of melatonin near the Arctic Circle''' Through explorations of the Arctic circle and the effects on mood and cognitive performance has on explorers, a study<ref>PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008.</ref> have been conducted on why this would be the case. [[File:Icebergs in the High Arctic - 20050907.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Icebergs in the High Arctic ]] Circumpolar environments, such as the Arctic, have been known for its changes in day night cycles as well as its temperature. Explorers within these research stations have reported increases in depressive symptoms and a decline in cognitive performance during the winter months. This phenomenon would be coined as 'winter-over syndrome' with had symptoms overlap with seasonal affective disorder. There were hypotheses of exposure to the cold air and the dimmed lights being the link of the Arctic depression<ref>PALINKAS, L.A., MÄKINEN, T.M., PÄÄKKÖNEN, T., RINTAMÄKI, H., LEPPÄLUOTO, J. and HASSI, J. (2005), Influence of seasonally adjusted exposure to cold and darkness on cognitive performance in circumpolar residents. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46: 239-246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00453.x</ref>. Through further studies looking in the effects of light duration and intensity a linking factor of melatonin, found a link between melatonin production and the effects of the Arctic's seasonal characteristics, in particular the link of the light intensity and its suppression of melatonin secretion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Through at correlations of melatonin and seasonal mood changes, we may be able to tie a link and pursue treatment of [[wikipedia:Seasonal_affective_disorder|Seasonal affective depression]], [[wikipedia:Winter-over_syndrome|Winter-over syndrome]] and other seasonal mood discrepancies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * How is Melatonin produced? * What seasonal effects have been shown in relation to mood? * Does irregular melatonin production have an impact on seasonal mood disorders and if so why? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Melatonin== [[File:Melatonin.svg|center|thumb|350x350px|Figure 2. Melatonin Chemical Structure - (''N''-[2-(5-Methoxy-1''H''-indol-3-yl)ethyl]acetamide]] [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] is a [[wikipedia:Hormone|hormone]] produced within the [[wikipedia:Pineal_gland|pineal gland]] , best know through its function of regulating circadian rhythms (Megha, et al, 2024). It is also a type of [[wikipedia:Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitter]] as it is a type of [[wikipedia:Indolamines|indolamines]] causing melatonin to function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It has the nickname 'hormone of darkness' as it is primary function of sleep regulation through maintaining the human body's biological clock though a physiological process in response to darkness. Melatonin is a key signaling molecule that connects changes in external light conditions through the retinas to the pineal gland to maintain melatonin levels which regulates the body's circadian rhythm. During the weak light conditions such as night time, melatonin is synthesized to promote sleep and improve sleep quality. During the day, the production of melatonin is inhibited by light stimulation (Meliska et al, 2013). The melatonin when produce will circulate through the blood stream for distribution, research has shown that various tissues and organs can secrete melatonin but only the reinal tissue of the pineal glad and eyes can signal its production. This links the biosysynthesis of melatonin with circidian rhythm and seasonal characteristics associated with external light conditions (Meliska et al, 2013). <quiz display="simple"> {1. Melatonin is produced by the _? |type="()"} + Pineal Gland - Cerebral Cortex - Brain Stem - Retina </quiz> === Functions === [[File:The master circadian clock in the human brain.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 3. Circadian Rhythm Diagram]] As previously alluded to melatonin has functionality with sleep with particular focus with regulating circadian changes, with has be strongly linked with light. Melatonin has been shown to have protective effects on the nervous system as well as broad spectrum and antibacterial and immunoregularory functions. There have been studies looking into melatonin's relations with fertility and reproduction. === Melatonin Synthesis and secretion === [[File:Melatonin mechanism.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Mechanism of melatonin biosynthesis]]Melatonin was originally only found within the pineal glands of animals as part of isolated animal studies but it has been found that other organs, including the gut and the ovarian follicles, can synthesis melatonin as part of the autocrine and paracrine signals, but the primary sources of melatonin production is through the pineal gland and the retina. Key enzymes that are involved with the production of melatonin include Typtophan (TPH), which is formed by the small intestine and distributed through blood circulation to the pineal cells, arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferas (AANAT) and acetylserotonin O-methyltransferas (ASMT) which all combines and converts into melatonin. The AANAT enzyme regulates the melatonin rate through a process that reduces the K (m) of serotonin that allows an increase in melatonin production. Once the melatonin is synthesized it is released into the blood and spinal fluid and binds to plasma proteins and distributed to the bodies tissues for uptake. [[File:Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle.jpg|center|thumb|431x431px|Figure 4. Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle]] === Melatonin Fluctuations/Imbalance === Through the cycle of melatonin production, the amount of the hormone release through out the day is dependent on the light levels received by the retina. In seasonal changes, such as shorter days within the winter, the level of light received will vary as well as the production of melatonin and in such the circadian rhythm may be disturbed. 'Jet lag' Other factors that have been shown to impact melatonin production are temperature, altitude changes and aging. == Seasonal Mood Disorders == Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) * Part of the depression and bipolar family *Combination of biological and mood disturbances through out different seasonal patterns **Most commonly occurring during autumn and winter but cases have shown in the other seasons too ( Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012) *Light therapy has been shown to be effective for most patients showing clinical improvements within one to two weeks after the start of treatment ( Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012) Polar triiodothyronine syndrome One of the clearest links of mood disparities and melatonin levels is through arctic reports. With the high light levels throughout the day disrupting the circadian rhythms and therefore melatonin secreting. Bipolar effects with mood. * == Studies == * Arctic Study on melatonin and light * Effect on controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour (2003) * polar triiodothyronine syndrome ** Double-blind trial *** Group A Melatonin *** Group B placebo ** Connected with the photoperiod not the weather-related aspect of the seasons ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Light_therapy|Light Therapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Kurlansik, Stuart & Ibay, Annamarie. (2012). Seasonal affective disorder. American family physician. 86. 1037-41. Megha, K.B., Arathi, A., Shikha, S. et al. Significance of Melatonin in the Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and Disease Management. Mol Neurobiol 61, 5541–5571 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-024-03915-0 Meliska, C. J., MartĂ­nez, L. F., LĂłpez, A. M., Sorenson, D. L., Nowakowski, S., Kripke, D. F., Elliott, J., & Parry, B. L. (2013). Antepartum depression severity is increased during seasonally longer nights: relationship to melatonin and cortisol timing and quantity. Chronobiology international, 30(9), 1160–1173. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2013.808652 PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008. }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * Antepartum Depression Severity is Increased During Seasonally Longer Nights: Relationship to Melatonin and Cortisol Timing and Quantity * Effect of controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood, and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour * * Melatonin as a treatment for mood disorders: a systematic review * Melatonin and agomelatine for preventing seasonal affective disorder * Seasonal rhythms in mental health: a narrative scoping review of neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic interventions   * Melatonin Biosynthesis and regulation in reproduction * Seasonal changes in mood and behavior: A cluster analytic approach https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0165178189900498 * Seasonal levels of melatonin, thyroid hormones, mood, and cognition near the Arctic Circle * Ngiam, Alicia. (2022). Light Deprivation and Its Effects. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365021664_Light_Deprivation_and_Its_Effects [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] fk6g8jgts8cj190aosuz1dxoxkl9qa7 2841877 2841871 2026-10-21T13:11:35Z U3224236 3106774 /* Melatonin Synthesis and secretion */ 2841877 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Melatonin and seasonal mood:<br>What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This book chapter will be addressing the role that melatonin plays in seasonal mood changes through, seasonal changes, light pattern changes within seasonal changes as well as the correlation of melatonin production within these conditions.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Case study: '''Seasonal levels of melatonin near the Arctic Circle''' Through explorations of the Arctic circle and the effects on mood and cognitive performance has on explorers, a study<ref>PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008.</ref> have been conducted on why this would be the case. [[File:Icebergs in the High Arctic - 20050907.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Icebergs in the High Arctic ]] Circumpolar environments, such as the Arctic, have been known for its changes in day night cycles as well as its temperature. Explorers within these research stations have reported increases in depressive symptoms and a decline in cognitive performance during the winter months. This phenomenon would be coined as 'winter-over syndrome' with had symptoms overlap with seasonal affective disorder. There were hypotheses of exposure to the cold air and the dimmed lights being the link of the Arctic depression<ref>PALINKAS, L.A., MÄKINEN, T.M., PÄÄKKÖNEN, T., RINTAMÄKI, H., LEPPÄLUOTO, J. and HASSI, J. (2005), Influence of seasonally adjusted exposure to cold and darkness on cognitive performance in circumpolar residents. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46: 239-246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00453.x</ref>. Through further studies looking in the effects of light duration and intensity a linking factor of melatonin, found a link between melatonin production and the effects of the Arctic's seasonal characteristics, in particular the link of the light intensity and its suppression of melatonin secretion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Through at correlations of melatonin and seasonal mood changes, we may be able to tie a link and pursue treatment of [[wikipedia:Seasonal_affective_disorder|Seasonal affective depression]], [[wikipedia:Winter-over_syndrome|Winter-over syndrome]] and other seasonal mood discrepancies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * How is Melatonin produced? * What seasonal effects have been shown in relation to mood? * Does irregular melatonin production have an impact on seasonal mood disorders and if so why? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Melatonin== [[File:Melatonin.svg|center|thumb|350x350px|Figure 2. Melatonin Chemical Structure - (''N''-[2-(5-Methoxy-1''H''-indol-3-yl)ethyl]acetamide]] [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] is a [[wikipedia:Hormone|hormone]] produced within the [[wikipedia:Pineal_gland|pineal gland]] , best know through its function of regulating circadian rhythms (Megha, et al, 2024). It is also a type of [[wikipedia:Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitter]] as it is a type of [[wikipedia:Indolamines|indolamines]] causing melatonin to function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It has the nickname 'hormone of darkness' as it is primary function of sleep regulation through maintaining the human body's biological clock though a physiological process in response to darkness. Melatonin is a key signaling molecule that connects changes in external light conditions through the retinas to the pineal gland to maintain melatonin levels which regulates the body's circadian rhythm. During the weak light conditions such as night time, melatonin is synthesized to promote sleep and improve sleep quality. During the day, the production of melatonin is inhibited by light stimulation (Meliska et al, 2013). The melatonin when produce will circulate through the blood stream for distribution, research has shown that various tissues and organs can secrete melatonin but only the reinal tissue of the pineal glad and eyes can signal its production. This links the biosysynthesis of melatonin with circidian rhythm and seasonal characteristics associated with external light conditions (Meliska et al, 2013). <quiz display="simple"> {1. Melatonin is produced by the _? |type="()"} + Pineal Gland - Cerebral Cortex - Brain Stem - Retina </quiz> === Functions === [[File:The master circadian clock in the human brain.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 3. Circadian Rhythm Diagram]] As previously alluded to melatonin has functionality with sleep with particular focus with regulating circadian changes, with has be strongly linked with light. Melatonin has been shown to have protective effects on the nervous system as well as broad spectrum and antibacterial and immunoregularory functions. There have been studies looking into melatonin's relations with fertility and reproduction. === Melatonin Synthesis and secretion === [[File:Melatonin mechanism.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Mechanism of melatonin biosynthesis]]Melatonin was originally only found within the pineal glands of animals as part of isolated animal studies but it has been found that other organs, including the gut and the ovarian follicles, can synthesis melatonin as part of the autocrine and paracrine signals, but the primary sources of melatonin production is through the pineal gland and the retina. Key enzymes that are involved with the production of melatonin include Typtophan (TPH), which is formed by the small intestine and distributed through blood circulation to the pineal cells, arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferas (AANAT) and acetylserotonin O-methyltransferas (ASMT) which all combines and converts into melatonin. The AANAT enzyme regulates the melatonin rate through a process that reduces the K (m) of serotonin that allows an increase in melatonin production. Once the melatonin is synthesized it is released into the blood and spinal fluid and binds to plasma proteins and distributed to the bodies tissues for uptake. [[File:Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle.jpg|center|thumb|431x431px|Figure 4. Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle]] === Melatonin Fluctuations/Imbalance === Through the cycle of melatonin production, the amount of the hormone release through out the day is dependent on the light levels received by the retina. In seasonal changes, such as shorter days within the winter, the level of light received will vary as well as the production of melatonin and in such the circadian rhythm may be disturbed. Factors outside of seasonally such as jet lag, shift work and childbirth are common reasons for circadian disruptions. Other factors that have been shown to impact melatonin production are temperature, altitude changes and aging. High altitude == Seasonal Mood Disorders == If melatonin is through the circadian rhythm is a factor for changes with mood in extreme conditions such as circumpolar environments, what does it say about other mood disorders? Are we suggesting that flairs of depressant symptoms may be related to seasonality? When looking at Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), we will notice similar symptoms as those reported in the Arctic reports. * Part of the depression and bipolar family *Combination of biological and mood disturbances through out different seasonal patterns **Most commonly occurring during autumn and winter but cases have shown in the other seasons too ( Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012) *Light therapy has been shown to be effective for most patients showing clinical improvements within one to two weeks after the start of treatment ( Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012) Polar triiodothyronine syndrome One of the clearest links of mood disparities and melatonin levels is through arctic reports. With the high light levels throughout the day disrupting the circadian rhythms and therefore melatonin secreting. Bipolar effects with mood. * == Studies == * Arctic Study on melatonin and light * Effect on controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour (2003) * polar triiodothyronine syndrome ** Double-blind trial *** Group A Melatonin *** Group B placebo ** Connected with the photoperiod not the weather-related aspect of the seasons ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Light_therapy|Light Therapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Kurlansik, Stuart & Ibay, Annamarie. (2012). Seasonal affective disorder. American family physician. 86. 1037-41. Megha, K.B., Arathi, A., Shikha, S. et al. Significance of Melatonin in the Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and Disease Management. Mol Neurobiol 61, 5541–5571 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-024-03915-0 Meliska, C. J., MartĂ­nez, L. F., LĂłpez, A. M., Sorenson, D. L., Nowakowski, S., Kripke, D. F., Elliott, J., & Parry, B. L. (2013). Antepartum depression severity is increased during seasonally longer nights: relationship to melatonin and cortisol timing and quantity. Chronobiology international, 30(9), 1160–1173. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2013.808652 PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008. }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * Antepartum Depression Severity is Increased During Seasonally Longer Nights: Relationship to Melatonin and Cortisol Timing and Quantity * Effect of controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood, and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour * * Melatonin as a treatment for mood disorders: a systematic review * Melatonin and agomelatine for preventing seasonal affective disorder * Seasonal rhythms in mental health: a narrative scoping review of neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic interventions   * Melatonin Biosynthesis and regulation in reproduction * Seasonal changes in mood and behavior: A cluster analytic approach https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0165178189900498 * Seasonal levels of melatonin, thyroid hormones, mood, and cognition near the Arctic Circle * Ngiam, Alicia. (2022). Light Deprivation and Its Effects. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365021664_Light_Deprivation_and_Its_Effects [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] 3sg6t2hwf5r7sh2c4bwiob812jjz3v7 2841878 2841877 2026-10-21T13:15:01Z U3224236 3106774 /* Seasonal Mood Disorders */ 2841878 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Melatonin and seasonal mood:<br>What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This book chapter will be addressing the role that melatonin plays in seasonal mood changes through, seasonal changes, light pattern changes within seasonal changes as well as the correlation of melatonin production within these conditions.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Case study: '''Seasonal levels of melatonin near the Arctic Circle''' Through explorations of the Arctic circle and the effects on mood and cognitive performance has on explorers, a study<ref>PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008.</ref> have been conducted on why this would be the case. [[File:Icebergs in the High Arctic - 20050907.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Icebergs in the High Arctic ]] Circumpolar environments, such as the Arctic, have been known for its changes in day night cycles as well as its temperature. Explorers within these research stations have reported increases in depressive symptoms and a decline in cognitive performance during the winter months. This phenomenon would be coined as 'winter-over syndrome' with had symptoms overlap with seasonal affective disorder. There were hypotheses of exposure to the cold air and the dimmed lights being the link of the Arctic depression<ref>PALINKAS, L.A., MÄKINEN, T.M., PÄÄKKÖNEN, T., RINTAMÄKI, H., LEPPÄLUOTO, J. and HASSI, J. (2005), Influence of seasonally adjusted exposure to cold and darkness on cognitive performance in circumpolar residents. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46: 239-246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00453.x</ref>. Through further studies looking in the effects of light duration and intensity a linking factor of melatonin, found a link between melatonin production and the effects of the Arctic's seasonal characteristics, in particular the link of the light intensity and its suppression of melatonin secretion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Through at correlations of melatonin and seasonal mood changes, we may be able to tie a link and pursue treatment of [[wikipedia:Seasonal_affective_disorder|Seasonal affective depression]], [[wikipedia:Winter-over_syndrome|Winter-over syndrome]] and other seasonal mood discrepancies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * How is Melatonin produced? * What seasonal effects have been shown in relation to mood? * Does irregular melatonin production have an impact on seasonal mood disorders and if so why? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Melatonin== [[File:Melatonin.svg|center|thumb|350x350px|Figure 2. Melatonin Chemical Structure - (''N''-[2-(5-Methoxy-1''H''-indol-3-yl)ethyl]acetamide]] [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] is a [[wikipedia:Hormone|hormone]] produced within the [[wikipedia:Pineal_gland|pineal gland]] , best know through its function of regulating circadian rhythms (Megha, et al, 2024). It is also a type of [[wikipedia:Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitter]] as it is a type of [[wikipedia:Indolamines|indolamines]] causing melatonin to function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It has the nickname 'hormone of darkness' as it is primary function of sleep regulation through maintaining the human body's biological clock though a physiological process in response to darkness. Melatonin is a key signaling molecule that connects changes in external light conditions through the retinas to the pineal gland to maintain melatonin levels which regulates the body's circadian rhythm. During the weak light conditions such as night time, melatonin is synthesized to promote sleep and improve sleep quality. During the day, the production of melatonin is inhibited by light stimulation (Meliska et al, 2013). The melatonin when produce will circulate through the blood stream for distribution, research has shown that various tissues and organs can secrete melatonin but only the reinal tissue of the pineal glad and eyes can signal its production. This links the biosysynthesis of melatonin with circidian rhythm and seasonal characteristics associated with external light conditions (Meliska et al, 2013). <quiz display="simple"> {1. Melatonin is produced by the _? |type="()"} + Pineal Gland - Cerebral Cortex - Brain Stem - Retina </quiz> === Functions === [[File:The master circadian clock in the human brain.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 3. Circadian Rhythm Diagram]] As previously alluded to melatonin has functionality with sleep with particular focus with regulating circadian changes, with has be strongly linked with light. Melatonin has been shown to have protective effects on the nervous system as well as broad spectrum and antibacterial and immunoregularory functions. There have been studies looking into melatonin's relations with fertility and reproduction. === Melatonin Synthesis and secretion === [[File:Melatonin mechanism.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Mechanism of melatonin biosynthesis]]Melatonin was originally only found within the pineal glands of animals as part of isolated animal studies but it has been found that other organs, including the gut and the ovarian follicles, can synthesis melatonin as part of the autocrine and paracrine signals, but the primary sources of melatonin production is through the pineal gland and the retina. Key enzymes that are involved with the production of melatonin include Typtophan (TPH), which is formed by the small intestine and distributed through blood circulation to the pineal cells, arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferas (AANAT) and acetylserotonin O-methyltransferas (ASMT) which all combines and converts into melatonin. The AANAT enzyme regulates the melatonin rate through a process that reduces the K (m) of serotonin that allows an increase in melatonin production. Once the melatonin is synthesized it is released into the blood and spinal fluid and binds to plasma proteins and distributed to the bodies tissues for uptake. [[File:Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle.jpg|center|thumb|431x431px|Figure 4. Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle]] === Melatonin Fluctuations/Imbalance === Through the cycle of melatonin production, the amount of the hormone release through out the day is dependent on the light levels received by the retina. In seasonal changes, such as shorter days within the winter, the level of light received will vary as well as the production of melatonin and in such the circadian rhythm may be disturbed. Factors outside of seasonally such as jet lag, shift work and childbirth are common reasons for circadian disruptions. Other factors that have been shown to impact melatonin production are temperature, altitude changes and aging. High altitude == Seasonal Mood Disorders == If melatonin is through the circadian rhythm is a factor for changes with mood in extreme conditions such as circumpolar environments, what does it say about other mood disorders? Are we suggesting that flairs of depressant symptoms may be related to seasonality? When looking at Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), we will notice similar symptoms as those reported in the Arctic reports. Seasonal affective disorder, a part of the depression and bipolar family, will typically occur during autumn and winter months with [percentage] of people having symptoms in the summer months (Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012). *Combination of biological and mood disturbances through out different seasonal patterns **Most commonly occurring during autumn and winter but cases have shown in the other seasons too *Light therapy has been shown to be effective for most patients showing clinical improvements within one to two weeks after the start of treatment ( Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012) Polar triiodothyronine syndrome One of the clearest links of mood disparities and melatonin levels is through arctic reports. With the high light levels throughout the day disrupting the circadian rhythms and therefore melatonin secreting. Bipolar effects with mood. * == Studies == * Arctic Study on melatonin and light * Effect on controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour (2003) * polar triiodothyronine syndrome ** Double-blind trial *** Group A Melatonin *** Group B placebo ** Connected with the photoperiod not the weather-related aspect of the seasons ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Light_therapy|Light Therapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Kurlansik, Stuart & Ibay, Annamarie. (2012). Seasonal affective disorder. American family physician. 86. 1037-41. Megha, K.B., Arathi, A., Shikha, S. et al. Significance of Melatonin in the Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and Disease Management. Mol Neurobiol 61, 5541–5571 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-024-03915-0 Meliska, C. J., MartĂ­nez, L. F., LĂłpez, A. M., Sorenson, D. L., Nowakowski, S., Kripke, D. F., Elliott, J., & Parry, B. L. (2013). Antepartum depression severity is increased during seasonally longer nights: relationship to melatonin and cortisol timing and quantity. Chronobiology international, 30(9), 1160–1173. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2013.808652 PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008. }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * Antepartum Depression Severity is Increased During Seasonally Longer Nights: Relationship to Melatonin and Cortisol Timing and Quantity * Effect of controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood, and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour * * Melatonin as a treatment for mood disorders: a systematic review * Melatonin and agomelatine for preventing seasonal affective disorder * Seasonal rhythms in mental health: a narrative scoping review of neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic interventions   * Melatonin Biosynthesis and regulation in reproduction * Seasonal changes in mood and behavior: A cluster analytic approach https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0165178189900498 * Seasonal levels of melatonin, thyroid hormones, mood, and cognition near the Arctic Circle * Ngiam, Alicia. (2022). Light Deprivation and Its Effects. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365021664_Light_Deprivation_and_Its_Effects [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] ttyjpdf16cedo8ci9yx4ndpl9xh9d7t 2842082 2841878 2026-10-22T11:27:05Z U3224236 3106774 /* Melatonin Fluctuations/Imbalance */ 2842082 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Melatonin and seasonal mood:<br>What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This book chapter will be addressing the role that melatonin plays in seasonal mood changes through, seasonal changes, light pattern changes within seasonal changes as well as the correlation of melatonin production within these conditions.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ; Case study: '''Seasonal levels of melatonin near the Arctic Circle''' Through explorations of the Arctic circle and the effects on mood and cognitive performance has on explorers, a study<ref>PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008.</ref> have been conducted on why this would be the case. [[File:Icebergs in the High Arctic - 20050907.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Icebergs in the High Arctic ]] Circumpolar environments, such as the Arctic, have been known for its changes in day night cycles as well as its temperature. Explorers within these research stations have reported increases in depressive symptoms and a decline in cognitive performance during the winter months. This phenomenon would be coined as 'winter-over syndrome' with had symptoms overlap with seasonal affective disorder. There were hypotheses of exposure to the cold air and the dimmed lights being the link of the Arctic depression<ref>PALINKAS, L.A., MÄKINEN, T.M., PÄÄKKÖNEN, T., RINTAMÄKI, H., LEPPÄLUOTO, J. and HASSI, J. (2005), Influence of seasonally adjusted exposure to cold and darkness on cognitive performance in circumpolar residents. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46: 239-246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00453.x</ref>. Through further studies looking in the effects of light duration and intensity a linking factor of melatonin, found a link between melatonin production and the effects of the Arctic's seasonal characteristics, in particular the link of the light intensity and its suppression of melatonin secretion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Through at correlations of melatonin and seasonal mood changes, we may be able to tie a link and pursue treatment of [[wikipedia:Seasonal_affective_disorder|Seasonal affective depression]], [[wikipedia:Winter-over_syndrome|Winter-over syndrome]] and other seasonal mood discrepancies. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' * How is Melatonin produced? * What seasonal effects have been shown in relation to mood? * Does irregular melatonin production have an impact on seasonal mood disorders and if so why? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Melatonin== [[File:Melatonin.svg|center|thumb|350x350px|Figure 2. Melatonin Chemical Structure - (''N''-[2-(5-Methoxy-1''H''-indol-3-yl)ethyl]acetamide]] [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] is a [[wikipedia:Hormone|hormone]] produced within the [[wikipedia:Pineal_gland|pineal gland]] , best know through its function of regulating circadian rhythms (Megha, et al, 2024). It is also a type of [[wikipedia:Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitter]] as it is a type of [[wikipedia:Indolamines|indolamines]] causing melatonin to function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It has the nickname 'hormone of darkness' as it is primary function of sleep regulation through maintaining the human body's biological clock though a physiological process in response to darkness. Melatonin is a key signaling molecule that connects changes in external light conditions through the retinas to the pineal gland to maintain melatonin levels which regulates the body's circadian rhythm. During the weak light conditions such as night time, melatonin is synthesized to promote sleep and improve sleep quality. During the day, the production of melatonin is inhibited by light stimulation<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Megha|first=K. B.|last2=Arathi|first2=A.|last3=Shikha|first3=Saini|last4=Alka|first4=Rao|last5=Ramya|first5=Prabhu|last6=Mohanan|first6=P. V.|date=2024-08|title=Significance of Melatonin in the Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and Disease Management|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12035-024-03915-0|journal=Molecular Neurobiology|language=en|volume=61|issue=8|pages=5541–5571|doi=10.1007/s12035-024-03915-0|issn=0893-7648}}</ref>. The melatonin when produce will circulate through the blood stream for distribution, research has shown that various tissues and organs can secrete melatonin but only the reinal tissue of the pineal glad and eyes can signal its production. This links the biosysynthesis of melatonin with circidian rhythm and seasonal characteristics associated with external light conditions<ref name=":1" />. <quiz display="simple"> {1. Melatonin is produced by the _? |type="()"} + Pineal Gland - Cerebral Cortex - Brain Stem - Retina </quiz> === Functions === [[File:The master circadian clock in the human brain.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 3. Circadian Rhythm Diagram]] As previously alluded to melatonin has functionality with sleep with particular focus with regulating circadian changes, with has be strongly linked with light. Melatonin has been shown to have protective effects on the nervous system as well as broad spectrum and antibacterial and immunoregularory functions. There have been studies looking into melatonin's relations with fertility and reproduction. === Melatonin Synthesis and secretion === [[File:Melatonin mechanism.jpg|thumb|Figure 5. Mechanism of melatonin biosynthesis]]Melatonin was originally only found within the pineal glands of animals as part of isolated animal studies but it has been found that other organs, including the gut and the ovarian follicles, can synthesis melatonin as part of the autocrine and paracrine signals, but the primary sources of melatonin production is through the pineal gland and the retina<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Zhong|first=Jingjing|last2=Lu|first2=Zhiyong|last3=Zhou|first3=Zhi|last4=Ma|first4=Ning|last5=Li|first5=YeJuan|last6=Hu|first6=JiaJia|last7=Wan|first7=Bangbei|last8=Lu|first8=Weiying|date=2025-07-28|title=Melatonin biosynthesis and regulation in reproduction|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2025.1630164/full|journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology|language=English|publisher=Frontiers|volume=16|doi=10.3389/fendo.2025.1630164|issn=1664-2392|pmc=12336035|pmid=40791993}}</ref>. Key enzymes that are involved with the production of melatonin include Typtophan (TPH), which is formed by the small intestine and distributed through blood circulation to the pineal cells, arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferas (AANAT) and acetylserotonin O-methyltransferas (ASMT) which all combines and converts into melatonin<ref name=":2" />. The AANAT enzyme regulates the melatonin rate through a process that reduces the K (m) of serotonin that allows an increase in melatonin production. Once the melatonin is synthesized it is released into the blood and spinal fluid and binds to plasma proteins and distributed to the bodies tissues for uptake. [[File:Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle.jpg|center|thumb|431x431px|Figure 4. Melatonin production in 24 hour cycle]]For this question of the relationship of seasonal mood and melatonin, I wish to put focus on the variable of serotonin in this equation. === Melatonin Fluctuations/Imbalance === Through the cycle of melatonin production, the amount of the hormone release through out the day is dependent on the light levels received by the retina. In seasonal changes, such as shorter days within the winter, the level of light received will vary as well as the production of melatonin and in such the circadian rhythm may be disturbed. Factors outside of seasonally such as jet lag, shift work and childbirth are common reasons for circadian disruptions. Other factors that have been shown to impact melatonin production are temperature, altitude<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arendt|first=Josephine|date=2012-05-01|title=Biological Rhythms During Residence in Polar Regions|url=https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2012.668997|journal=Chronobiology International|publisher=Taylor & Francis|volume=29|issue=4|pages=379–394|doi=10.3109/07420528.2012.668997|issn=0742-0528|pmc=3793275|pmid=22497433}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burtscher|first=Johannes|last2=Strasser|first2=Barbara|last3=Millet|first3=Gregoire P|last4=Burtscher|first4=Martin|date=2022-07-01|title=Can melatonin be used as a potential antioxidant and sleep aid supplement for high-altitude travelers?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taab198|journal=Journal of Travel Medicine|volume=29|issue=5|pages=taab198|doi=10.1093/jtm/taab198|issn=1708-8305}}</ref> changes and aging. High altitude == Seasonal Mood Disorders == If melatonin is through the circadian rhythm is a factor for changes with mood in extreme conditions such as circumpolar environments, what does it say about other mood disorders? Are we suggesting that flairs of depressant symptoms may be related to seasonality? When looking at Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), we will notice similar symptoms as those reported in the Arctic reports. Seasonal affective disorder, a part of the depression and bipolar family, will typically occur during autumn and winter months with [percentage] of people having symptoms in the summer months (Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012). *Combination of biological and mood disturbances through out different seasonal patterns **Most commonly occurring during autumn and winter but cases have shown in the other seasons too *Light therapy has been shown to be effective for most patients showing clinical improvements within one to two weeks after the start of treatment ( Kurlanksik & Ibay, 2012) Polar triiodothyronine syndrome One of the clearest links of mood disparities and melatonin levels is through arctic reports. With the high light levels throughout the day disrupting the circadian rhythms and therefore melatonin secreting. Bipolar effects with mood. * == Studies == * Arctic Study on melatonin and light * Effect on controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour (2003) * polar triiodothyronine syndrome ** Double-blind trial *** Group A Melatonin *** Group B placebo ** Connected with the photoperiod not the weather-related aspect of the seasons ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[w:Melatonin|Melatonin]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Light_therapy|Light Therapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Kurlansik, Stuart & Ibay, Annamarie. (2012). Seasonal affective disorder. American family physician. 86. 1037-41. Megha, K.B., Arathi, A., Shikha, S. et al. Significance of Melatonin in the Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and Disease Management. Mol Neurobiol 61, 5541–5571 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-024-03915-0 Meliska, C. J., MartĂ­nez, L. F., LĂłpez, A. M., Sorenson, D. L., Nowakowski, S., Kripke, D. F., Elliott, J., & Parry, B. L. (2013). Antepartum depression severity is increased during seasonally longer nights: relationship to melatonin and cortisol timing and quantity. Chronobiology international, 30(9), 1160–1173. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2013.808652 PÀÀkkönen,T., LeppĂ€luoto, J., IkĂ€heimo, T., & RintamĂ€ki, H., Ruokonen, A., Hassi, J., & Palinkas, L., (2008). Seasonal Levels of Melatonin, Thyroid Hormones, Mood, and Cognition Near the Arctic Circle. Aviation, space, and environmental medicine. 79. 695-9. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2148.2008. }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. * Antepartum Depression Severity is Increased During Seasonally Longer Nights: Relationship to Melatonin and Cortisol Timing and Quantity * Effect of controlled-release melatonin on sleep quality, mood, and quality of life in subjects with seasonal or weather-associated changes in mood and behaviour * * Melatonin as a treatment for mood disorders: a systematic review * Melatonin and agomelatine for preventing seasonal affective disorder * Seasonal rhythms in mental health: a narrative scoping review of neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic interventions   * Melatonin Biosynthesis and regulation in reproduction * Seasonal changes in mood and behavior: A cluster analytic approach https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0165178189900498 * Seasonal levels of melatonin, thyroid hormones, mood, and cognition near the Arctic Circle * Ngiam, Alicia. (2022). Light Deprivation and Its Effects. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365021664_Light_Deprivation_and_Its_Effects [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] njz6h6d6pitfhr8y8s6ntmm5mko3wc7 Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation 0 331201 2841957 2841689 2026-10-22T00:41:24Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Minor grammar edit 2841957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in math related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. 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''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} ofv4c8m3pref4sl9frugvjlkwfz1n6d 2841959 2841957 2026-10-22T00:43:03Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Added a word to improve sentence quality. 2841959 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which includes adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in math related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} o4p40d559xuwxxhu60m1nayrutmdkv0 2841961 2841959 2026-10-22T00:44:19Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Minor grammar edit 2841961 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guide how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in math related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 4f3jmk9qpwamwd02pdezn39lvmvf4h8 2841962 2841961 2026-10-22T00:45:27Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Minor grammar edit 2841962 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in math related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} iekjj9fomqiouwdd0c7o0j8qn7beot7 2841963 2841962 2026-10-22T00:46:56Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Minor grammar edits 2841963 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Pajares & Schunk, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Pajares and Schunk (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Pajares and Schunk (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectany beliefs is one way Evt can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succees, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, in doing so will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 9ykacdiwwvg96oainckmoj0xjgttozy 2841966 2841963 2026-10-22T00:58:49Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How do task values influence educational motivation? */ Grammar edits throughout 2841966 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Schunk, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 2nsmdv3doa2j0okczq85x4tte3x8wc0 2841967 2841966 2026-10-22T01:00:14Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Minor grammar edit 2841967 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} badp7tw9ozoj16b5ggp9ngi6srae23f 2841969 2841967 2026-10-22T01:03:49Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Minor grammar edits 2841969 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:50%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} psfkd7ilhfnr9bdy5zfdpghtv3xccg7 2841970 2841969 2026-10-22T01:05:03Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Knowledge checkpoint */ Increasing the size of the quiz feature box to full width 2841970 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory which include adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} k5efxph3nuqfocwziq11vz2rerumz3j 2841972 2841970 2026-10-22T01:09:12Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Removed words to improve sentence quality 2841972 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or if other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. 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''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} cgnyojgfim3mk2wyxg5ec4wpccy1g3q 2841973 2841972 2026-10-22T01:10:21Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Removed word to improve sentence quality 2841973 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, while providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom can increase perceived usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} fc76mbh1mo5qxjqkp5vz2jx0d8nh3ih 2841975 2841973 2026-10-22T01:20:16Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Enhancing task value */ Rewriting sentence to improve quality. 2841975 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise these pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 2u9vvxl5k0u1e6v2ut734pmz6ikb8kb 2841976 2841975 2026-10-22T01:21:36Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Reducing perceived cost */ Minor grammar edit 2841976 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skill, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} kmogss3fm0145dlpcg9yaavju9r8ada 2841977 2841976 2026-10-22T01:22:20Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention */ Minor grammar edit 2841977 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and there relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccled & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefuleness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. Howerver, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT enderemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom preassures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contempory extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are neccessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} q8upbjoqdog5jof4q5nrphed9bfglri 2841979 2841977 2026-10-22T01:30:05Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Fixed spelling errors throughout 2841979 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrach (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 6wri2nzwatqyklfeo2mg7zosw3yhvq2 2841980 2841979 2026-10-22T01:32:18Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* What is expectancy-value theory? */ 2841980 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is the about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} jzvagf6imud9cic6behprxla9gx315c 2841981 2841980 2026-10-22T01:32:56Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* What is expectancy-value theory? */ 2841981 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefuleness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} m0jom1ekueiv3amzlq1obzcxixxni7r 2841982 2841981 2026-10-22T01:33:44Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Critique for applying EVT in educational settings */ Minor spelling edit 2841982 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 2ea9huhj1668vseaehjumg1cck8t1ii 2841983 2841982 2026-10-22T01:36:37Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Minor punctuation edit 2841983 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivations in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. 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''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} eep6wrgy5dksye2r7goalcjj00n1hs4 2841984 2841983 2026-10-22T01:36:59Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ 2841984 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback, will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} pnwyysr34aqmzsaxqp85x29j84szp3p 2841986 2841984 2026-10-22T01:37:42Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Strengthening expectancy beliefs */ 2841986 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. Self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom conditions and teacher support directly influence how confident students feel (Schunk & Pajares, 2009). EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and task values shift depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 55lnh1vqfnpzoi9l9o8jc09i7ci5y6h 2841991 2841986 2026-10-22T01:45:12Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation? */ Removed repeated redundant sentence 2841991 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. Park et al. (2019) demonstrated that MUSIC perceptions predicted students’ engagement and persistence, which reinforces the idea that contextual features shape motivational beliefs in real time. These findings show that MUSIC provides a practical mechanism for applying SEVT because it identifies the environmental features that cause expectancies and values to fluctuate. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 5yjvvqub1jodcq1oatujid03o15uo07 2842004 2841991 2026-10-22T02:06:17Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Removed incorrectly cited claim from MUSIC model of motivation section 2842004 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} b8pxy2kt3ozvtdyp1js3olupd5znuho 2842006 2842004 2026-10-22T02:08:28Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Editing structure of feature box 2842006 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} bsg1gpvtem532kdlnf4oi0gw5q6q4pt 2842007 2842006 2026-10-22T02:09:54Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Structure edit 2842007 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. MUSIC Model of Motivation'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} tn14m7f9l9ayv9r8ezntqd4eov6rn74 2842008 2842007 2026-10-22T02:13:50Z StudentUC2026 3105303 corrected Figure 4 caption 2842008 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References insert italics where neccessary== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} pxhx5oc5yq3b1e3qb4rableu4kx4bxs 2842009 2842008 2026-10-22T02:24:37Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* References */ italicised the reference list 2842009 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} fozeyqldujzbi1zqzxa02wm96o29zsy 2842011 2842009 2026-10-22T02:30:50Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* References */ Adding missing references 2842011 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. 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Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 9nty6jh5gn8yifi9yewxnbwrenzchjy 2842012 2842011 2026-10-22T02:34:04Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* References */ Adding links to doi's in reference list 2842012 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science student's engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 2vpcrkrcr4rnttss1eknkehjdvkviro 2842013 2842012 2026-10-22T02:41:10Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* How do task values influence educational motivation? */ 2842013 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most. However, the writing component can disadvantage students with lower literacy skills, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} 1ucy85kiv3xuk8lu8qwmazxwft81qqj 2842014 2842013 2026-10-22T02:43:09Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention */ Removed repetition and improved sentence structure 2842014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} bsspmj34ikhh4t94qentzy670mpuhcc 2842015 2842014 2026-10-22T02:52:25Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Re-writting conclusion, added a sentence for clarity 2842015 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored ehat expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the calue they assign to academic tasks however, contempory research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Overall, EVT provides educators with a practical, evidence-based approach for improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} j0z9jujjd5qqy3j2m20i9efwj379kln 2842016 2842015 2026-10-22T03:00:55Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Added SEVT/MUSIC model to conclusion 2842016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored what expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the value they assign to academic tasks however, contemporary research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Expectancy-value theory offers a clear and practical framework for understanding why students engage with learning tasks and how their motivation can be strengthened in educational settings. Expectancy beliefs shape students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement. Task values determine how important, interesting or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy. Together, these components show motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant or aligned with their personal goals. Applying EVT in classrooms involves strengthening expectancy beliefs through supportive feedback and structured guidance, enhancing task values by emphasising relevance and usefulness, and reducing perceived cost by minimising stress, workload pressure, and emotional barriers. These strategies help create learning environments where students are more willing to participate, persist, and engage with academic tasks. Situated expectancy-value theory provides the most up-to-date understanding of motivation because it explains how context influences expectancies and values in real time. This makes SEVT the key development moving forward, as it accounts for the moment-to-moment changes that occur in authentic learning environments. The MUSIC model compliments SEVT by identifying specific contextual features that educators can design to strengthen students' motivation, including empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring. Together, SEVT and the MUSIC model show that effective motivation is not about shaping the environments that influence those beliefs. This contemporary perspective offers a practical and evidence-based approach for supporting stronger and more consistent motivation in everyday classrooms. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} pyv1aul8ozdqjmka306d3dkx15qe0lm 2842018 2842016 2026-10-22T03:02:33Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ removed repetition and improved quality of conclusion 2842018 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored what expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the value they assign to academic tasks however, contemporary research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Situated expectancy-value theory provides the most up-to-date understanding of motivation because it explains how context influences expectancies and values in real time. This makes SEVT the key development moving forward, as it accounts for the moment-to-moment changes that occur in authentic learning environments. The MUSIC model compliments SEVT by identifying specific contextual features that educators can design to strengthen students' motivation, including empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring. Together, SEVT and the MUSIC model show that effective motivation is not about shaping the environments that influence those beliefs. This contemporary perspective offers a practical and evidence-based approach for supporting stronger and more consistent motivation in everyday classrooms. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} taakptvdd7d9zgd0hlaqrsgb97vsxwc 2842022 2842018 2026-10-22T03:06:32Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Improving conclusion 2842022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored what expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the value they assign to academic tasks however, contemporary research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Situated expectancy-value theory provides the most up-to-date understanding of motivation because it explains how context influences expectancies and values in real time. This makes SEVT the key development moving forward, as it accounts for the moment-to-moment changes that occur in authentic learning environments. The MUSIC model compliments SEVT by identifying specific contextual features that educators can design to strengthen students' motivation, including empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring. Together, SEVT and the MUSIC model show that effective motivation is not about shaping the environments that influence those beliefs but about intentionally designing learning environments that stregthen expectancies and task values. This contemporary perspective offers a practical and evidence-based approach for supporting stronger and more consistent motivation in everyday classrooms. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. 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In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} evs7wshs8wxjzcxb8dgseqicbsdxnpz 2842023 2842022 2026-10-22T03:11:01Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Conclusion */ Fixed spelling errors 2842023 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored what expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the value they assign to academic tasks however, contemporary research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Situated expectancy-value theory provides the most up-to-date understanding of motivation because it explains how context influences expectancies and values in real time. This makes SEVT the key development moving forward, as it accounts for the moment-to-moment changes that occur in authentic learning environments. The MUSIC model complements SEVT by identifying specific contextual features that educators can design to strengthen students' motivation, including empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring. Together, SEVT and the MUSIC model show that effective motivation is not about shaping the environments that influence those beliefs but about intentionally designing learning environments that strengthen expectancies and task values. This contemporary perspective offers a practical and evidence-based approach for supporting stronger and more consistent motivation in everyday classrooms. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} la5594iuczy2crhvgij5tnjst6aipi8 2842030 2842023 2026-10-22T03:28:27Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Fixed APA errors with in-text citing 2842030 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Harackiewicz & Hulleman's (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored what expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the value they assign to academic tasks however, contemporary research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Situated expectancy-value theory provides the most up-to-date understanding of motivation because it explains how context influences expectancies and values in real time. This makes SEVT the key development moving forward, as it accounts for the moment-to-moment changes that occur in authentic learning environments. The MUSIC model complements SEVT by identifying specific contextual features that educators can design to strengthen students' motivation, including empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring. Together, SEVT and the MUSIC model show that effective motivation is not about shaping the environments that influence those beliefs but about intentionally designing learning environments that strengthen expectancies and task values. This contemporary perspective offers a practical and evidence-based approach for supporting stronger and more consistent motivation in everyday classrooms. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} k8qbhm8sak0p5ijvuqz42sxo3yu6oy0 2842032 2842030 2026-10-22T03:31:14Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Fixing APA errors 2842032 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|150px|alt=A student reflecting on their motivation to learn]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn. </span> </div> You are sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin, see Figure 1. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. |} This example illustrates how small shifts in confidence and perceived value can make everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how to apply them in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours. {| style="width:100%; background:#CBF2D3; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#96E25B; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Focus questions |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? |} == What is expectancy-value theory? == [[File:Situated Expectancy-Value Theory SEVT Diagram.png|thumb|right|450px|'''Figure 2.''' Conceptual diagram illustrating expectancy‑value theory (EVT). Diagram created by author.]] Expectancy-value theory comes from research on student motivation, especially the work of Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002). The theory says that students are motivated by two main things: how confident they feel about doing a task and how much they value the task, which is seen in a conceptual flow chart in Figure 2. Expectancy is about whether a student believes they can succeed, and while task value describes how important, useful, or enjoyable the task feels, together these ideas shape how students approach schoolwork, how much effort they put in, and how long they keep trying. An example of this would be that a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel capable and believe the test will help them reach future goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The theory includes several components that help explain why students respond differently to the same task. 'Expectancy' refers to beliefs about success, while task value includes four parts: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Intrinsic value is the level of enjoyment a student gets from the task, utility value is about how well the task aligns with future goals, attainment value is about how important doing well in the task is to the student. 'Cost' refers to the downsides of doing the task, such as the amount of effort, time or stress required for the task. These components influence how worthwhile a task feels and how much time and energy students are willing to invest. Table 1 summarises these components with definitions and examples. Although expectancy-value theory is widely used, researchers have pointed out some limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory focuses too much on logical decision-making and does not fully consider emotional or social influences. Flake et al. (2015) also note that theory does not clearly explain how expectancies and values develop or why they differ between students. These critiques have led to updates of the theory adding the “S” (situated) to EVT, which evolved EVT into situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT). This contemporary work emphasises how motivation changes across different contexts and learning environments (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). This new theory reflects a meaningful extension of EVT, highlighting how context actively shapes motivation. ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== Social-cognitive models explain educational motivation by emphasising the beliefs students hold about their abilities and the value they assign to learning tasks. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory proposes that learners’ confidence in their capability to succeed strongly influences the choices they make, the effort they invest, and their persistence when facing challenges (Bandura, 1997). Building on this work, Pajares (1996) demonstrates that self-efficacy beliefs are powerful predictors of academic performance because they shape how students interpret difficulty and regulate their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) further explain that self-efficacy develops through experiences such as mastery, feedback, and social comparison, which means classroom environments play a central role in shaping motivation. Self-efficacy theory and expectancy-value theory share an important similarity: both recognise that motivation is shaped not only by internal beliefs but also by the environment in which learning occurs. EVT makes a similar point through the development of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), which emphasises that expectancies and tasks shift value depending on the learning context. In both models, motivation is not fixed within the individual but is shaped by the interaction between personal beliefs and environmental factors. This overlap reflects the broader nature-versus-nurture debate, showing that educational motivation emerges from both internal psychological processes (nature) and external influences such as teaching practices, feedback, and classroom climate (nurture). == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgements about how capable they are of completing a task successfully. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) explain that these beliefs come from students' past achievements, their self-concept, and how difficult they think the task will be. When students believe they can succeed, they are more willing to start a task, put effort in and keep going when challenges arise or the task becomes more difficult. This makes expectancy beliefs a key part of understanding why some students engage strongly with schoolwork while others hold back. Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) are key social-cognitive researchers who show how strongly expectancy beliefs influence students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance. Bandura’s work demonstrates that when students feel capable, they try harder and keep going when the task becomes difficult. Pajares (1996) adds that these beliefs shape how students interpret challenges and manage their learning. Schunk and Pajares (2009) explain that expectancy beliefs grow through experiences like mastery, feedback, and seeing others succeed. This suggests that classroom environments and teacher support play an important role in building students’ confidence. Together, these researchers show that expectancy beliefs are central to understanding why students engage differently with schoolwork. Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, keep trying when things get difficult and choose activities that support their academic progress (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Bandura, 1997). These beliefs shape how students understand classroom demands and influence how much effort they are willing to put in (Pajares, 1996). This is why students with similar abilities can show very different levels of motivation: it is not only their actual skill that matters, but what they believe they can achieve (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Expectancy beliefs act as a motivational filter that guides how students approach schoolwork. Although expectancy beliefs are strong predictors of motivation, researchers point out several limitations. Critics argue that these models focus too heavily on cognitive judgements and overlook the emotional and contextual factors that influence how students engage. Pajares (1996) and Bandura (1997) show that confidence alone cannot fully explain motivation, especially when anxiety, stress, or negative classroom climates reduce students’ willingness to participate. A student may believe they are capable but still disengage if the environment feels overwhelming or unsupportive. These critiques highlight why newer approaches, such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), emphasise how motivation shifts across different learning contexts. == How do task values influence educational motivation? == Expectancy-value theory proposes that students' motivation is shaped by how valuable they perceive a learning activity to be. Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) outline four components of task value: '''intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and cost,''' and these components influence students' effort, persistence, and academic choices. === Intrinsic value === Intrinsic value refers to the enjoyment or interest students experience when engaging in a learning activity. Students are more motivated when they find tasks enjoyable or personally meaningful, and research consistently shows that intrinsic value predicts greater engagement and persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Intrinsic value can vary across subjects and activities, which helps explain why students may feel highly motivated in one learning domain but less interested in another. === Utility value === Utility value reflects how useful a task is for achieving future goals. Students invest more effort when they believe a learning activity will help them progress academically or professionally (Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). Recent meta-analytic work by Canning et al. (2018) shows that utility value interventions, which ask students to explain how course content connects to their personal goals, are particularly effective for learners with low initial expectancy beliefs. When students doubt their ability, highlighting usefulness can compensate for low confidence and increased engagement. This finding demonstrates that utility value interacts with expectancy beliefs, which reinforces the idea that motivation is shaped by both confidence and perceived relevance. === Attainment value === Attainment value refers to the personal importance of performing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). Students are motivated when success aligns with their identity, values, or self-concept. For example, a student who sees being good at maths as part of who they are is more likely to invest effort in maths-related tasks. Attainment value influences subject choices and long-term academic commitment, especially in domains that feel central to students' sense of self. === Cost === Cost represents the negative aspects of engaging in a task, including effort, stress, anxiety, and time demands. Although cost is grouped within the task value framework, it functions differently from the other components because it refers to the negative demands associated with a task rather than its motivational benefits. Flake et al., (2015) show that high perceived cost can reduce motivation even when intrinsic, utility, or attainment values are strong. Students may find a task enjoyable or useful but still disengage if the workload feels overwhelming or emotionally demanding. This helps explain why motivation can drop in situations where stress, pressure, or other academic pressures interfere with students' ability to engage with learning tasks. === Task value as a motivational process === Task values shape motivation by influencing how students judge whether a learning activity is worth their time and effort. This perspective aligns with socio-cognitive models, which emphasise how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks and how these evaluations shape engagement (Pintrich, 2003). While traditional expectancy-value theory focuses on relatively stable beliefs about enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost, more recent work highlights that these values can shift across situations. Situated expectancy-value theory extends EVT by emphasising that task values are context dependent (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). Classroom climate, social interactions, cultural background, and moment-to-moment experiences influence how students perceive enjoyment, usefulness, importance, and cost. This situational perspective explains why motivation fluctuates across different learning environments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Component ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Definition ! style="background:#B3BBE4;{{Text color default}};" | Example in education |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Expectancy''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Belief about ability to succeed | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I can pass this exam if I study." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;;{{Text color default}};" | '''Intrinsic value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Enjoyment or interest in the task | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "I enjoy learning psychology." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Utility value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Usefulness for future goals | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This unit is required for my degree." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Attainment value''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Importance to identity | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "Being good at maths matters to me." |- | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | '''Cost''' | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | Negative aspects of engagement | style="background:#CEEEF4;{{Text color default}};" | "This assignment is stressful and time-consuming." |} '''Table 1.''' Key components of expectancy-value theory and the relevance to educational motivation. {| style="width:100%; background:#FFE1F4; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#F9C3E5; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Imagine this scenario |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="background-color:#F6F4E7;{{Text color default}}; padding:8px; width:150px; float:right; text-align:center;"> [[File:Science Lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School.jpg|Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School|150px|alt= Science student's engaging in a group activity]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''Figure 3.'''. Science students engaging in a group activity. </span> </div> You are sitting in a crowded classroom during a weekly science workshop. The activity involves a group problem-solving task that requires quick thinking and collaboration. As the task begins, you notice that the instructions feel unclear, and your group members start discussing ideas rapidly. You hesitate, unsure whether your contribution will be helpful. This uncertainty lowers your confidence, even though you usually feel capable when working on similar material in quieter settings. The noise in the room makes it difficult to concentrate, and you begin to question whether the task is worth the effort at this moment. You remind yourself that the activity is part of your assessment, but the immediate pressure and social dynamics make the task feel less manageable. This situation contrasts with the scenario at the beginning of this book chapter, where motivation was shaped by stable beliefs about ability and long-term goals. In the current example, motivation shifts in response to the environment, social interactions, and moment-to-moment changes in confidence. Situated expectancy-value theory explains these fluctuations by emphasising that expectancies and values are influenced by context and can vary across settings and activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Figure 3 illustrates how these situational influences interact with expectancy and task value, showing that motivation is shaped not only by learners’ beliefs but also by the conditions in which learning occurs. The learner’s confidence decreases because the classroom environment feels overwhelming, and the value of the task changes because the immediate demands differ from previous experiences. |} This scenario illustrates how expectancy and value can fluctuate in response to environmental and social cues, which reflects the situational perspective introduced in contemporary extensions of expectancy-value theory. Unlike the earlier example in the first scenario where motivation was guided by stable beliefs and long-term goals, this scenario shows how context can rapidly alter confidence and perceived task value. Situated expectancy-value theory highlights that motivation is shaped not only by what learners believe and value but also by the conditions under which learning takes place (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == Expectancy-value theory can be applied in several practical ways to strengthen students’ motivation in educational settings. By targeting expectancy beliefs, task values and perceived cost, educators can shape how students think about their abilities, the importance of learning activities, and the effort required to complete them. The following sections outline key strategies grounded in EVT and explain how each can support more consistent and sustained engagement. ===Strengthening expectancy beliefs=== Strengthening expectancy beliefs is one way EVT can be used to enhance motivation in educational settings. Students are more willing to engage when they believe they can succeed, and teachers can support this by providing support and guidance with how to approach tasks, breaking the work into manageable steps and providing clear feedback. This will help build confidence strengthening their expectancy beliefs and enhancing motivation. Demonstrating effective strategies, such as thinking aloud while problem solving or showing how to organise information, helps students to see what successful performance looks like. Research shows that confidence develops through repeated experiences of mastery and supportive information, which increases students’ willingness to attempt challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). By helping students build a realistic sense of competence, educators create conditions where expectancy beliefs contribute to stronger and more sustained motivation. ===Enhancing task value=== Enhancing task values is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are more likely to engage when they see learning activities as relevant, useful, or personally meaningful, therefore teachers can support this by explaining how tasks connect to future goals or real-world situations. Highlighting the purpose behind an activity helps students understand why it matters, and providing examples of how skills are used outside the classroom further strengthens students' perceptions of the task's usefulness. Research shows that when students recognise the value of what they are learning, they invest more effort and show greater persistence (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). By making the significance of academic tasks clear, educators can help students develop stronger and more enduring task values. ===Reducing perceived cost=== Reducing perceived cost is another way EVT can be applied to strengthen motivation in educational settings. Students are less willing to engage when tasks feel overwhelming, stressful, or too time-consuming, and research shows that these experiences can lower motivation (Flake et al., 2015). Teachers can support students by creating classroom environments that minimise this pressure through manageable workloads, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and offering opportunities for autonomy. Supportive classroom climates also help reduce stress and anxiety, making students more comfortable asking questions and attempting challenging work. Lowering perceived cost has been shown to increase engagement even when students already hold high intrinsic, utility, or attainment value for a task (Flake et al., 2015), meaning that reducing stress and workload pressure can still make a meaningful difference for learners who otherwise see the activity as valuable. ===Hulleman's & Harackiewicz (2009), utility-value intervention=== A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility-value intervention, where students complete a short writing task that asks them to explain how a learning activity connects to their personal goals or future plans. This process helps students recognise the usefulness of what they are learning, which increases task value and encourages greater engagement. However, the writing component can be difficult for students with lower literacy skills, which limits the effectiveness of the intervention for those who may benefit from it the most, meaning the intervention may be most effective for students who already possess stronger academic abilities. This creates a paradox where the strategy can enhance motivation for students who need it least, while offering limited benefit, or even reducing confidence, for those who may benefit the most. Despite this limitation, the approach has been shown to improve motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman & Harackiewicz, 2009). ===Critique for applying EVT in educational settings=== Although expectancy-value theory provides clear framework for understanding educational motivation, several limitations affect how effectively it can be applied in real learning environments. One major issue is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may have limited impact when students face barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high levels of stress and anxiety. These conditions can restrict students' opportunities to engage, even when they recognise the value of a task or believe they can succeed (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). A second limitation concerns measurement challenges, particularly in distinguishing between intrinsic, utility, and attainment value. Eccles (2005) notes that these components often overlap in real learning contexts, making them difficult to measure distinctly. Students may find a task enjoyable because it aligns with their identity, or view a task as useful because it is enjoyable. When intrinsic, utility, and attainment values blur together, it becomes difficult to measure them as distinct constructs, which in turn weakens the effectiveness of interventions designed to target specific value components (Gaspard et al., 2015). EVT also faces limitations with emotional influences, which traditional EVT underemphasises. EVT focuses primarily on cognitive appraisals of ability and value, yet research shows that emotions such as anxiety, stress, boredom, and frustration strongly shape students' willingness to engage (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2017). For example, a student may believe they are capable of completing a task but still disengage if they experience classroom pressures. These emotional processes interact with expectancy and value in ways that EVT does not fully explain, highlighting the need for models that incorporate affective and relational factors. Another critique involves cultural differences in value perceptions. EVT assumes that students evaluate tasks based on personal enjoyment, usefulness, and identity relevance, but these constructs vary across cultural contexts. Research shows that students in collectivist cultures often value tasks because they align with family expectations, social obligations, or group harmony rather than personal interest or identity (Tomasetto et al., 2011; King & McInerney, 2014). This means EVT-based interventions may not generalise across diverse cultural groups without adaptation, and the theory may oversimplify how students from different backgrounds interpret the importance or usefulness of academic tasks. These limitations highlight why contemporary extensions such as situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) are necessary. SEVT addresses several gaps in traditional EVT by emphasising that expectancies and task values are not fixed traits but fluctuate across context, social environments, and moment-to-moment experiences (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). By incorporating situational, emotional, and relational influences, SEVT provides a more comprehensive explanation of how motivation changes in real learning environments. This contextual perspective helps account for variability in students' motivation and offers a more flexible foundation for designing interventions that respond to dynamic learning environments. {| style="width:100%; background:#DBEAFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#B2E4FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | Contemporary developments in expectancy-value theory: SEVT and the MUSIC model |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:8px; border:0;" | <div style="float:left; margin:10px 20px 10px 0; width:320px;"> [[File:MUSIC model of motivation diagram.png|335px|alt=MUSIC model diagram]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 4'''. Author-created visual representation of the MUSIC Model of Motivation, adapted from Jones(2009,2018).'' </span> </div> ''' The MUSIC model of motivation '''<br> Recent developments in expectancy-value theory emphasise the role of context in shaping motivation, which has led to the emergence of situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT) and practical frameworks such as the MUSIC Model of Motivation (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020; Jones, 2018), see Figure 4. The MUSIC Model of Motivation (Jones, 2009; 2018) provides a practical framework that complements and extends SEVT. EVT explains how expectancy and task value influence motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and SEVT emphasises how these beliefs fluctuate across contexts (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). However, neither framework specifies how educators can intentionally shape the contextual factors that influence motivation. The MUSIC model addresses this gap by identifying five classroom features: empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring (Jones, 2009). These features influence students’ moment-to-moment expectancies and task values. '''Empowerment''' aligns with SEVT’s emphasis on contextual influences by giving students autonomy and control over their learning environment (Jones, 2018). This supports expectancy beliefs by helping students feel capable of directing their own learning, which is consistent with research on self-efficacy and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). '''Usefulness''' corresponds directly to utility value in EVT and reinforces the idea that students are more motivated when they perceive tasks as relevant to their goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Harackiewicz & Hulleman, 2009). <div style="float:right; background-color:#F6F4E7; padding:8px; width:150px; text-align:center; margin:10px 0 10px 20px;"> [[File:YouTube social white square (2024).svg|100px|alt=YouTube icon|link=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE]] <br> <span style="line-height:1.2; display:block; margin-top:2px;"> '''''Figure 5'''. Motivating Others (Ep. 3), Brett D. Jones'' </span> </div> '''Success''' reflects students’ confidence in achieving desired outcomes and strengthens expectancy beliefs, which aligns with both EVT and self-efficacy theory (Pajares, 1996). '''Interest''' aligns with intrinsic value and highlights the role of enjoyment and engagement in shaping task value (Eccles & Wigfield, 2000). '''Caring''' reflects the social and emotional climate of the classroom, which is underemphasised in traditional EVT but central to SEVT’s focus on contextual and relational influences (Wigfield & Eccles, 2020; Jones, 2018). Empirical research supports the connection between MUSIC and EVT/SEVT. Jones and Skaggs (2016) found that increases in empowerment, usefulness, and success predicted higher expectancy beliefs and task values. See Figure 5. for Brett D. Jones’ explanation of how these five components can be applied in real learning environments. |} == Knowledge checkpoint == {| style="width:100%; background:#F4CECE; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:2px;" |- ! style="background:#E07F87; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:2px;" | <big>Quiz</big> |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:2px; border:0;" | <div style="margin-top:-15px;"> <quiz display=simple> {Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed? |type="()"} + Expectancy - Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {Which value component of EVT reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is? |type="()"} - Attainment value + Intrinsic value - Utility value - Cost {What was added to the updated theory SEVT that was not a component of traditional EVT? |type="()"} - Stable, long-term beliefs about ability - The inclusion of cost value + The idea that motivation is shaped by situational and contextual factors - The addition of attainment value } </quiz> </div> |} ==Conclusion== This chapter explored what expectancy-value theory is, how social-cognitive models explain motivation, and how expectancy beliefs and task values influence students' engagement with learning. EVT shows that motivation is shaped by students' confidence and the value they assign to academic tasks however, contemporary research demonstrates that these beliefs shift across different environments and social conditions. Situated expectancy-value theory provides the most up-to-date understanding of motivation because it explains how context influences expectancies and values in real time. This makes SEVT the key development moving forward, as it accounts for the moment-to-moment changes that occur in authentic learning environments. The MUSIC model complements SEVT by identifying specific contextual features that educators can design to strengthen students' motivation, including empowerment, usefulness, success, interest, and caring. Together, SEVT and the MUSIC model show that effective motivation is not about shaping the environments that influence those beliefs but about intentionally designing learning environments that strengthen expectancies and task values. This contemporary perspective offers a practical and evidence-based approach for supporting stronger and more consistent motivation in everyday classrooms. {| style="width:100%; background:#FEFB9F; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;" |- ! style="background:#FFD208; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;" | Take-home messages |- | style="border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;" | * Students engage more when they feel capable and see value in the task. * Clear feedback, manageable steps, and modelling strategies help build expectancy beliefs. * Connecting tasks to real-world relevance strengthens task value. *Reducing stress, workload pressure, and anxiety lowers perceived cost, supporting engagement. *Motivation is context-sensitive, meaning classroom climate and task design matter. *SEVT highlights that motivation varies across contexts, meaning classroom conditions directly shape students’ expectancies and task values. |} == See also == *[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011) *[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia) *[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) == External links == *[https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/the-expectancy-value-theory-of-motivation.html Expectancy-value theory video] (Study.com) *[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article) *[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=De5U-GE4YkE Expectancy-Value Theory - Motivating Others Ep. 3] (Brett D. Jones, PhD, Professor at Virginia Tech) ==References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). ''Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.'' W. H. Freeman. Canning, E. A., Harackiewicz, J. M., Priniski, S. J., Hecht, C. A., Tibbetts, Y., & Hyde, J. S. (2018). Improving performance and retention in introductory biology with a utility-value intervention. ''Journal of Educational Psychology,'' 110(6), 834–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000244 Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation'' (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press. Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), ''Achievement and achievement motives'' (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. ''Annual Review of Psychology,'' 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology,'' 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 EricEdwardWilson714. (2021, July 21). ''Science lab at Pace Brantley Preparatory School'' [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Science_Lab_at_Pace_Brantley_Preparatory_School.jpg Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41,'' 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002 Harackiewicz, J. M., & Priniski, S. J. (2018). Improving student outcomes in higher education: The science of targeted intervention. ''Annual Review of Psychology, 69,'' 409–435. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011725 Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. ''Science, 326''(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067 Jones, B. D., & Skaggs, G. (2016). Measuring students’ motivation: Validity evidence for the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation Inventory. ''International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10''(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2016.10010 Jones, B. D. (2009). Motivating students to engage in learning: The MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. ''International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21''(2), 272–285. Jones, B. D. (2018).''Motivating students by design: Practical strategies for professors.'' Virginia Tech Publishing. King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross cultural differences in motivation using the Inventory of School Motivation. ''Educational Psychology, 34''(5), 513–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813 Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review. ''Review of Educational Research, 86''(2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832 Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. ''Review of Educational Research, 66''(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543 Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 95''(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 S00246164. (2025).''Motivation Laptop.svg''[SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), ''Handbook of motivation at school'' (pp. 35–53). Routledge. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls’ math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers’ gender stereotypes. ''Developmental Psychology, 47''(4), 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024047 Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. ''Developmental Review,'' 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} hacd6j12i858i0o5ehv1aflkgj92t71 Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour 0 331258 2842044 2841803 2026-10-22T06:33:47Z ~2026-55910-53 3112914 /* How moral emotions arise and motivate action */ added table 2842044 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, & Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Four components of emotion]] Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivatee responses to violations of automnty, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairnessm transforming universal emotinoal responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt (2003) emphasises, moral emotions can be triggered by events that do not directly affect the individual’s own interests, known as ''disinterested elicitors''. These moral emotions generate ''prosocial action tendencies'', including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, and aspiring to moral ideals (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions into four functional families: * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: emotional |'''Emotion type''' |'''Emotion''' |'''Bodily response''' |'''Motivational direction''' |- |Self-conscious |Guilt |Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze |Repair harm, apologise, confess |- |Self-conscious |Shame |Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat in face |Withdraw, hide, conform to norms |- |Self-conscious |Embarrassment |Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion |Appease others, restore social acceptance |- |Other-focused |Empathy/Compassion |Softened facial muscles, warm affect, parasympathetic activation |Help, comfort, support |- |Other-focused |Moral Outrage |Increased heart rate, clenched jaw, sympathetic arousal |Punish, protest, advocate |- |Other-focused |Gratitude |Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial activation |Reciprocate, strengthen bonds |- |Other-focused |Moral Elevation |Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture |Emulate virtue, act altruistically |} * link back to the basic emotion families. === Moral identity === == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == === Elevation/ Gratitude - === Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Guilt === Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Traditionally shame has been used to punish and reform behaviour, but does it actually reduce criminality? Discuss. **one reference still waiting on88 cannot confirm if it is applicable. Is shame an effective emotion now or redundant and causes more harm than good? evolutionary, it was esentail for survival, in a modern society is it causing prevalence of mental health disorders. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00310/full#S7 Frontiers | The Role of Self-Blaming Moral Emotions in Major Depression and Their Impact on Social-Economical Decision Making] Punishment and Shame: A Philosophical Study - a North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States === Moral disengagement === Explore the way unethical acts are reasoned due to moral disengagement == Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour == == Mitigating maladaptive moral affect == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Altruism === [[w:Altruism|Altruism]] === Light Triad === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] === Environmental influences === * Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233</nowiki> .) *positive environmental influence ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") *[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] include [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt, shame]], embarrassment, {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' ''Bodily Responses to Moral emotions'' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Bodily responses |- |Embarrassment | |- |Guilt | |- |Shame | |- |Pride | |- |Righteous anger | |- |Comptempt | |- |Disgust | |- |Elevation | |- |Gratitude | |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Moral emotions motivate ethical decision and behaviour * Childhood trauma can disrupt the development of moral emotions, * All is not lost - protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of shame. * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, RodrĂ­guez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] rue2xpcvr9p7z28b5emfdrgjqeicjhf 2842064 2842044 2026-10-22T09:19:44Z ~2026-55910-53 3112914 /* Moral identity */ finalised section 2842064 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and authentic pride - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Tracy, & Robins'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including compassion, gratitude, elevation/ awe, along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]] Reeve explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. === How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate === {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: emotional |'''Emotion type''' |'''Emotion''' |'''Bodily response''' |'''Motivational direction''' |- |Self-conscious |Guilt |Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze |Repair harm, apologise, confess |- |Self-conscious |Shame |Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat in face |Withdraw, hide, conform to norms |- |Self-conscious |Embarrassment |Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion |Appease others, restore social acceptance |- |Other-focused |Empathy/Compassion |Softened facial muscles, warm affect, parasympathetic activation |Help, comfort, support |- |Other-focused |Moral Outrage |Increased heart rate, clenched jaw, sympathetic arousal |Punish, protest, advocate |- |Other-focused |Gratitude |Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial activation |Reciprocate, strengthen bonds |- |Other-focused |Moral Elevation |Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture |Emulate virtue, act altruistically |} === Moral identity === [[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre et al.’s (2021) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience '''more intense and more frequent moral emotions''', particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an '''amplifier''' of moral emotions by: * increasing sensitivity to moral cues, * strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness, * enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness. Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour. == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == === Elevation/ Gratitude - === Discuss how positive moral emotions (Elevation and gratitude) can contribute to moral flourishing and improve patient care, (linking back to the scenario). (Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. 2026) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Guilt === Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Traditionally shame has been used to punish and reform behaviour, but does it actually reduce criminality? Discuss. **one reference still waiting on88 cannot confirm if it is applicable. Is shame an effective emotion now or redundant and causes more harm than good? evolutionary, it was esentail for survival, in a modern society is it causing prevalence of mental health disorders. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00310/full#S7 Frontiers | The Role of Self-Blaming Moral Emotions in Major Depression and Their Impact on Social-Economical Decision Making] Punishment and Shame: A Philosophical Study - a North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States === Moral disengagement === Explore the way unethical acts are reasoned due to moral disengagement == Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour == == Mitigating maladaptive moral affect == {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}} === Altruism === [[w:Altruism|Altruism]] === Light Triad === [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] === Environmental influences === * Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse & Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233</nowiki> .) *positive environmental influence ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") *[[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] include [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt, shame]], embarrassment, {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' ''Bodily Responses to Moral emotions'' {| class="wikitable" !Strategy !Bodily responses |- |Embarrassment | |- |Guilt | |- |Shame | |- |Pride | |- |Righteous anger | |- |Comptempt | |- |Disgust | |- |Elevation | |- |Gratitude | |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Moral emotions motivate ethical decision and behaviour * Childhood trauma can disrupt the development of moral emotions, * All is not lost - protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of shame. * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, RodrĂ­guez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] kcyslhbzhth7oao5uq5vrjmgq4z9y3h Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure 0 331478 2841964 2840380 2026-10-22T00:47:31Z Ayat Al-kabai 3105570 updating the link 2841964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure:<br>How does epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Necker cube.svg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. The Necker cube can be interpreted in more than one way. It illustrates how ambiguity can permit competing interpretations before cognitive closure is reached.{{ic|Explain how this illustrates epistemic motivation.}}]] ;Scenario Sofia receives two conflicting pieces of advice about an important career decision. She feels uncomfortable with the uncertainty and wants to decide immediately. However, she also wants to examine the evidence, consider different perspectives, and make an informed choice. Sofia’s situation demonstrates two psychological forces: * epistemic motivation, which can encourage deeper information processing, and * the need for cognitive closure, which can encourage people to reach a definite answer and escape uncertainty. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Epistemic motivation concerns a person’s willingness to develop a thorough and accurate understanding of a situation through information search and processing (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Need for cognitive closure is the desire to obtain a definite answer rather than remain confused or uncertain (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Both concepts influence how people form judgements, make decisions, communicate with others and respond to uncertainty. * Neither is always beneficial or harmful; the outcome depends on the person, available information and situational demands. * Figure 1 demonstrates how the same ambiguous information may permit more than one interpretation before a person reaches closure. Uncertainty can be emotionally uncomfortable. People differ in how much effort they invest in understanding a problem and how quickly they want uncertainty to end. These motives shape which information is noticed, whether alternatives are compared and whether an initial judgement is revised. A fast answer may feel reassuring despite weak evidence, while prolonged searching may delay action. This chapter examines how to balance accuracy with the need to decide. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is epistemic motivation? * What is the need for cognitive closure? * How are epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure connected? * How do they influence everyday decisions, learning and relationships? * When is cognitive closure helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Epistemic motivation == * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] describes the willingness to invest effort in developing a complete and accurate understanding of the world (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Higher epistemic motivation encourages information search, deliberate reasoning and careful consideration of different perspectives. * Lower epistemic motivation is associated with shallower information processing and greater reliance on existing knowledge, familiar opinions or mental shortcuts. * Epistemic motivation can be influenced by personal characteristics and situational factors, including curiosity, accountability, fatigue, stress and time pressure. * Epistemic motivation should not be understood as intelligence. A capable person may still process information superficially when tired, distracted or under pressure. [[File:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|thumb|220px|'''Figure 2'''. The duck–rabbit illusion shows how identical visual information can support competing interpretations.]] Epistemic motivation is best understood through motivated information processing. According to this perspective, judgement depends on both capacity and motivation: a person must be able to process information and also be willing to invest the necessary effort (De Dreu et al., 2008). This distinction explains why the same person may reason carefully about an important health decision but accept the first plausible answer to a minor question. It also separates epistemic motivation from [[w:Need for cognition|need for cognition]], a tendency to enjoy effortful thought, although the constructs overlap (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982). The quality of processing therefore depends on the person, the task and the surrounding conditions rather than on a fixed label such as “deep thinker”. Figure 2 illustrates why delaying closure can be useful when evidence permits more than one interpretation {{ic|How so? Explain.}}. === Depth of information processing === {{ic|What theory does this relate to? What is the evidence? What are some examples?}} * Higher epistemic motivation encourages people to attend to, encode, retrieve and integrate relevant information more thoroughly (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Groups {{example}} with stronger epistemic motivation may exchange more unique information and engage in more information-driven discussion{{fact}}. * Process accountability {{ic|Explain term}} can increase epistemic motivation because people expect to explain how they reached a decision (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Deeper processing can improve decision quality, especially when a problem is complicated and important information is distributed among several people. === Influencing factors === * Time pressure and environmental noise can decrease the opportunity or motivation to consider multiple explanations (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Fear of making an invalid judgement may increase information search and delay closure. * Fatigue can make sustained reasoning more difficult and increase the appeal of a quick, simple answer. * Personal relevance may increase information processing, although people may also process information selectively when an issue threatens an important belief or identity. Research {{fact}} also shows that accountability matters, but its timing is important. When people expect to explain the process by which they reached a judgement, they are more likely to examine information carefully and integrate competing evidence (De Dreu et al., 2006). By contrast, accountability for defending a preferred outcome can encourage selective reasoning. Thus, asking “How did you reach this conclusion?” may promote epistemic motivation more effectively than asking someone merely to justify a conclusion they have already announced. == Need for cognitive closure == * Need for cognitive closure refers to the motivation to reach a definite conclusion and avoid uncertainty or ambiguity (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It can operate as a relatively stable individual difference and as a temporary state produced by circumstances such as fatigue, time pressure and stress. * Webster and Kruglanski (1994) identified several associated preferences, including predictability, order, decisiveness and reduced comfort with ambiguity. * The effects of need for closure are commonly explained through the urgency and permanence tendencies. The need for closure is grounded in lay epistemic theory, which treats knowledge formation as a motivated process rather than a purely rational one (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). Closure can be valued because it reduces uncertainty, enables action and creates a stable understanding of events. It can also be avoided when a person fears that any available conclusion will be invalid. Consequently, the {{what}} theory predicts not a universal preference for quick answers, but an interaction between the desirability of closure, the information available and the costs of making an error {{fact}}. === Urgency tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The urgency tendency involves wanting to reach closure as quickly as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “seize” on information encountered early in the decision-making process. * Urgency can be helpful when immediate action is genuinely necessary, such as during an emergency. * However, it can also produce premature conclusions when the available information is incomplete, inaccurate or misleading. Experimental evidence supports this account. For example, Kruglanski et al. (1993) found that conditions increasing the desire for closure made participants more resistant to persuasion after they had formed an opinion, but more receptive to early information when no prior position existed. This pattern demonstrates both tendencies: urgency increases reliance on an initial message, while permanence protects an existing judgement. Because persuasion experiments simplify real-world belief change, the findings identify a mechanism rather than determining how every individual will respond. === Permanence tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The permanence tendency involves wanting to preserve an existing conclusion for as long as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “freeze” on their initial judgement and resist information that challenges it. * Permanence can create consistency, confidence and coordination after a decision has been made. * Excessive permanence may contribute to inflexible thinking, stereotyping and resistance to corrective evidence. === Individual differences === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The Need for Closure Scale was developed to measure individual differences related to predictability, order, decisiveness, ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). * A shorter revised measure has also demonstrated that urgency and permanence are important dimensions of the construct (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). * A high score does not mean that someone is unintelligent or incapable of careful reasoning. * Need for closure can change across situations; therefore, a person may tolerate uncertainty in one context but urgently seek certainty in another. Measurement requires caution. The Need for Closure Scale assesses order, predictability, decisiveness, discomfort with ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). However, decisiveness may function differently from other facets, and ability to decide is not the same as motivation for closure (Roets & Van Hiel, 2007). Self-reports describe tendencies rather than directly observing information processing in a specific situation (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). == Relationship between epistemic motivation and cognitive closure == * The need for cognitive closure is a form of epistemic motivation because it concerns how people acquire and maintain knowledge (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Epistemic motivation is the broader concept, whereas need for closure specifically concerns motivation to end uncertainty by reaching a conclusion. * Strong motivation to understand a problem may promote extensive information search, while strong motivation for immediate closure may shorten that search. * High-quality judgement therefore depends on balancing sufficient investigation with the practical need to reach a decision. '''Table 1.''' ''Comparison of epistemic motivation and need for cognitive closure'' {{ic|Use 1st letter capitalisation for table captions as per APA style}} {{ic|What is the source of this information?}} {| class="wikitable" ! Concept ! Main goal ! Possible benefit ! Possible limitation |- | Epistemic motivation | Develop an accurate and comprehensive understanding | Deeper information processing and consideration of alternatives | Decision-making may require more time and effort |- | Urgency tendency | Reach closure quickly | Supports timely action | May produce premature conclusions |- | Permanence tendency | Maintain an established conclusion | Supports consistency and commitment | May create resistance to corrective evidence |} * Table 1 shows that these motivational processes involve different goals and trade-offs. * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by promoting systematic information processing, particularly in group settings (De Dreu et al., 2008). * However, continuously seeking more information can also delay decisions when the available information is already sufficient. * Cognitive closure can support action and coordination, but early closure may prevent consideration of important alternatives. The relationship is therefore not a simple opposition between “good” epistemic motivation and “bad” closure. Need for closure is itself an epistemic motive, but it directs processing toward a definite and stable answer. High epistemic motivation can improve judgement when the evidence is reliable and the task rewards accuracy; it can also be used to defend an identity-consistent conclusion. Likewise, closure can be adaptive when delay is costly. The decisive issue is whether the timing and content of closure match the demands of the situation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Key points''' * Epistemic motivation concerns how thoroughly information is processed. * Urgency encourages rapid “seizing” on an answer. * Permanence encourages “freezing” on an established answer. * Accuracy depends on matching processing to the decision. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case study''' Jordan sees a social-media post claiming that a familiar food causes a serious illness. Feeling anxious, Jordan immediately accepts the claim and shares it. Later, a friend encourages Jordan to locate the original research, examine reliable sources and consider alternative explanations. Jordan’s initial response may demonstrate the urgency tendency because uncertainty is ended by accepting the first available explanation. Greater epistemic motivation could encourage Jordan to examine the quality of the evidence before forming and sharing a conclusion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display=simple> {Which response best demonstrates the urgency tendency? |type="()"} - Continuing to compare evidence without ever reaching a decision + Accepting the first plausible explanation to eliminate uncertainty - Changing an opinion after receiving reliable contradictory evidence - Asking several experts to explain their different perspectives || The urgency tendency involves attempting to reach cognitive closure as quickly as possible. } {Which response best demonstrates higher epistemic motivation? |type="()"} - Ignoring information that challenges an existing belief - Selecting the simplest answer without examining its source + Comparing evidence and considering alternative explanations - Repeating an opinion because it is familiar || Higher epistemic motivation generally involves more thorough information search and processing. } {The permanence tendency is most closely associated with: |type="()"} - Curiosity about new information + Maintaining an existing judgement - Avoiding all decisions - Forgetting a previous conclusion || The permanence tendency involves preserving closure after a judgement has been formed. } </quiz> == Influence on everyday life == * Epistemic motivation and need for closure influence behaviour across educational, interpersonal, organisational and social settings. * Their effects depend on the complexity of the problem, the quality of available information and whether rapid action is required. * Understanding these motivations may help people recognise when they are investigating a question carefully and when they are closing it prematurely. Evidence across settings supports these {{what}} applications, but much of it is correlational, laboratory-based or based on university samples. Such research can identify mechanisms under controlled conditions, yet it may not fully capture high-stakes decisions made over longer periods or across cultures. Findings should therefore be applied as probabilistic tendencies rather than rules about individuals. === Learning and education === * Higher epistemic motivation may promote curiosity, critical thinking and deeper engagement with learning materials {{fact}}. * Students who evaluate evidence and compare alternative explanations are more likely to develop an integrated understanding than students who rely only on memorisation {{fact}}. * A strong need for closure may make unclear instructions, conflicting theories and open-ended assignments uncomfortable {{fact}}. * Clear structure can support learning, but excessive reliance on one definite answer may be problematic when a subject requires critical evaluation {{fact}}. Educators can combine structure with productive uncertainty. Clear criteria reduce unnecessary confusion, while comparing explanations keeps alternatives open for critical thought. Prompts asking students to identify disconfirming evidence may be more useful than simply telling them to “think harder”. Because excessive ambiguity can overload learners, support should be reduced gradually as knowledge develops. {{fact}} === Decision-making === * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by encouraging people to search for and integrate relevant information (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Under genuine time pressure, rapid closure may be adaptive because delaying action could have serious consequences {{fact}}. * When time is available, seizing on the first acceptable explanation may cause important evidence or alternative options to be overlooked {{fact}}. * Effective decision-making involves identifying how much information is required and establishing an appropriate point at which to decide {{fact}}. A useful decision rule is to match the search effort to the consequences of erro {{fact}}r. Reversible, low-cost choices may justify quick closure, whereas irreversible or safety-critical choices require stronger evidence and independent checking {{fact}}. This rule does not guarantee accuracy, but it makes the stopping point explicit {{fact}}. It also prevents anxiety alone from determining when information search ends {{fact}}. === Relationships and group behaviour === * First impressions can provide cognitive closure, but they may become inaccurate when people freeze on an early judgement {{fact}}. * Need for closure can influence intergroup language and strengthen biased descriptions of in-group and out-group behaviour (Webster et al., 1997). {{example}} * Groups with higher epistemic motivation may exchange information more thoroughly and reach better-informed decisions (De Dreu et al., 2008). {{eample}} * Encouraging respectful disagreement can prevent premature consensus and allow group members to identify overlooked evidence {{fact}}. [[File:Emile Friant La Discussion politique.jpg|thumb|240px|'''Figure 3'''. Discussion can expose competing interpretations when members exchange and evaluate information rather than rush toward agreement.]] Group outcomes also depend on whether members possess different information. Scholten et al. (2007) found {{how}} that process accountability increased systematic information processing and decision quality, particularly when group members began with different preferences. Bechtoldt et al. (2010) similarly showed {{how}} that epistemic motivation supported group creativity when members pursued collective rather than purely personal goals. However, status differences, conformity and a shared preference for certainty can still suppress dissent. Figure 3 illustrates the social exchange through which alternatives can be tested. Leaders can request reasons before preferences, assign a devil’s advocate and delay an initial vote until evidence has been discussed. === Information and misinformation === * Online environments can expose people to large amounts of contradictory information, increasing confusion and the desire for simple answers. * A strong need for closure may increase reliance on information that quickly resolves uncertainty, even when its reliability has not been established. * Freezing on an initial interpretation can make later corrective evidence more difficult to accept. * Research suggests that need for closure can influence memory processes and vulnerability to misleading post-event information (Pica et al., 2014). Pica et al. (2014) found that need for closure influenced retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. Confidence and accuracy are not identical: closure may make a coherent account feel certain after misleading details are incorporated. This does not mean everyone high in need for closure accepts misinformation; source credibility, prior knowledge and verification opportunities still matter. Online, readers can pause before sharing, trace the original source and seek disconfirming evidence. == Balancing understanding and closure == * Neither endless information search nor immediate closure is appropriate in every situation {{fact}}. * The most effective approach depends on the consequences of error, the urgency of action and the availability of reliable evidence {{fact}}. * People can improve decisions by recognising their reactions to uncertainty and deliberately choosing whether additional investigation is necessary }. === Potential benefits === * Epistemic motivation can support critical thinking, learning and informed decision-making {{fact}}. * Urgent closure can allow people to act efficiently during emergencies or under strict deadlines {{fact}}. * Permanent closure can create stability, commitment and coordination after an adequately informed decision {{fact}}. * Shared closure can also help groups organise action around an agreed understanding {{fact}}. === Potential limitations === * Excessive information search may create indecision or unnecessary delay {{fact}}. * Urgency can cause people to seize on incomplete or unreliable information {{fact}}. * Permanence can create inflexible beliefs and resistance to corrective evidence {{fact}}. * Need for closure may contribute to stereotyping when simplified group judgements replace individualised information (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Webster et al., 1997). These limitations show why context matters. A preference for closure may strengthen whichever interpretation is most accessible, not necessarily a negative one. For example, Kossowska et al. (2015) found that need for closure could be associated with more positive attitudes toward a negatively stereotyped outgroup when the ability to achieve closure was low. This qualification challenges the idea that need for closure automatically produces prejudice and illustrates why researchers must distinguish motivational direction from the specific belief that becomes fixed. === Practical strategies === * Pause before important decisions and identify whether time pressure is genuine or self-imposed. * Separate established facts, interpretations and assumptions. * Consider at least one alternative explanation before reaching a conclusion. * Seek information from reliable sources and perspectives that challenge the initial judgement. * Establish a reasonable decision deadline so that information search does not continue indefinitely. * Reconsider an existing conclusion when credible new evidence becomes available. {{fact}} [[File:Consensus Flowchart.svg|thumb|340px|'''Figure 4'''. A decision process can include opportunities to question, revise and consolidate a conclusion.]] '''Table 2.''' ''Matching information search to the decision'' {| class="wikitable" ! Decision condition ! Recommended response |- | Urgent and reversible | Decide using the best available evidence |- | Important and irreversible | Seek independent evidence and test alternatives |- | Credible new evidence appears | Reopen and revise the conclusion |} These strategies work best as “decision hygiene” rather than as personality correction. Before deciding, a person can state what evidence would change the conclusion, compare at least two plausible explanations, and obtain one independent source. During group decisions, members can record their initial views privately before discussion and evaluate the reasoning process rather than rewarding confidence alone. After deciding, a scheduled review point allows permanence to support action without making the conclusion immune to correction {{fact}}. Table 2 and Figure 4 show how closure can be treated as reviewable rather than irreversible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Reflection exercise''' Think about an important decision you made recently. # What information did you examine? # Did you feel pressure to reach an answer quickly? # Did you consider an alternative explanation? # What evidence might have changed your decision? # Did your response reflect epistemic motivation, urgency, permanence or a combination of these processes? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * Epistemic motivation influences the depth and thoroughness with which people search for, process and integrate information. * Need for cognitive closure motivates people to reach and preserve definite conclusions, particularly when uncertainty is uncomfortable. * The urgency tendency can lead people to seize on early information, while the permanence tendency can lead them to freeze on an established judgement. * These processes affect learning, decision-making, relationships, group behaviour and responses to online information. * Cognitive closure is not inherently harmful because it can support timely action, consistency and coordination. * The central challenge is to balance the desire for accurate understanding with the practical need to reach a conclusion. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' Good judgement requires knowing when to continue searching and when to decide. People can make better decisions by tolerating uncertainty long enough to examine reliable evidence while still establishing a reasonable point for reaching closure. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Actively open-minded thinking|Actively open-minded thinking]] (Book chapter, 2023) * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bechtoldt, M. N., De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & Choi, H.-S. (2010). Motivated information processing, social tuning, and group creativity. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''99''(4), 622–637. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019386</nowiki> Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''42''(1), 116–131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Beersma, B., Stroebe, K., & Euwema, M. C. (2006). Motivated information processing, strategic choice, and the quality of negotiated agreement. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''90''(6), 927–943. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.927</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). Motivated information processing in group judgment and decision making. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''12''(1), 22–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307304092</nowiki> Kossowska, M., Dragon, P., & Bukowski, M. (2015). When need for closure leads to positive attitudes towards a negatively stereotyped outgroup. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''39'', 88–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9414-5</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing.” ''Psychological Review'', ''103''(2), 263–283. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., Webster, D. M., & Klem, A. (1993). Motivated resistance and openness to persuasion in the presence or absence of prior information. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''65''(5), 861–876. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.861</nowiki> Pica, G., Pierro, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2014). The role of need for cognitive closure in retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. ''Social Cognition'', ''32''(4), 337–359. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.4.337</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2007). Separating ability from need: Clarifying the dimensional structure of the need for closure scale. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''33''(2), 266–280. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206294744</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''50''(1), 90–94. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004</nowiki> Scholten, L., van Knippenberg, D., Nijstad, B. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2007). Motivated information processing and group decision-making: Effects of process accountability on information processing and decision quality. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology'', ''43''(4), 539–552. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.010</nowiki> Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''67''(6), 1049–1062. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049</nowiki> Webster, D. M., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pattison, D. A. (1997). Motivated language use in intergroup contexts: Need-for-closure effects on the linguistic intergroup bias. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''72''(5), 1122–1131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1122</nowiki> }} == External links == * [https://dictionary.apa.org/need-for-closure Need for closure] (APA Dictionary of Psychology) * [https://sjdm.org/dmidi/Need_for_%28Cognitive%29_Closure_Scale.html Need for (Cognitive) Closure Scale] (Decision Making Individual Differences Inventory) * [https://dictionary.apa.org/critical-thinking Critical thinking] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision-making]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Epistemic motivation]] rr06a9gcbk3b63atymz960tf3utpx39 Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotional flooding in relationships 0 331479 2842061 2841858 2026-10-22T08:15:07Z Tofu05 3106606 Made cuts to word count, Microsoft copilot was used to assist on feedback general feedback and for repetition. https://copilot.cloud.microsoft/chat 2842061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' [[File:Pexels-timur-weber-8560383.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Charlie and Nicole arguing]] Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices, parenting, and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Nicole expresses that she feels Charlie has controlled aspects of her life and failed to recognise her needs, while Charlie insists that he has made sacrifices for their family and feels that Nicole is unfairly blaming him. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as [https://w.wiki/eHn4 emotional flooding.] It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with a persons ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Emotional flooding has been associated with poorer relationship functioning, understanding the processes involved may help identify ways to manage conflict. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. [[wikipedia:John_Gottman|Gottman]] (1993) describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both [[Individual differences psychology|individual differences]] and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Emotional flooding can be understood as part of a dynamic process involving emotional arousal, cognitive interpretation and interpersonal responses. A partner's negative emotions may be interpreted as threatening, contributing to increased emotional intensity. When this intensity becomes difficult to manage, constructive communication and problem-solving may become harder, potentially intensifying the conflict further. However, the process is not certain, as people and couples differ in how they interpret and respond to disagreements. === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis], which regulates the release of cortisol, a hormone involved in the body's stress response (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict HPA axis responses in emerging adult couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and they found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that husbands in couples who later divorced showed significantly higher heart rates than those in stable marriages  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. '''Table 1: How interpretations can influence emotional responses''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back
 ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that emotional clarity and perceived emotion-regulation ability may be relevant to emotional flooding. However, the study relied on a cross-sectional sample of women, therefore it cannot establish whether these abilities reduce flooding, whether repeated conflict affects emotional regulation, or whether both reflect other relationship factors. The findings identify potentially useful intervention targets rather than proving that emotional intelligence training prevents flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|cognitive reappraisal]] which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. Overall, flooding may reflect both individual differences in emotion regulation and the emotions expressed during conflict. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always remain focused on the issue that started it. In the opening scenario, Nicole and Charlie's discussion escalates into a broader argument. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' Gottman (1993)  uses the metaphor of The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviours that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. Together, these findings connect conflict communication with relationship functioning. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours have been associated with marital satisfaction (Hooper et al., 2017). Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) also found relationships among perceived emotional intelligence, conflict-resolution strategies, flooding and relationship satisfaction in a sample of 692 women. Because these findings are correlational, they cannot establish whether flooding reduces satisfaction or poorer relationship functioning contributes to flooding. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Managing emotional flooding involves recognising rising arousal, regulating emotional responses and returning to difficult discussions when both partners are better able to listen. When an argument feels overwhelming, the goal is not to suppress every emotion or win the disagreement. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) note that the emotions evoked in conflict, their regulation, and an appropriate conflict resolution strategy will reduce negative outcomes. === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === A useful first step in managing emotional flooding is recognising when emotional overwhelm may be occurring. Possible signs include your racing heart, or wanting to interrupt or leave the conversation. However, these examples are potential indicators rather than confirmation you are experiencing flooding. Two emotion-regulation strategies that have been studied during couple conflict are acceptance and cognitive reappraisal. Acceptance involves allowing an emotion to be present without judging it, whereas cognitive reappraisal involves reconsidering how a situation is interpreted. Salo et al. (2025) found that both strategies significantly reduced cardiac reactivity during a 10-minute conflict discussion compared with a control condition where no emotion-regulation strategy was used. This suggests that emotion-regulation strategies may help reduce some of the physiological responses associated with conflict. === De-escalating conflicts === Emotional regulation and mindfulness are useful techniques for managing the effects of emotional flooding. Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to view stressful situations differently and reduce their emotional intensity (Castillo-LĂłpez et al., 2024). A less effective strategy is suppressing emotions because it does not address the underlying emotional response. Castillo-LĂłpez et al. (2024) suggest that mindfulness practices, such as mindful breathing and meditation, help individuals focus on the present moment and recognise their emotions without judgment. This may promote emotional awareness and better regulation of emotional responses. Castillo-LĂłpez et al. (2024) further suggest that individuals can reduce physiological arousal through behavioural and physical activities, such as taking a walk, engaging in exercise, or practising relaxation exercises. Gottman (1993) presented a break technique involving taking a deliberate break during heated arguments to allow individuals time to cool down. This break is not considered stonewalling, as partners are expected to return to the discussion once they have calmed down. Taking a time-out reduces cortisol levels and physiological activation, which may help prevent the escalation of conflict and impulsive, destructive responses while promoting more rational and constructive dialogue once partners are calm (Castillo-LĂłpez et al., 2024). Baucom et al. (2015) found that emotional arousal declined following behavioural couple therapy. This included lower overall arousal, a slower initial increase in arousal and shorter periods of heightened arousal. However, the study examined therapy rather than time-outs specifically. The findings therefore support the broader idea that conflict-related arousal can change, but do not directly establish the effectiveness of taking a break during an argument. These findings suggest that conflict-related emotional arousal can be influenced through couple therapy. This understanding of strategies that may reduce emotional flooding can help individuals navigate relationship conflict in ways that support healthier communication and relationship functioning. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-LĂłpez, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-LĂłpez, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] pqhkzn8u7b4tdg2osne98h1y5svoela 2842068 2842061 2026-10-22T09:32:01Z Tofu05 3106606 added figures to What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships and Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts. ChatGPT was used to generate figures. chatgpt.com 2842068 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' [[File:Pexels-timur-weber-8560383.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Charlie and Nicole arguing]] Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall and leaving the room. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as [https://w.wiki/eHn4 emotional flooding.] It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with a persons ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Emotional flooding has been associated with poorer relationship functioning, understanding the processes involved may help identify ways to manage conflict. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. [[wikipedia:John_Gottman|Gottman]] (1993) describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both [[Individual differences psychology|individual differences]] and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction, highlighting its relevance to relationship functioning. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Check your understanding, which statement best describes emotional flooding? '' |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Emotional flooding can be understood as part of a dynamic process involving emotional arousal, cognitive interpretation and interpersonal responses. A partner's negative emotions may be interpreted as threatening, contributing to increased emotional intensity. When this intensity becomes difficult to manage, constructive communication and problem-solving may become harder, potentially intensifying the conflict further (Figure 2). However, the process is not certain, as people and couples differ in how they interpret and respond to disagreements. [[File:Four_Stages_of_Relationship_Conflict.png|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 2.''' A proposed cycle of emotional flooding during relationship conflict.]] === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis], which regulates the release of cortisol, a hormone involved in the body's stress response (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict HPA axis responses in emerging adult couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and they found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that husbands in couples who later divorced showed significantly higher heart rates than those in stable marriages  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. '''Table 1: How interpretations can influence emotional responses''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back
 ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that emotional clarity and perceived emotion-regulation ability may be relevant to emotional flooding. However, the study relied on a cross-sectional sample of women, therefore it cannot establish whether these abilities reduce flooding, whether repeated conflict affects emotional regulation, or whether both reflect other relationship factors. The findings identify potentially useful intervention targets rather than proving that emotional intelligence training prevents flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025),  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|cognitive reappraisal]] which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. Overall, flooding may reflect both individual differences in emotion regulation and the emotions expressed during conflict. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always remain focused on the issue that started it. In the opening scenario, Nicole and Charlie's discussion escalates into a broader argument. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' Gottman (1993)  uses the metaphor of The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviours that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. Together, these findings connect conflict communication with relationship functioning. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours have been associated with marital satisfaction (Hooper et al., 2017). Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) also found relationships among perceived emotional intelligence, conflict-resolution strategies, flooding and relationship satisfaction in a sample of 692 women. Because these findings are correlational, they cannot establish whether flooding reduces satisfaction or poorer relationship functioning contributes to flooding. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Managing emotional flooding involves recognising rising arousal, regulating emotional responses and returning to difficult discussions when both partners are better able to listen. When an argument feels overwhelming, the goal is not to suppress every emotion or win the disagreement. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) note that the emotions evoked in conflict, their regulation, and an appropriate conflict resolution strategy will reduce negative outcomes. The steps in Figure 3 suggest a practical guide for responding when emotional overwhelm begins. [[File:Steps_to_respond_to_emotional_flooding.png|left|thumb|357x357px|'''Figure 3.''' Suggestion of steps to respond to emotional flooding.]] === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === A useful first step in managing emotional flooding is recognising when emotional overwhelm may be occurring. Possible signs include your racing heart, or wanting to interrupt or leave the conversation. However, these examples are potential indicators rather than confirmation you are experiencing flooding. Two emotion-regulation strategies that have been studied during couple conflict are acceptance and cognitive reappraisal. Acceptance involves allowing an emotion to be present without judging it, whereas cognitive reappraisal involves reconsidering how a situation is interpreted. Salo et al. (2025) found that both strategies significantly reduced cardiac reactivity during a 10-minute conflict discussion compared with a control condition where no emotion-regulation strategy was used. This suggests that emotion-regulation strategies may help reduce some of the physiological responses associated with conflict. === De-escalating conflicts === Emotional regulation and mindfulness are useful techniques for managing the effects of emotional flooding. Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to view stressful situations differently and reduce their emotional intensity (Castillo-LĂłpez et al., 2024). A less effective strategy is suppressing emotions because it does not address the underlying emotional response. Castillo-LĂłpez et al. (2024) suggest that mindfulness practices, such as mindful breathing and meditation, help individuals focus on the present moment and recognise their emotions without judgment. This may promote emotional awareness and better regulation of emotional responses. Castillo-LĂłpez et al. (2024) further suggest that individuals can reduce physiological arousal through behavioural and physical activities, such as taking a walk, engaging in exercise, or practising relaxation exercises. Gottman (1993) presented a break technique involving taking a deliberate break during heated arguments to allow individuals time to cool down. This break is not considered stonewalling, as partners are expected to return to the discussion once they have calmed down. Taking a time-out reduces cortisol levels and physiological activation, which may help prevent the escalation of conflict and impulsive, destructive responses while promoting more rational and constructive dialogue once partners are calm (Castillo-LĂłpez et al., 2024). Baucom et al. (2015) found that emotional arousal declined following behavioural couple therapy. This included lower overall arousal, a slower initial increase in arousal and shorter periods of heightened arousal. However, the study examined therapy rather than time-outs specifically. The findings therefore support the broader idea that conflict-related arousal can change, but do not directly establish the effectiveness of taking a break during an argument. These findings suggest that conflict-related emotional arousal can be influenced through couple therapy. This understanding of strategies that may reduce emotional flooding can help individuals navigate relationship conflict in ways that support healthier communication and relationship functioning. ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Berenguer-Soler, M., Castillo-LĂłpez, Á. G. del, & Piñeda, D. (2023). Breaking the cycle of emotional flooding: The protective role of women’s emotional intelligence in couple’s conflict. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217513 Castillo-LĂłpez, Á. G., Berenguer-Soler, M., & Pineda, D. (2025). Relationship love styles’ effects on conflict, emotional intelligence, and sexual satisfaction: A latent profile analysis. SAGE Open, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251358988 Del Vecchio, T., Lorber, M. F., Slep, A. M. S., Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Foran, H. M. (2016). Parental flooding during conflict: A psychometric evaluation of a new scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1587–1597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0137-9 Gottman, J. M. (1993). A theory of marital dissolution and stability. Journal of Family Psychology, 7(1), 57–75. Hooper, A., Spann, C., McCray, T., & Kimberly, C. (2017). Revisiting the basics: Understanding potential demographic differences with John Gottman’s four horsemen and emotional flooding. The Family Journal, 25(3), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717710650 Malik, J., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2020). Emotional flooding in response to negative affect in couple conflicts: Individual differences and correlates. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000584 }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] ah7eoe7kj0her9rjd340odcy9sbvowo 2842083 2842068 2026-10-22T11:55:59Z Tofu05 3106606 Added conclusion, quiz and references 2842083 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional flooding in relationships:<br>Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''💭 Imagine this...''' [[File:Pexels-timur-weber-8560383.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Charlie and Nicole arguing]] Charlie and Nicole are partners and are in the process of separating after their marriage has broken down. During a heated argument, Nicole expresses her frustration about how she has felt throughout their marriage, while Charlie becomes increasingly defensive about the way she sees him and their relationship. What begins as a discussion about their failed marriage quickly turns into an argument where they bring up inner feelings they kept to themselves about years of resentment, sacrifices and the ways they have hurt and disappointed each other. As the argument escalates, both become increasingly emotional. They start to speak over each other, interrupt, yell, and respond to each other's accusations rather than listening. Their anger and frustration continue to build until Charlie becomes visibly overwhelmed and lashes out by punching a wall and leaving the room. By the end of the argument, neither of them had resolved the issues they were discussing. '''Think...''' *Have you ever been in a situation where a small disagreement suddenly became much more intense than expected? *What do you think happened to Charlie and Nicole as their argument escalated? *Why might it become harder for them to listen to each other or respond calmly as the conflict escalates? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The situation that Charlie and Nicole experienced shows how quickly relationship conflict can escalate when emotional responses become intense (see Figure 1). In these moments where arguments can become much more intense than the issue that started them, a person may become overwhelmed by their emotional response and find it difficult to think clearly and regulate their emotions. This experience is known as [https://w.wiki/eHn4 emotional flooding.] It describes a state in which individuals can become influenced by the experience of another person's negative emotions being intense and overwhelming, so that it interferes with a persons ability to respond effectively (Del Vecchio et al., 2016). Emotional flooding has been associated with poorer relationship functioning, understanding the processes involved may help identify ways to manage conflict. This chapter will explore what emotional flooding is, why it occurs during relationship conflict, and how individual, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal factors may contribute to it. It will then examine how emotional flooding can influence communication, conflict resolution, and relationship outcomes. Finally, exploring considering psychological strategies that may help individuals recognise and de-escalate emotional flooding. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''🔍 Focus questions''' *What psychological and physiological processes contribute to emotional flooding during relationship conflict? *How does emotional flooding affect emotion regulation and communication between partners in relationships? *What are the potential consequences of emotional flooding for relationship functioning? *What evidence-based strategies can help individuals manage emotional flooding during relationship conflict? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding emotional flooding == Emotional flooding is a psychological response that can occur when a person becomes overwhelmed by their partner’s negative emotions during conflict. [[wikipedia:John_Gottman|Gottman]] (1993) describes flooding as a response to negative emotions that are unexpected, intense and overwhelming, leaving their partner feeling disorganised and wanting to end the interaction. This may lead a person to withdraw from the conversation or attempt to escape the situation. Emotional flooding may be influenced by both [[Individual differences psychology|individual differences]] and the interpersonal context (Malik et al., 2020). Flooding cannot be understood as only an individual characteristic. The frequency and intensity of a partner’s negative emotions may also influence whether flooding occurs. This suggests that flooding develops through an interaction between a person's own vulnerability and also the emotional environment where the conflict takes place. Research by Malik et al. (2020) has linked emotional flooding to difficulties in relationship functioning, they found that flooding was associated with negative affect during couples conflict discussions. Couples involving at least one person who experienced high levels of flooding were also less effective in solving problems during conflict discussion (Malik et al., 2020). Their findings suggest that becoming overwhelmed may create difficulty for couples to resolve disagreements constructively. Gottman (1993) involved flooding into a broader theory of marital stability and dissolution, and it was identified as a potential part of progression towards emotional distance and relationship deterioration. Complementing Gottman (1993), Hooper et al. (2017) examined emotional flooding with negative communication behaviours and marital satisfaction, finding that refusal to talk to a partner had the strongest negative association with marital satisfaction. Psychological research can help explain the processes underlying flooding, including emotional and physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations and interpersonal influences. It can also inform approaches for individuals to recognise emotional overwhelm and respond to conflict more constructively, bettering their individual and relationship wellbeing. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''🌟 Check your understanding:''' Which statement best describes emotional flooding? |type="()"} -Experiencing anger during any disagreement. +Becoming overwhelmed by intense negative emotions in a way that interferes with responding effectively. -Choosing to ignore a partner during conflict. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why emotional flooding occurs during relationship conflicts == Emotional flooding can be understood as part of a dynamic process involving emotional arousal, cognitive interpretation and interpersonal responses. A partner's negative emotions may be interpreted as threatening, contributing to increased emotional intensity. When this intensity becomes difficult to manage, constructive communication and problem-solving may become harder, potentially intensifying the conflict further (Figure 2). However, the process is not certain, as people and couples differ in how they interpret and respond to disagreements. [[File:Four_Stages_of_Relationship_Conflict.png|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 2.''' A proposed cycle of emotional flooding during relationship conflict.]] === Emotional and physiological arousal === Relationship conflict can activate the body's stress-response systems, potentially influencing how individuals experience and respond to emotional intense situations. One relevant system is the [https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-hpa-axis hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis], which regulates the release of cortisol, a hormone involved in the body's stress response (Kaur et al., 2023). Laurent and Powers (2007) examined factors that could predict HPA axis responses in emerging adult couples. They investigated how temperament and attachment were associated with physiological stress responses during conflict discussions about unresolved relationship issues. Research measured cortisol responses and they found that partners' dyadic fit (how both partners' attachment styles interact) influenced female cortisol responses during conflict. Additionally, attachment avoidance influenced the effect of males' emotionality on both their own and their partners' cortisol responses (Laurent and Powers, 2007). This suggests that physiological responses during disagreements may be shaped by the conflict, individual characteristics, and the dynamics between partners. Gottman (1993) linked physiological patterns into his theory of marital stability and dissolution in later marital outcomes through exploring heart rate elevation. In his longitudinal research, he compared 52 husbands' baseline heart rate in couples who later divorced, with couples who remained together. It was found that husbands in couples who later divorced showed significantly higher heart rates than those in stable marriages  Although this  finding does not establish that an elevated heart rate causes emotional flooding, it suggests a relevance of physiological patterns to understanding marital instability. Moving beyond physiological arousal in romantic relationships, Del Vecchio et al. (2016) examined parents' responses to children's negative emotions. They found that when parents became overwhelmed by the intensity of a child's negative emotions, they focussed on escaping the aversive situation rather than responding effectively. This finding implies that when emotional reactions become overwhelming, individuals may struggle to engage in constructive responses and want to end the interaction. Although this study focused on parent-child relationships rather than romantic relationships, it provides supporting evidence that emotional overwhelm can interfere with effective interpersonal responses. Therefore, its findings should be interpreted as indirect support rather than direct evidence of emotional flooding in romantic relationships. === The role of cognitive appraisal and interpersonal threat === Cognitive appraisal refers to how individuals interpret stressful events and evaluate their significance. Gottman (1993) proposed that negative behaviours may be attributed to a partner's overall negative traits rather than viewed within the context of a specific situation. This perspective helps explain how people may interpret an isolated disagreement as evidence that their partner possesses enduring negative characteristics. As a result, the conflict may feel more significant and contribute to increasingly negative perceptions of the relationship. '''Table 1: How interpretations can influence emotional responses''' {| class="wikitable" |+Imagine your partner forgets to text you back
 ! !Response !Emotion |- |Interpretation 1 |“They must be busy, they probably didn't see my message.” |You might feel relatively calm and ask them about it later. |- |Interpretation 2 |“They don't care about me and they always ignore me.” |You might feel hurt or rejected and respond with anger, potentially escalating the disagreement and creating conflict |} Over time, these interpretations may contribute to a more negative perception of the relationship. Gottman (1993) argued that negative interpretations of a partner can persist beyond a specific disagreement, leading individuals to view both their partner and the history of their relationship negatively. A partner's failure to communicate (Table 1) may be interpreted either as an isolated mistake or as evidence that the partner is generally uncaring. As a result, individuals may find it more difficult to evaluate a situation within its context or consider information that challenges their existing negative perceptions. Gottman (1993) further proposed that flooding may contribute to a cycle in which flooded individuals become more likely to interpret ambiguous behaviours as threatening or frustrating. These negative interpretations may become increasingly difficult to disconfirm, contributing to a negative view of the relationship. This suggests that emotional responses during conflict may be shaped by a partner's behaviour and by the meaning that is attributed to that behaviour. The role of the interpersonal context in emotional flooding is further supported by Malik et al. (2020). They suggest that flooding is not only an individual tendency to become overwhelmed, but may also be influenced by a partner's expressed negative affect. Their study examined 233 married or cohabiting couples during a problem-solving assessment. They found that both men's and women's flooding was positively associated with their own anger, as well as their partners' experienced and expressed anger. These findings demonstrate associations rather than establishing that a partner's anger or an individual's interpretations directly cause flooding. Emotional responses may also be reciprocal, with negative effects potentially contributing to flooding, while flooding may interfere with effective communication and problem-solving during conflict. Together, these findings suggest that flooding may involve an interaction between how a person interprets their partner's behaviour and the negative emotions expressed during conflict. === Individual differences and emotional regulation === Imagine two people having a disagreement with their partners about the same issue. One person becomes overwhelmed, they struggle to explain how they feel and want to leave the conversation. The other feels frustrated but can recognise their emotions, they take a moment to calm down and continue discussing the problem. Although both experience conflict, their emotional responses differ. Gross (1998) describes emotion regulation as the process through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. When emotions become intense during relationship conflict, some individuals may find it more difficult to understand what they are feeling or regulate how they respond. Malik et al. (2020) suggest that individuals may be more or less likely to flood in a relatively stable, trait-like manner.  However, this does not mean that flooding is simply a personality trait or that an individual will respond the same way in every disagreement. One factor that may help explain these differences is emotional intelligence, particularly the ability to recognise, understand and regulate emotional experiences. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023), examined perceived emotional intelligence and emotional flooding in a sample of 692 women. They considered three dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence; * Emotional attention * Emotional clarity * Emotional repair. These refer to attending to emotional experiences, understanding what those emotions mean and feeling able to regulate them. Researchers found that emotional clarity and emotional repair were negatively associated with emotional flooding. Women who reported greater clarity about their emotions and greater perceived ability to regulate them also showed lower levels of flooding. Positive conflict-resolution strategies were also associated with lower flooding. These findings suggest that emotional clarity and perceived emotion-regulation ability may be relevant to emotional flooding. However, the study relied on a cross-sectional sample of women, therefore it cannot establish whether these abilities reduce flooding, whether repeated conflict affects emotional regulation, or whether both reflect other relationship factors. The findings identify potentially useful intervention targets rather than proving that emotional intelligence training prevents flooding. Individual differences may influence how people respond to conflict, however emotional responses are not necessarily predictable. Salo et al. (2025)  investigated whether emotion-regulation strategies could influence physiological responses during couple conflict. Their study examined acceptance, which involves allowing emotional experiences without judging them, and [[wikipedia:Cognitive_appraisal|cognitive reappraisal]] which involves changing how a situation is interpreted. Researchers reported that both emotion regulation strategies reduced cardiac reactivity in the manipulated partner compared to the control group (Salo et al., 2025). This provides experimental evidence that using emotion-regulation strategies can influence some physiological responses during relationship conflict. However, the study measured cardiac reactivity rather than emotional flooding itself, so it does not establish that these strategies prevent flooding specifically. Overall, flooding may reflect both individual differences in emotion regulation and the emotions expressed during conflict. == How emotional flooding affects relationships == Relationship conflict does not always remain focused on the issue that started it. In the opening scenario, Nicole and Charlie's discussion escalates into a broader argument. When emotions become overwhelming, partners may struggle to listen to each other and communicate their concerns constructively. Research suggests that the relevance of emotional flooding with communication effectiveness, problem solving difficulties and relationship satisfaction extends beyond the immediate experience of feeling overwhelmed. === Emotional regulation and communication === Imagine yourself trying to explain why something hurt your feelings, your partner suddenly interrupts you, defends themselves and responds with criticism. Instead of feeling heard, you may become increasingly frustrated with them, and the original concern can become lost in the argument. This illustrates how communication can deteriorate when partners become involved in negative conversations. '''The Four Horsemen''' Gottman (1993)  uses the metaphor of The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse to describe communication styles that may predict the end of a relationship. He describes a sequence in which “criticism leads to contempt, which leads to defensiveness, which leads to stonewalling” (Gottman, 1993). These are the behaviours that Gottman suggests are the most destructive to relationships. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 2: Explanation and examples of The Four Horsemen !Communication style !Meaning !Example |- |Criticism |An attack on a partner's character. Instead of small complaints about behaviour, a person attacks their partner’s character |“You forgot to call me” becomes “You’re so selfish, you never think about anyone else.” |- |Contempt |Disrespectful behaviour. A person communicates disrespectfully towards a partner, this may include sarcastic mocking, name-calling, and eye-rolling  (Beeney et al., 2019). | “You seriously can’t do anything right, can you?” or “You’re an idiot for saying that.” |- |Defensiveness |Claiming oneself blameless and a victim of another's attack (Beeney et al., 2019). Rather than engaging with a partner’s concern, it  often involves deflecting blame back onto the partner. | “I only forgot because you never remind me properly.” |- |Stonewalling |Withdrawal from the interaction. This is an emotional avoidance strategy, expressed by non-responsiveness (Beeney et al., 2019). |Looking away, remaining unresponsive and/or refusing to engage with the discussion. |} These patterns can shift an argument away from resolving a specific problem and towards attacking, defending and eventually disengaging. Emotional flooding may make constructive communication more difficult, the Four Horsemen are not symptoms of emotional flooding, however, they help illustrate how negative communication can develop during conflict. Destructive communication is only one part of the picture of a deteriorating relationship. Researchers have also examined how emotional flooding relates to communication effectiveness and relationship satisfaction. Kashian (2019) investigated emotional flooding and conflict communication among couples and reported that greater flooding during conflict was associated with less effective conflict communication. This association was statistically significant for participants who mainly communicated face-to-face during conflict but not for those who mainly used mediated forms of communication online or through text message. These findings suggest that the relationship between flooding and communication effectiveness may depend partly on the situation in which a disagreement occurs. The link between flooding and relationship functioning is further supported by Hooper et al. (2017), who examined emotional flooding, the Four Horsemen, and marital satisfaction among 591 married individuals. They found that refusal to engage in discussion (stonewalling) had the strongest negative association with relationship satisfaction. This finding shows the potential importance of withdrawal as a communication pattern associated with relationship dissatisfaction. Together, these findings connect conflict communication with relationship functioning. === Conflict and relationship outcomes === The effects of emotional flooding may extend beyond what happens during an argument. When individuals become overwhelmed, conflict-resolution processes, such as considering solutions, seeing different perspectives, and reaching agreement, may become difficult. Emotional flooding and negative communication behaviours have been associated with marital satisfaction (Hooper et al., 2017). Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) also found relationships among perceived emotional intelligence, conflict-resolution strategies, flooding and relationship satisfaction in a sample of 692 women. Because these findings are correlational, they cannot establish whether flooding reduces satisfaction or poorer relationship functioning contributes to flooding. These findings suggest individuals who are better able to understand and regulate their emotions may therefore be less likely to experience emotional flooding and could experience greater relationship satisfaction. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''🌟 Which situation below best demonstrates the potential effects of emotional flooding during relationship conflict?''' |type="()"} -A couple disagrees but calmly discusses different solutions. +One partner becomes overwhelmed, withdraws from the discussion, and the disagreement remains unresolved. -A couple disagrees and later reaches a compromise. -One partner notices they are becoming frustrated and suggests continuing the conversation later. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} == What can be done to manage emotional flooding in relationships == Managing emotional flooding involves recognising rising arousal, regulating emotional responses and returning to difficult discussions when both partners are better able to listen. When an argument feels overwhelming, the goal is not to suppress every emotion or win the disagreement. Berenguer-Soler et al. (2023) note that the emotions evoked in conflict, their regulation, and an appropriate conflict resolution strategy will reduce negative outcomes. The steps in Figure 3 suggest a practical guide for responding when emotional overwhelm begins. [[File:Steps_to_respond_to_emotional_flooding.png|left|thumb|357x357px|'''Figure 3.''' Suggestion of steps to respond to emotional flooding.]] === Recognising and regulating emotional arousal === A useful first step in managing emotional flooding is recognising when emotional overwhelm may be occurring. Possible signs include your racing heart, or wanting to interrupt or leave the conversation. However, these examples are potential indicators rather than confirmation you are experiencing flooding. Two emotion-regulation strategies that have been studied during couple conflict are acceptance and cognitive reappraisal. Acceptance involves allowing an emotion to be present without judging it, whereas cognitive reappraisal involves reconsidering how a situation is interpreted. Salo et al. (2025) found that both strategies significantly reduced cardiac reactivity during a 10-minute conflict discussion compared with a control condition where no emotion-regulation strategy was used. This suggests that emotion-regulation strategies may help reduce some of the physiological responses associated with conflict. === De-escalating conflicts === Emotional regulation and mindfulness are useful techniques for managing the effects of emotional flooding. Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to view stressful situations differently and reduce their emotional intensity (Castillo-LĂłpez et al., 2025). A less effective strategy is suppressing emotions because it does not address the underlying emotional response. Castillo-LĂłpez et al. (2025) suggest that mindfulness practices, such as mindful breathing and meditation, help individuals focus on the present moment and recognise their emotions without judgment. This may promote emotional awareness and better regulation of emotional responses. Castillo-LĂłpez et al. (2025) further suggest that individuals can reduce physiological arousal through behavioural and physical activities, such as taking a walk, engaging in exercise, or practising relaxation exercises. Gottman (1993) presented a break technique involving taking a deliberate break during heated arguments to allow individuals time to cool down. This break is not considered stonewalling, as partners are expected to return to the discussion once they have calmed down. Taking a time-out reduces cortisol levels and physiological activation, which may help prevent the escalation of conflict and impulsive, destructive responses while promoting more rational and constructive dialogue once partners are calm (Castillo-LĂłpez et al., 2025). Baucom et al. (2015) found that emotional arousal declined following behavioural couple therapy. This included lower overall arousal, a slower initial increase in arousal and shorter periods of heightened arousal. However, the study examined therapy rather than time-outs specifically. The findings therefore support the broader idea that conflict-related arousal can change, but do not directly establish the effectiveness of taking a break during an argument. These findings suggest that conflict-related emotional arousal can be influenced through couple therapy. This understanding of strategies that may reduce emotional flooding can help individuals navigate relationship conflict in ways that support healthier communication and relationship functioning. ==Conclusion== Understanding emotional flooding can help explain why relationship disagreements sometimes become overwhelming and difficult to resolve. Psychological research suggests that flooding may involve an interaction between physiological arousal, cognitive interpretations, individual differences in emotion regulation and the emotions expressed by a partner. Regulating emotions and reactions, listening to a partner and resolving disagreements constructively may become harder for individuals when emotional intensity arises. Research has associated emotional flooding and negative communication patterns with difficulties in problem-solving and relationship satisfaction. However, many of these findings are correlational, therefore the direction of these relationships remains uncertain. Strategies such as acceptance, cognitive reappraisal and therapy may support emotional regulation. However, reducing physiological arousal does not necessarily mean that flooding has been prevented. Their effectiveness may also vary between individuals and situations. Understanding emotional flooding can help people recognise how emotional, cognitive and interpersonal processes shape relationship conflict. Applying this knowledge in relationship conflict may support healthier responses to disagreements and healthier communication. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''📝 Take-home message''' *Emotional flooding involves more than experiencing one emotion. How individuals interpret a situation, respond to emotional arousal and interact with their partners may all be relevant. *Emotional overwhelm may contribute to communication difficulties and unresolved conflict, potentially affecting relationship functioning. *Recognising possible signs of overwhelm, using strategies such as acceptance or cognitive reappraisal, and taking a planned break before returning to a discussion may help individuals manage difficult interactions. {{RoundBoxBottom}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}<quiz display=simple> '''🌟 Check your understanding:''' During an argument, Nicole interprets her partner's criticism as evidence that he does not respect her. Her heart races and she starts yelling, her partner becomes increasingly defensive. Which explanation best explains how emotional flooding may have developed? |type="()"} -The criticism directly caused flooding regardless of Nicoles interpretation or response. +Her interpretation may intensify arousal, which affected communication and caused further tension -Her partner's defensiveness showed that Nicoles initial interpretation was accurate. -Her physical arousal is separate from the disagreement and cannot affect communication. </quiz>{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction|Love styles and relationships]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= }} ==External links== * [https://www.gottman.com/blog/making-sure-emotional-flooding-doesnt-capsize-your-relationship/ Emotional flooding] (The Gottman Institute) * [https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/emotional-flooding-and-hostile-discipline-in-the-families-of-todd/ Emotional flooding within family dynamics] (Macquarie University) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] km4ii3nub2si42b7ehx0mh5rt69g0dp Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sun exposure and protection motivation 0 331599 2842040 2841737 2026-10-22T05:10:30Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2842040 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sun exposure and protection motivation:<br>What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sunscreen spray.jpg|thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Applying sunscreen is a sun-protective behaviour used to reduce harmful UV exposure.]] ;Scenario Mia is a 22-year-old spending a summer afternoon at the beach with friends. She knows that excessive ultraviolet (UV) exposure increases the risk of skin damage and skin cancer, so she brings SPF {{ic|explain abbreviation}} 50+ sunscreen (see Figure 1). However, Mia also likes how she looks with a tan and notices that her friends are intentionally tanning. Although she planned to reapply sunscreen and spend time in the shade, she stays in the sun longer than intended {{ic|what were the consequences?}}. Mia's behaviour illustrates a common conflict: why might someone who understands the risks of sun exposure still feel motivated to tan, while also wanting to protect their skin? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Sun-related behaviour involves competing motivations: people may be motivated to seek sun exposure while simultaneously wanting to protect themselves from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. * Intentional sun exposure can be motivated by factors such as appearance enhancement, tanning preferences, relaxation, wellbeing and social influences, whereas sun protection is strongly associated with health-preservation motives (Ingledew et al., 2010). * Knowledge about the risks of UV exposure does not necessarily result in protective behaviour because decisions are also influenced by perceived risk, self-efficacy, social norms and the perceived benefits of tanning. * Psychological theories, particularly '''protection motivation theory''', can help explain why people adopt or avoid sun-protective behaviours by examining perceptions of threat and people's beliefs about their ability to respond effectively (Rogers, 1975). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What psychological and social factors motivate intentional sun exposure? * What motivates people to engage in sun-protection behaviours? * How does protection motivation theory explain sun-protective behaviour? * How can psychological research be used to encourage safer sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What motivates intentional sun exposure? == Intentional sun exposure is influenced by psychological and social motivations that extend beyond a lack of awareness about ultraviolet (UV) radiation (see Figure 2). Individuals may understand the risks associated with excessive UV exposure while continuing to seek a tan because of perceived benefits relating to appearance, wellbeing and social acceptance. These competing motivations help explain why knowledge about skin cancer does not always translate into safer behaviour. [[File:Sun at noon.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A sun emitting UV radiation''' ]] === Appearance-related motivation === Appearance enhancement is an important motivation for intentional sun exposure {{f}}. In some social environments, tanned skin is associated with attractiveness, health and confidence {{f}}. These perceptions may encourage individuals to prioritise immediate appearance-related rewards over potential long-term health consequences {{f}}. Leary and Jones (1993) examined {{how}} the relationship between self-presentational motives and tanning-related health risks {{where}}. Their research highlights how concerns about appearance and social evaluation can influence decisions about sun exposure {{explain}}. This suggests that tanning behaviour may reflect a desire to achieve a socially desirable appearance rather than simply a misunderstanding of UV-related risks. However, appearance preferences vary between individuals and cultural contexts. Findings from particular populations should therefore not be assumed to represent universal attitudes towards tanning. {{f}} === Wellbeing and relaxation === Sun exposure may also be motivated by perceived psychological benefits, including relaxation, enjoyment and wellbeing {{f}}. Ingledew et al. (2010) examined motives underlying sun-related behaviours and identified {{ic|what sort of?}} associations between appearance enhancement, {{ic|what sort of?}} wellbeing and sun exposure. Individuals may seek sunshine for reasons unrelated to tanning itself. For example, spending time outdoors can provide opportunities for recreation, social connection and relaxation. Importantly, these psychological benefits should not be confused with benefits arising specifically from unprotected UV exposure. {{f}} === Social influences and tanning norms === Social influences also contribute to intentional tanning behaviour. Attitudes expressed by friends, family and wider social groups may shape perceptions of whether tanning is desirable or socially acceptable. Hillhouse et al. (2000) investigated {{how}} tanning-related behaviour {{ic|of whom?}} using appearance motivation and the theory of planned behaviour. Their findings highlight the relevance of psychological and social influences in understanding tanning intentions {{vague}}. Social norms may create situations in which individuals experience competing motivations {{f}}. For example, someone may intend to seek shade but remain in direct sunlight because their friends are tanning. Together, these findings suggest that intentional sun exposure is influenced by appearance-related rewards, wellbeing motives and social expectations. Consequently, interventions focusing exclusively on the health risks of UV exposure may overlook important reasons why individuals continue to tan. {{f}} == What motivates sun-protection behaviour? == Sun-protection behaviours include using sunscreen, seeking shade, wearing protective clothing and limiting exposure to harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation {{f}}. Several psychological factors influence an individual's motivation to engage in these behaviours, including health preservation, perceived vulnerability and self-efficacy {{f}}. === Health-preservation motives === Health preservation is an important motivation for sun protection {{f}}. Ingledew et al. (2010) identified {{how}} health-preservation motives as a factor associated with {{ic|whose?}} sun-protection behaviour. This highlights the role of concern for long-term health in motivating protective actions. {{expand}} === Perceived vulnerability and protective beliefs === Motivation to protect the skin is influenced not only by knowledge of UV-related risks but also by whether individuals perceive themselves as vulnerable to harm {{f}}. Beliefs about the effectiveness of protective behaviours are also relevant (Jackson & Aiken, 2000) {{vague}}. Consequently, awareness of UV risks alone may not fully explain an individual's motivation to engage in sun protection. === Self-efficacy === Self-efficacy refers to an individual's confidence in their ability to perform a behaviour successfully {{f}}. Floyd et al. (2000) identified self-efficacy as an important component of protection motivation. In the context of sun protection, this concept helps explain why confidence in carrying out protective actions is relevant to {{what}} motivation. == How does protection motivation theory explain sun-protective behaviour? == Protection motivation theory (PMT) proposes that protective behaviour is influenced by two appraisal processes: threat appraisal and coping appraisal (Rogers, 1975). These processes help explain how individuals evaluate UV-related risks and their ability to protect themselves. === Threat appraisal === Threat appraisal involves evaluating the perceived severity of a health threat, such as skin cancer or UV damage, and one's perceived vulnerability to experiencing that threat. These beliefs contribute to an individual's motivation to adopt protective behaviour. === Coping appraisal === Coping appraisal involves evaluating response efficacy and self-efficacy. Response efficacy refers to whether an individual believes a protective behaviour will be effective, while self-efficacy refers to their confidence in successfully performing that behaviour. Research supports the relevance of these mechanisms. Floyd et al. (2000) found that perceived severity, vulnerability, response efficacy and self-efficacy were associated with protective intentions and behaviours across the studies included in their meta-analysis. === The health belief model === The health belief model (HBM) provides another framework for understanding why individuals engage in sun-protective behaviours {{f}}. The model proposes that health-related decisions are influenced by perceived susceptibility to a health problem, perceived severity of its consequences, perceived benefits of taking action and perceived barriers to doing so (Rosenstock, 1974). Later formulations also incorporate cues to action and self-efficacy {{f}}. In the context of sun protection, perceived susceptibility involves believing that UV exposure could cause personal harm, while perceived severity concerns the seriousness of potential consequences such as skin cancer {{f}}. Perceived benefits relate to believing that protective behaviours can reduce these risks, whereas perceived barriers may include inconvenience, discomfort or concerns about appearance {{f}}. Cues to action are prompts that encourage individuals to engage in protective behaviour {{f}}. Examples include UV index alerts, reminders to reapply sunscreen and public health campaigns. Self-efficacy also contributes to behaviour by influencing whether individuals feel capable of consistently performing protective actions {{f}}. Mia's situation illustrates these concepts. Although she recognises the health risks of excessive sun exposure, her desire to tan with friends may create a barrier to protection. A sunscreen reminder or encouragement from a friend could serve as a cue to action, while confidence in applying sunscreen and seeking shade may support her decision to protect her skin. === Comparing protection motivation theory and the health belief model === Protection motivation theory and the health belief model both emphasise the role of perceived health threats and beliefs about protective actions. However, PMT organises these processes into threat appraisal and coping appraisal, while HBM explicitly considers perceived barriers and cues to action. {{f}} Both models help explain why awareness of UV-related risks does not necessarily lead to consistent sun protection. Nevertheless, neither model fully captures the influence of appearance preferences, social norms and immediate rewards associated with tanning. Combining these theoretical perspectives with research on social motivation may therefore provide a more comprehensive understanding of sun-related behaviour. Table 1 summarises the similarities and differences between the two theories. {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Comparison of protection motivation theory and the health belief model (ic|Use 1st letter capitalisation for Table captions per APA style}} {{f}} ! Psychological component ! Protection motivation theory (PMT) ! Health belief model (HBM) |- | Perceived threat | Threat appraisal considers perceived severity and vulnerability. | Considers perceived severity and susceptibility. |- | Protective beliefs | Coping appraisal considers response efficacy and self-efficacy. | Considers perceived benefits and self-efficacy. |- | Barriers and costs | Considers response costs and rewards associated with maladaptive behaviour. | Explicitly considers perceived barriers to protective action. |- | Triggers for action | Does not include a distinct cues-to-action component. | Includes cues to action, such as UV alerts and reminders. |- | Application to sun protection | Explains how perceived UV risks and confidence in protective actions influence motivation. | Explains how risk beliefs, benefits, barriers and reminders influence protective decisions. |} == How can safer sun behaviour be encouraged? == Effective sun-safety interventions should address both the health risks of ultraviolet (UV) exposure and the psychological rewards that motivate tanning, including appearance enhancement and social approval {{f}}. Psychological theories and research can help explain how interventions may encourage individuals to adopt safer behaviours. === Appearance-focused interventions === Appearance-focused interventions aim to influence sun-related behaviour by highlighting visible consequences of excessive UV exposure, such as premature skin ageing. These approaches may be particularly relevant to individuals who value tanning for its perceived attractiveness or social benefits {{f}}. Jones and Leary (1994) investigated {{how}} the effects of appearance-based messages on tanning intentions {{example}} among young adults {{where}}. Their findings suggest that concerns about appearance may influence intentions to reduce risky sun exposure {{expand}}. This research demonstrates the potential value of addressing motivations beyond long-term health consequences. However, changes in intentions do not necessarily establish that individuals will consistently adopt protective behaviours in everyday situations. A systematic review {{ic|of how many studies?}} by Persson et al. (2018) examined appearance-based interventions intended to reduce ultraviolet exposure. The findings suggested that appearance-focused strategies, including information about photoageing {{explain}} and UV photography {{explain}}, may improve sun-protective intentions and behaviours. However, differences in study methods {{explain}} and limited long-term follow-up restrict conclusions about whether these effects are sustained. === Strengthening protective motivation === Protection motivation theory suggests that interventions may encourage protective behaviour by increasing perceived vulnerability and severity while strengthening response efficacy and self-efficacy (Floyd et al., 2000). In practical terms, sun-safety campaigns {{example}} can communicate the potential consequences of UV exposure while demonstrating achievable protective actions. These may include applying sunscreen, wearing protective clothing and seeking shade. The health belief model also highlights the importance of perceived barriers and cues to action. Reminders to apply sunscreen and information about the UV index may encourage individuals to act on their existing health concerns {{example}}. These approaches suggest that effective interventions should not simply increase fear about UV exposure {{f}}. They should also strengthen confidence in protective actions and reduce obstacles that make those actions difficult to perform {{f}}. === Social and environmental strategies === Sun-related behaviour is influenced by social expectations and environmental circumstances {{f}}. Individuals may experience competing motivations when their desire to protect their skin conflicts with appearance preferences or the behaviour of friends. Strategies that encourage positive social norms surrounding sun protection may help address these competing motivations. For example, outdoor recreation groups can encourage shade breaks, protective clothing and regular sunscreen application. Environmental strategies may also make protective behaviour easier by increasing access to shade and sunscreen. These approaches complement individual-level interventions by reducing practical barriers to sun protection. Overall, psychological research {{f}} suggests that sun-safety interventions should combine clear information about UV-related risks with practical protective strategies. Addressing appearance motives, social influences and self-efficacy may help individuals translate protective intentions into more consistent behaviour. Henrikson et al. (2018) reviewed {{what}} evidence on behavioural counselling interventions for skin cancer prevention. Although some interventions improved reported sun-protection behaviours, evidence of reductions in sunburn was inconsistent. This distinction highlights the importance of evaluating actual behavioural and health outcomes rather than relying exclusively on intentions or self-reported behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflecting on Mia's situation === * Revisit Mia's scenario from the [[#Overview|Overview]]. What competing motivations may explain why she continues sun exposure despite knowing the potential health risks? * Using '''protection motivation theory''', identify how perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy, and self-efficacy could influence Mia's sun-protection behaviour. * What psychological strategy could encourage Mia to use sun protection while also addressing the appearance and social motivations associated with tanning? {{ic|Incoude answers to these questions}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {{ic|Use the [[Help:Quiz|quiz]] tool to create interactive quizzes}} ;Test your understanding '''Question 1:''' Which component of protection motivation theory describes confidence in one's ability to perform a protective behaviour? * A. Perceived severity * B. Self-efficacy * C. Perceived vulnerability * D. Response efficacy '''Question 2:''' Which concept in the health belief model describes reminders that encourage protective action? * A. Perceived severity * B. Response costs * C. Cues to action * D. Social rewards '''Answers:''' 1. B (Self-efficacy). 2. C (Cues to action). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Sun exposure and protection behaviours are influenced by competing psychological, social and health-related motivations. Intentional sun exposure may be encouraged by appearance preferences, wellbeing motives and social expectations, whereas protective behaviour is influenced by health-preservation motives, perceived vulnerability and self-efficacy. Protection motivation theory and the health belief model provide complementary explanations of sun-protective behaviour. Both highlight the importance of perceived health threats and beliefs about protective actions, while the health belief model additionally emphasises barriers and cues to action. Research {{f}} suggests that appearance-focused interventions, practical reminders and strategies that strengthen protective confidence may encourage safer sun-related behaviour. However, limitations in existing research and differences between intentions and actual behaviour demonstrate the need for continued evaluation. Ultimately, effective sun-safety strategies should do more than communicate health risks. They should recognise the motivations encouraging sun exposure while making protective behaviour practical, achievable and socially acceptable. == See also == * [[w:Health belief model|Health belief model]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Protection motivation theory|Protection motivation theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sun tanning|Sun tanning]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sunscreen|Sunscreen]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Ultraviolet|Ultraviolet radiation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Floyd, D. L., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30''(2), 407–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x Henrikson, N. B., Morrison, C. C., Blasi, P. R., Nguyen, M., Shibuya, K. C., & Patnode, C. D. (2018). Behavioral counseling for skin cancer prevention: Evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. ''JAMA, 319''(11), 1143–1157. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.21630 Hillhouse, J. J., Turrisi, R., & Kastner, M. (2000). Modeling tanning salon behavioral tendencies using appearance motivation, self-monitoring and the theory of planned behavior. ''Health Education Research, 15''(4), 405–414. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/15.4.405 Ingledew, D. K., Ferguson, E., & Markland, D. (2010). Motives and sun-related behaviour. ''Journal of Health Psychology, 15''(1), 8–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309342292 Jackson, K. M., & Aiken, L. S. (2000). A psychosocial model of sun protection and sunbathing in young women: The impact of health beliefs, attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy for sun protection. ''Health Psychology, 19''(5), 469–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.5.469 Jones, J. L., & Leary, M. R. (1994). Effects of appearance-based admonitions against sun exposure on tanning intentions in young adults. ''Health Psychology, 13''(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.13.1.86 Leary, M. R., & Jones, J. L. (1993). The social psychology of tanning and sunscreen use: Self-presentational motives as a predictor of health risk. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23''(17), 1390–1406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01039.x Persson, S., Benn, Y., Dhingra, K., Clark-Carter, D., Owen, A. L., & Grogan, S. (2018). Appearance-based interventions to reduce UV exposure: A systematic review. ''British Journal of Health Psychology, 23''(2), 334–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12291 Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. ''The Journal of Psychology, 91''(1), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803 Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). The health belief model and preventive health behavior. ''Health Education Monographs, 2''(4), 354–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019817400200405 }} ==External links== * [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety Be SunSmart and sun safety] (Cancer Council Australia) * [https://www.sunsmart.com.au/ SunSmart] (Cancer Council Victoria) * [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety/uv-index UV Index] (Cancer Council Australia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Health]] rig9o64xlane2g0edtse9z11kj4ervi 2842077 2842040 2026-10-22T10:34:42Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 2842077 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sun exposure and protection motivation:<br>What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Sunscreen spray.jpg|thumb|right|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Applying sunscreen is a sun-protective behaviour used to reduce harmful UV exposure.]] ;Scenario Mia is a 22-year-old spending a summer afternoon at the beach with friends. She knows that excessive ultraviolet (UV) exposure increases the risk of skin damage and skin cancer, so she brings SPF {{ic|explain abbreviation}} 50+ sunscreen (see Figure 1). However, Mia also likes how she looks with a tan and notices that her friends are intentionally tanning. Although she planned to reapply sunscreen and spend time in the shade, she stays in the sun longer than intended {{ic|what were the consequences?}}. Mia's behaviour illustrates a common conflict: why might someone who understands the risks of sun exposure still feel motivated to tan, while also wanting to protect their skin? {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Sun-related behaviour involves competing motivations: people may be motivated to seek sun exposure while simultaneously wanting to protect themselves from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. * Intentional sun exposure can be motivated by factors such as appearance enhancement, tanning preferences, relaxation, wellbeing and social influences, whereas sun protection is strongly associated with health-preservation motives (Ingledew et al., 2010). * Knowledge about the risks of UV exposure does not necessarily result in protective behaviour because decisions are also influenced by perceived risk, self-efficacy, social norms and the perceived benefits of tanning. * Psychological theories, particularly '''protection motivation theory''', can help explain why people adopt or avoid sun-protective behaviours by examining perceptions of threat and people's beliefs about their ability to respond effectively (Rogers, 1975). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What psychological and social factors motivate intentional sun exposure? * What motivates people to engage in sun-protection behaviours? * How does protection motivation theory explain sun-protective behaviour? * How can psychological research be used to encourage safer sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What motivates intentional sun exposure? == Intentional sun exposure is influenced by psychological and social motivations that extend beyond a lack of awareness about ultraviolet (UV) radiation (see Figure 2). Individuals may understand the risks associated with excessive UV exposure while continuing to seek a tan because of perceived benefits relating to appearance, wellbeing and social acceptance. These competing motivations help explain why knowledge about skin cancer does not always translate into safer behaviour. [[File:Sun at noon.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. A sun emitting UV radiation]] === Appearance-related motivation === Appearance enhancement is an important motivation for intentional sun exposure {{f}}. In some social environments, tanned skin is associated with attractiveness, health and confidence {{f}}. These perceptions may encourage individuals to prioritise immediate appearance-related rewards over potential long-term health consequences {{f}}. Leary and Jones (1993) examined {{how}} the relationship between self-presentational motives and tanning-related health risks {{where}}. Their research highlights how concerns about appearance and social evaluation can influence decisions about sun exposure {{explain}}. This suggests that tanning behaviour may reflect a desire to achieve a socially desirable appearance rather than simply a misunderstanding of UV-related risks. However, appearance preferences vary between individuals and cultural contexts. Findings from particular populations should therefore not be assumed to represent universal attitudes towards tanning. {{f}} === Wellbeing and relaxation === Sun exposure may also be motivated by perceived psychological benefits, including relaxation, enjoyment and wellbeing {{f}}. Ingledew et al. (2010) examined motives underlying sun-related behaviours and identified {{ic|what sort of?}} associations between appearance enhancement, {{ic|what sort of?}} wellbeing and sun exposure. Individuals may seek sunshine for reasons unrelated to tanning itself. For example, spending time outdoors can provide opportunities for recreation, social connection and relaxation. Importantly, these psychological benefits should not be confused with benefits arising specifically from unprotected UV exposure. {{f}} === Social influences and tanning norms === Social influences also contribute to intentional tanning behaviour. Attitudes expressed by friends, family and wider social groups may shape perceptions of whether tanning is desirable or socially acceptable. Hillhouse et al. (2000) investigated {{how}} tanning-related behaviour {{ic|of whom?}} using appearance motivation and the theory of planned behaviour. Their findings highlight the relevance of psychological and social influences in understanding tanning intentions {{vague}}. Social norms may create situations in which individuals experience competing motivations {{f}}. For example, someone may intend to seek shade but remain in direct sunlight because their friends are tanning. Together, these findings suggest that intentional sun exposure is influenced by appearance-related rewards, wellbeing motives and social expectations. Consequently, interventions focusing exclusively on the health risks of UV exposure may overlook important reasons why individuals continue to tan. {{f}} == What motivates sun-protection behaviour? == Sun-protection behaviours include using sunscreen, seeking shade, wearing protective clothing and limiting exposure to harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation {{f}}. Several psychological factors influence an individual's motivation to engage in these behaviours, including health preservation, perceived vulnerability and self-efficacy {{f}}. === Health-preservation motives === Health preservation is an important motivation for sun protection {{f}}. Ingledew et al. (2010) identified {{how}} health-preservation motives as a factor associated with {{ic|whose?}} sun-protection behaviour. This highlights the role of concern for long-term health in motivating protective actions. {{expand}} === Perceived vulnerability and protective beliefs === Motivation to protect the skin is influenced not only by knowledge of UV-related risks but also by whether individuals perceive themselves as vulnerable to harm {{f}}. Beliefs about the effectiveness of protective behaviours are also relevant (Jackson & Aiken, 2000) {{vague}}. Consequently, awareness of UV risks alone may not fully explain an individual's motivation to engage in sun protection. === Self-efficacy === Self-efficacy refers to an individual's confidence in their ability to perform a behaviour successfully {{f}}. Floyd et al. (2000) identified self-efficacy as an important component of protection motivation. In the context of sun protection, this concept helps explain why confidence in carrying out protective actions is relevant to {{what}} motivation. == How does protection motivation theory explain sun-protective behaviour? == Protection motivation theory (PMT) proposes that protective behaviour is influenced by two appraisal processes: threat appraisal and coping appraisal (Rogers, 1975). These processes help explain how individuals evaluate UV-related risks and their ability to protect themselves. === Threat appraisal === Threat appraisal involves evaluating the perceived severity of a health threat, such as skin cancer or UV damage, and one's perceived vulnerability to experiencing that threat. These beliefs contribute to an individual's motivation to adopt protective behaviour. === Coping appraisal === Coping appraisal involves evaluating response efficacy and self-efficacy. Response efficacy refers to whether an individual believes a protective behaviour will be effective, while self-efficacy refers to their confidence in successfully performing that behaviour. Research supports the relevance of these mechanisms. Floyd et al. (2000) found that perceived severity, vulnerability, response efficacy and self-efficacy were associated with protective intentions and behaviours across the studies included in their meta-analysis. === The health belief model === The health belief model (HBM) provides another framework for understanding why individuals engage in sun-protective behaviours {{f}}. The model proposes that health-related decisions are influenced by perceived susceptibility to a health problem, perceived severity of its consequences, perceived benefits of taking action and perceived barriers to doing so (Rosenstock, 1974). Later formulations also incorporate cues to action and self-efficacy {{f}}. In the context of sun protection, perceived susceptibility involves believing that UV exposure could cause personal harm, while perceived severity concerns the seriousness of potential consequences such as skin cancer {{f}}. Perceived benefits relate to believing that protective behaviours can reduce these risks, whereas perceived barriers may include inconvenience, discomfort or concerns about appearance {{f}}. Cues to action are prompts that encourage individuals to engage in protective behaviour {{f}}. Examples include UV index alerts, reminders to reapply sunscreen and public health campaigns. Self-efficacy also contributes to behaviour by influencing whether individuals feel capable of consistently performing protective actions {{f}}. Mia's situation illustrates these concepts. Although she recognises the health risks of excessive sun exposure, her desire to tan with friends may create a barrier to protection. A sunscreen reminder or encouragement from a friend could serve as a cue to action, while confidence in applying sunscreen and seeking shade may support her decision to protect her skin. === Comparing protection motivation theory and the health belief model === Protection motivation theory and the health belief model both emphasise the role of perceived health threats and beliefs about protective actions. However, PMT organises these processes into threat appraisal and coping appraisal, while HBM explicitly considers perceived barriers and cues to action. {{f}} Both models help explain why awareness of UV-related risks does not necessarily lead to consistent sun protection. Nevertheless, neither model fully captures the influence of appearance preferences, social norms and immediate rewards associated with tanning. Combining these theoretical perspectives with research on social motivation may therefore provide a more comprehensive understanding of sun-related behaviour. Table 1 summarises the similarities and differences between the two theories. {| class="wikitable" |+ Table 1. Comparison of protection motivation theory and the health belief model (ic|Use 1st letter capitalisation for Table captions per APA style}} {{f}} ! Psychological component ! Protection motivation theory (PMT) ! Health belief model (HBM) |- | Perceived threat | Threat appraisal considers perceived severity and vulnerability. | Considers perceived severity and susceptibility. |- | Protective beliefs | Coping appraisal considers response efficacy and self-efficacy. | Considers perceived benefits and self-efficacy. |- | Barriers and costs | Considers response costs and rewards associated with maladaptive behaviour. | Explicitly considers perceived barriers to protective action. |- | Triggers for action | Does not include a distinct cues-to-action component. | Includes cues to action, such as UV alerts and reminders. |- | Application to sun protection | Explains how perceived UV risks and confidence in protective actions influence motivation. | Explains how risk beliefs, benefits, barriers and reminders influence protective decisions. |} == How can safer sun behaviour be encouraged? == Effective sun-safety interventions should address both the health risks of ultraviolet (UV) exposure and the psychological rewards that motivate tanning, including appearance enhancement and social approval {{f}}. Psychological theories and research can help explain how interventions may encourage individuals to adopt safer behaviours. === Appearance-focused interventions === Appearance-focused interventions aim to influence sun-related behaviour by highlighting visible consequences of excessive UV exposure, such as premature skin ageing. These approaches may be particularly relevant to individuals who value tanning for its perceived attractiveness or social benefits {{f}}. Jones and Leary (1994) investigated {{how}} the effects of appearance-based messages on tanning intentions {{example}} among young adults {{where}}. Their findings suggest that concerns about appearance may influence intentions to reduce risky sun exposure {{expand}}. This research demonstrates the potential value of addressing motivations beyond long-term health consequences. However, changes in intentions do not necessarily establish that individuals will consistently adopt protective behaviours in everyday situations. A systematic review {{ic|of how many studies?}} by Persson et al. (2018) examined appearance-based interventions intended to reduce ultraviolet exposure. The findings suggested that appearance-focused strategies, including information about photoageing {{explain}} and UV photography {{explain}}, may improve sun-protective intentions and behaviours. However, differences in study methods {{explain}} and limited long-term follow-up restrict conclusions about whether these effects are sustained. === Strengthening protective motivation === Protection motivation theory suggests that interventions may encourage protective behaviour by increasing perceived vulnerability and severity while strengthening response efficacy and self-efficacy (Floyd et al., 2000). In practical terms, sun-safety campaigns {{example}} can communicate the potential consequences of UV exposure while demonstrating achievable protective actions. These may include applying sunscreen, wearing protective clothing and seeking shade. The health belief model also highlights the importance of perceived barriers and cues to action. Reminders to apply sunscreen and information about the UV index may encourage individuals to act on their existing health concerns {{example}}. These approaches suggest that effective interventions should not simply increase fear about UV exposure {{f}}. They should also strengthen confidence in protective actions and reduce obstacles that make those actions difficult to perform {{f}}. === Social and environmental strategies === Sun-related behaviour is influenced by social expectations and environmental circumstances {{f}}. Individuals may experience competing motivations when their desire to protect their skin conflicts with appearance preferences or the behaviour of friends. Strategies that encourage positive social norms surrounding sun protection may help address these competing motivations. For example, outdoor recreation groups can encourage shade breaks, protective clothing and regular sunscreen application. Environmental strategies may also make protective behaviour easier by increasing access to shade and sunscreen. These approaches complement individual-level interventions by reducing practical barriers to sun protection. Overall, psychological research {{f}} suggests that sun-safety interventions should combine clear information about UV-related risks with practical protective strategies. Addressing appearance motives, social influences and self-efficacy may help individuals translate protective intentions into more consistent behaviour. Henrikson et al. (2018) reviewed {{what}} evidence on behavioural counselling interventions for skin cancer prevention. Although some interventions improved reported sun-protection behaviours, evidence of reductions in sunburn was inconsistent. This distinction highlights the importance of evaluating actual behavioural and health outcomes rather than relying exclusively on intentions or self-reported behaviour. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflecting on Mia's situation === * Revisit Mia's scenario from the [[#Overview|Overview]]. What competing motivations may explain why she continues sun exposure despite knowing the potential health risks? * Using '''protection motivation theory''', identify how perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy, and self-efficacy could influence Mia's sun-protection behaviour. * What psychological strategy could encourage Mia to use sun protection while also addressing the appearance and social motivations associated with tanning? {{ic|Incoude answers to these questions}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {{ic|Use the [[Help:Quiz|quiz]] tool to create interactive quizzes}} ;Test your understanding '''Question 1:''' Which component of protection motivation theory describes confidence in one's ability to perform a protective behaviour? * A. Perceived severity * B. Self-efficacy * C. Perceived vulnerability * D. Response efficacy '''Question 2:''' Which concept in the health belief model describes reminders that encourage protective action? * A. Perceived severity * B. Response costs * C. Cues to action * D. Social rewards '''Answers:''' 1. B (Self-efficacy). 2. C (Cues to action). {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Sun exposure and protection behaviours are influenced by competing psychological, social and health-related motivations. Intentional sun exposure may be encouraged by appearance preferences, wellbeing motives and social expectations, whereas protective behaviour is influenced by health-preservation motives, perceived vulnerability and self-efficacy. Protection motivation theory and the health belief model provide complementary explanations of sun-protective behaviour. Both highlight the importance of perceived health threats and beliefs about protective actions, while the health belief model additionally emphasises barriers and cues to action. Research {{f}} suggests that appearance-focused interventions, practical reminders and strategies that strengthen protective confidence may encourage safer sun-related behaviour. However, limitations in existing research and differences between intentions and actual behaviour demonstrate the need for continued evaluation. Ultimately, effective sun-safety strategies should do more than communicate health risks. They should recognise the motivations encouraging sun exposure while making protective behaviour practical, achievable and socially acceptable. == See also == * [[w:Health belief model|Health belief model]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Protection motivation theory|Protection motivation theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sun tanning|Sun tanning]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Sunscreen|Sunscreen]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Ultraviolet|Ultraviolet radiation]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Floyd, D. L., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30''(2), 407–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x Henrikson, N. B., Morrison, C. C., Blasi, P. R., Nguyen, M., Shibuya, K. C., & Patnode, C. D. (2018). Behavioral counseling for skin cancer prevention: Evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. ''JAMA, 319''(11), 1143–1157. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.21630 Hillhouse, J. J., Turrisi, R., & Kastner, M. (2000). Modeling tanning salon behavioral tendencies using appearance motivation, self-monitoring and the theory of planned behavior. ''Health Education Research, 15''(4), 405–414. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/15.4.405 Ingledew, D. K., Ferguson, E., & Markland, D. (2010). Motives and sun-related behaviour. ''Journal of Health Psychology, 15''(1), 8–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309342292 Jackson, K. M., & Aiken, L. S. (2000). A psychosocial model of sun protection and sunbathing in young women: The impact of health beliefs, attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy for sun protection. ''Health Psychology, 19''(5), 469–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.5.469 Jones, J. L., & Leary, M. R. (1994). Effects of appearance-based admonitions against sun exposure on tanning intentions in young adults. ''Health Psychology, 13''(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.13.1.86 Leary, M. R., & Jones, J. L. (1993). The social psychology of tanning and sunscreen use: Self-presentational motives as a predictor of health risk. ''Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23''(17), 1390–1406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01039.x Persson, S., Benn, Y., Dhingra, K., Clark-Carter, D., Owen, A. L., & Grogan, S. (2018). Appearance-based interventions to reduce UV exposure: A systematic review. ''British Journal of Health Psychology, 23''(2), 334–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12291 Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. ''The Journal of Psychology, 91''(1), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803 Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). The health belief model and preventive health behavior. ''Health Education Monographs, 2''(4), 354–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019817400200405 }} ==External links== * [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety Be SunSmart and sun safety] (Cancer Council Australia) * [https://www.sunsmart.com.au/ SunSmart] (Cancer Council Victoria) * [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/sun-safety/uv-index UV Index] (Cancer Council Australia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Environment]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Health]] sl98y7ercdt2vwo7tln5h2jb67c5rih User:Gracelp 2 331618 2842079 2838153 2026-10-22T10:37:13Z ShakespeareFan00 6645 Attempting to solve lints 2842079 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Lian, and I am a psychology student balancing my university studies with work as a disability support worker and a rock climbing instructor/receptionist. Outside of my studies and work, I love going to the gym, practicing pottery, and spending quality time hanging out with my friends and family. I thrive on challenges and enjoy pushing my limits. Whether that is on the climbing wall, in physical training, or through challenging my emotional depths. == Book chapter I'm working on == '''Motivation and Emotion (2026)''' * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Parental motivations for homeschooling|Parental motivations for homeschooling: What motivates parents to homeschool their children?]] This chapter examines why parents choose homeschooling, focusing on parental self-efficacy, educational values, dissatisfaction with conventional schooling, and psychological theories of parental involvement. == Social contributions == Proofreading, Basic psychological needs and social media use * Reviewed [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Basic psychological needs and social media use|Basic psychological needs and social media use]]. * Corrected minor grammatical and spelling errors to improve the chapter's readability and clarity. * Evidence: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?diff=2837948 View my edits] (10 October 2026). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]]. * Provided feedback on reducing repetition in the discussion of situated expectancy-value theory, removing unfinished editing notes, correcting figure numbering, and strengthening the conclusion's practical take-home messages. [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value_theory_of_educational_motivation View my feedback] Peer feedback, '''Emotion regulation through exercise''' * Reviewed [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]]. * Provided constructive feedback on the chapter's case study, psychological theories, and practical exercise recommendations. Suggested strengthening connections between physiological mechanisms and research, clarifying overlapping theories, improving APA 7 reference formatting, and adding accessible educational resources. * Evidence: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/465374?entry_id=824739 View my UCLearn discussion post]. 8bpnk7xert29yleo0yvgevo350m15i4 David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits 0 331787 2842074 2841713 2026-10-22T10:19:45Z Dick Bos 24466 ref Principles 2842074 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ricardo Essay on Profits 1815 Titlepage.png|thumb|250px|right]] {{Right|"It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay."<br />({{harvp|O'Brien|1975|p=139}}). }} <div style="line-height:8em;">&nbsp;</div> This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use the following edition of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] (We will quote from this edition).<br /> Another edition, is the one published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' in 1962, edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). Available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this "Essay on Profits". Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, "the main variable under investigation in the Essay (
) is the general rate of profit".<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains "two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit."<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is "the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits".</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the "Essay" and the "Principles".<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvp|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvp|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Ricardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the ''aggregate'' income shares and the shares in ''agricultural output'' as yielded by the model."</ref> This resource will be followed by some pages, in which aspects of some issues in the ''Essay on Profits'' will be examined a bit deeper: * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Graphical|Graphical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Mathematical|Mathematical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Nature|Some remarks]] concerning the role of "nature" in the Ricardian theory == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvp|Ricardo|1815}}, [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|p. 3]]. Ricardo quotes: {{harvp|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit." (p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]–10) == The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' == To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>The table can be found on p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#14|14]]. Two remarks on this table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the "Essay" refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This 'model' demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit per cent. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 210 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 86 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; 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margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="width: 50px;" | ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | When the whole capital employed is ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1st&nbsp;Period | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 2d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 410 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 176 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 190 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 630 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 228 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 4th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 860 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 81 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 259 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 9Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 340 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 5th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 125 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 275 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 400 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1350 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 180 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 13Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 450 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 7th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1610 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 248Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 241Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 490 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 8th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1880 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 314Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 205Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 16Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."([[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|p. 11]], footnote). The table shows, according to Ricardo that "during the progress of a country the whole produce raised on its land, will increase, and for a certain time that part of the produce which belongs to the profits of stock, as well as that part which belongs to rent will increase; but that at a later period, every accumulation of capital will be attended with an absolute, as well as a proportionate diminution of profits,—though rents will uniformly increase. This is a view of the effects of accumulation which is exceedingly curious, and has, I believe, never before been noticed. It will be seen by the table, that, in a progressive country, rent is not only absolutely increasing, but that it is also increasing in its ratio to the capital employed on the land; thus when four hundred and ten was the whole capital employed, the landlord obtained three and a half per cent.; when one thousand one hundred—thirteen and a quarter per cent.; and when one thousand eight hundred and eighty—sixteen and a half per cent. The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share.(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#12|12]]- 13). This is the essence of Ricardo’s theory of ground rent in the context of a growing economy: as the economy grows – that is, as population growth and capital accumulation take place – the rate of profit will fall, whilst the income accruing to landowners will rise both in absolute and relative terms. The bringing into use of inferior land leads, through competition amongst capitalists – who are repeatedly forced to settle for a lower rate of profit – to the continuous absolute and relative enrichment of landowners. == Rent: a 'pure surplus' == {| | | {{pad|700px}} |"Corn is not high because a rente is paid, but a rent is paid because corn is high."<br />({{harvp|Ricardo|1817|p=38}}). |} Having drawn his central conclusion regarding the development of income distribution in his model of economic growth, Ricardo observes: “Rent (...) is in all cases a portion of the profits previously obtained on the land. It is never a new creation of revenue, but always part of a revenue already created.” ({{harvp|Ricardo|1815}}, [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#15|p. 15]]) Various authors emphasise this treatment of rent as a 'pure surplus'.<ref name=pure>See for instance {{harvp|Howard|King|1975|page = 77}} (second edition 1985:{{harvp|Howard|King|1985|page = 76}}); and see {{harvp|Hollander|1973|page=273}} for an explanation of the significance of Ricardo’s analysis of ‘interest as a transfer payment’ in contrast to Malthus’s concept of rent.</ref> For Ricardo, rent is price-determined rather than price-determining: rent does not form part of the value of production, which is, after all, determined by the conditions of production on marginal land. For Adam Smith, however, rent does constitute a constituent part of the price of production. Benetti points out that, in Ricardo's view, rent is certainly not an original surplus: "it is never a newly created revenue". On the contrary: the "surplus product" originally takes the form of profit, but is increasingly ''redistributed'' in favour of landowners in the course of economic development {{sfnp|Benetti|1975|page = 12}}. Consequently, in Ricardo's theory, the formation of rent does not depend on private ownership of land. Its appropriation by landowners, however, does. Benetti draws the conclusion from this that the treatment of rent (in the theory) must in fact follow the treatment of the determination of the rate of profit. A curious phenomenon arises in this context: in Ricardo's approach, good-quality land is initially freely available, so there is no rent, and the entire 'net product' is appropriated by the capitalist farmers. At a certain point, land of poorer quality is brought into use and the 'first settlers' (those who have settled on the best land), as owners of that best land, will receive rent. In this approach, therefore, the first settlers are initially merely entrepreneurs, but at a certain point become both entrepreneurs and landowners.<br />In the view presented by Ricardo, there are initially only the classes of the ‘labouring poor’ and capitalists. It is only when land of inferior quality is brought into use that a class of landowners emerges, who appropriate the rent. It might be said that the (socio-)logical and historical analyses do not correspond at all in this respect.<ref name=Veen82>This observation was made by Robert J. v.d. Veen in his lecture at University of Amsterdam, 1982-10-04-10-82 (lecture notes db, pp. 6–7).</ref> Blaug points out that Ricardo's interpretation of rent as 'pure surplus' implies the assumption that land has no alternative uses other than those for which it is actually being used at any given time. {{sfnp|Blaug|1985|page=82}}<br />"From the notion that 'rent does not enter into price', that rent is not payment for the using up of resources, the classical economists drew the practical corollary that it would make no difference if landlords were thrown to the wolves."{{sfnp|Blaug|1985|page=82}} The expropriation (or taxation) of rent by the state would not affect the scale of production. == "The share of landlords" == {| | | {{pad|700px}} |"The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share."<br />({{harvp|Ricardo|1815}}, [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#13|p. 13]]). |} In the second paragraph, above, it was stated that, according to Ricardo, the trends in the figures in the table show: * that total output rises in the course of the process of economic development; * that the share of output accruing to the capitalists as profit also increases for a time, but subsequently falls both in absolute and proportional terms; * that the rate of profit falls continuously; * that the sum of rent rises continuously; * that rent rises in relation to the capital invested: "the landowner receives not only a greater product, but also a greater share". Hollander points out that Ricardo "did not emphasise the behaviour of the rental and profit shares in the net or gross product."{{sfnp|Hollander|1973|p=274}} Indeed, apart from a highly ambiguous passage regarding "a larger share" in the ''Essay,'' there is no statement on the development of the share of rent in total (gross) production. From the context, one might infer that Ricardo has in mind here the ratio to the capital invested. The table does contain a column labelled "Rent per cent. on the whole capital"<ref name=whole>Compare the statement in {{harvp|Hollander|1973|p=274}} that Ricardo "is in fact mistaken" in that "beyond the eighth period the fraction (rent to agricultural capital) actually falls". {{harvp|Eatwell|1975|p=187}} (footnote) replies to this.</ref> (denoted in the next table as: R<sub>t</sub> / K<sub>t</sub>), but no column in which the share of rent in total production is calculated. However, the numerical example has apparently been chosen in such a way that the share of rent in total production rises continuously – as can be seen from the next table in the R<sub>t</sub> / K<sub>t</sub> column. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; text-align: center; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |+'''''Table, showing the part of rent in total production''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" | rowspan=2 style="vertical-align: top; border-collapse: collapse; border-right: 1px solid;" | period | colspan=3 style="align: center; border-collapse: collapse; border-right: 1px solid;" | in quarters wheat | rowspan=2 style="align: center; border-collapse: collapse; border-right: 1px solid;" | "rent<br /> &nbsp; per cent.&nbsp; &nbsp; <br />on the<br />whole<br />capital" | rowspan=2 style="align: center; border-collapse: collapse;" | part<br />of rent<br />in<br />total<br /> &nbsp; production &nbsp; |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| total<br /> &nbsp; production &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| "whole<br />capital<br />employed" &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| "whole<br /> &nbsp; amount &nbsp;<br />of rent" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 100%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" | style="border-right: 1px solid;" | t | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| X<sub>t</sub> | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| K<sub>t</sub> | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| R<sub>t</sub> | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| R<sub>t</sub> / K<sub>t</sub> | R<sub>t</sub> / X<sub>t</sub> |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 300 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 200 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| {{-}} | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| {{-}} | {{-}} |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 2 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 600 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 410 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 14 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 3,41 | 2,33 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 3 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 900 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 630 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 42 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 6,67 | 4,67 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 4 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1200 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 860 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 81 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 9,42 | 6,75 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 5 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1500 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1100 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 125 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 11,36 | 8,33 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 6 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1800 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1350 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 180 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 13,33 | 10,00 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 7 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 2100 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1610 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 248,5 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 15,43 | 11,83 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 8 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 2400 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1880 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 314,5 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 16,73 | 13,10 |} A number of authors are quite adamant in their view that, according to Ricardo, the share of rent in total output will rise, at the expense of the combined share of wages and profits. However, in general, the various authors do not appear to be particularly careful in citing the source for this view. O’Brien, for example, notes: “Ricardo made very clear predictions regarding the direction of change for all three shares” {{sfnp|O’Brien|1975|p=132}}. He argues that this can be clearly seen in the table in the “Essay”. He then immediately moves on to the question of whether Ricardo was justified in drawing the general conclusion from the table that rent rises as a proportion of output – an issue that will be discussed at length further in this resource. The fact that such a conclusion is not explicitly present in Ricardo’s work–at least in the ''Essay on Profits''–has already been noted above, but is not mentioned by O’Brien. Barkai speaks of "the definite conclusion" which Ricardo draws, "that in proportion to the progress of wealth and the difficulty of producing food, although the value of the labourer's portion will be increased, his real share will be diminished, whilst that of the landlord will not only be raised in value but will also be increased in quantity. The remaining quantity of the produce of the land constitutes the profit of stock . . . as society advances, this proportion of the whole produce will be diminished.<ref name=Barkai1>Barkai here points to {{harvp|Ricardo|1817}}, page 112 (Sraffa ed.).</ref> The proof of this theorem consists of an arithmetical example spread over three chapters of his Principles.”{{sfnp|Barkai|1959|p= 245}} Hollander’s statement at the beginning of this paragraph – that Ricardo places little emphasis on the behaviour of the shares of rent and profit in the net and/or gross product – is, in any case, difficult to refute. It may be concluded here that there is certainly reason to assume that Ricardo believed that the share of rent (as a proportion of total income or as a proportion of ‘the whole capital employed’, i.e. R/X or R/K) would rise in the course of the process of accumulation, and that this is certainly the case in the numerical example he gives in the ''Essay'' (and, incidentally, also in the numerical example in the ''Principles''), but that it is premature to assert this assumption with absolute certainty, and that the various authors who do so generally provide little or no evidence to support it.<br /> It can equally be argued that Ricardo is not very categorical in his conclusions regarding the development of rent, profit and wages as a proportion of total income. What will be set out in the page "on the mathematical interpretation of the ''Essay''," following this resource should be read against this background. A further difficulty that arises in this context – and to which the final paragraphs of the page "on the mathematical interpretation of the ''Essay''" are devoted – is that, if Ricardo believed he could conclude that the share of ground rent would rise in the course of economic development, this conclusion cannot possibly be derived consistently from the assumptions on which Ricardo based his model.<br /> It will become apparent that additional restrictions (particularly regarding the form of the production function used) are necessary to conclude that the share of ground rent will always rise when capital accumulation takes place under conditions of "diminishing returns". It is worth noting that [[:w:en:Edward West (economist and judge)|Edward West]], in his exposition of the "law of diminishing returns," as evidence for this law, argues, amongst other things, that the share of ground rent as a proportion of total agricultural output has fallen over the course of history. Stigler demonstrates that his reasoning in this regard is incorrect.{{sfnp|Stigler|1952|p=197}} == See also: == This resource will be followed by some pages, in which aspects of some issues in the ''Essay on Profits'' will be examined a bit deeper: * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Graphical|Graphical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Mathematical|Mathematical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Nature|Some remarks]] concerning the role of "nature" in the Ricardian theory == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Barkai | first = H. | author-link = :w:de:Haim Barkai | date = 1959 | title = Ricardo on Factor Prices and Income Distribution in a Growing Economy | journal = Economica | volume = 26 | issue = 103 | pp = 240–250 | doi = 10.2307/2550483 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2550483 | ref = harv }} {{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} * {{cite book | last = Benetti | first = C. | date = 1975 | title = Valeur et rĂ©partition | lang = fr | location = Grenoble | publisher = Maspero | id = {{OCLC|461493533}} | ref = harv }} (2nd ed.) * {{cite book | last = Blaug | first = Mark | date = 1985 | title = Economic Theory in Retrospect (fourth ed.) | location = Cambridge etc. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | ISBN = 0 521 30354 0 | ref = harv | url = http://digamo.free.fr/blaug62.pdf }} * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = 42 | issue = 166 | pp = 182–187 | doi = 10.2307/2553593 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2553593 | ref = harv }}<br />{{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />{{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.C. | last2 = King | first2 = J.E. | date = 1975 | title = The political economy of Marx | location = London | publisher = Longman | url = https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000howa | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.C. | last2 = King | first2 = J.E. | date = 1985 | title = The political economy of Marx (2nd ed.) | location = London | publisher = Longman | id = {{OCLC|10483279}} | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1817 | title = On the Principles of Political Economy; And Taxation | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = }} * {{cite journal | last = Stigler | first = George J. | author-link = :w:en:George Stigler | date = 1952 | title = The Ricardian Theory of Value and Distribution | journal = Journal of Political Economy | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pp = 187–207 | ref = harv | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826451 }}<br />{{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} mk4op1hkks6ekdgozkb1y3upq4ojij6 2842081 2842074 2026-10-22T10:41:31Z Dick Bos 24466 Sraffa 2842081 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ricardo Essay on Profits 1815 Titlepage.png|thumb|250px|right]] {{Right|"It is doubtful whether it is possible<br />to understand the Principles without<br />knowledge of the contents of the Essay."<br />({{harvp|O'Brien|1975|p=139}}). }} <div style="line-height:8em;">&nbsp;</div> This resource gives information on '''[[David Ricardo]]'s''' '''''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''''' (often abridged to '''''(An) Essay on Profits'''''). Two years before the publication of the first edition of his Magnum Opus, ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (often abridged to ''(The) Principles''), in 1815, Ricardo published a pamphlet entitled ''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock''. Full title: :::''An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock; Shewing the Inexpediency of Restrictions on Importation; With Remarks on Mr. Malthus' Two Last Publications: "An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;" and "The Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn."''<ref name=Essay1>We will use the following edition of ''The Essay on Profits'': * 1815: 2nd edition, online available at (English) [[Image:wikisource-logo.svg|16x16px]] Wikisource: [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock|An Essay on Profits (2nd ed.)]] (We will quote from this edition).<br /> Another edition, is the one published in the ''Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo'' in 1962, edited by Piero Sraffa, with the collaboration of Maurice Dobb, volume 4 (Pamphlets and Papers, 1815-1823), pp. 9-41. With note by P. Sraffa (p. 1-8). Available to borrow at [https://archive.org/details/workscorresponde0004rica The Internet Archive] after (free) subscription.</ref> Opinions among Ricardo scholars differ as to the precise significance of this "Essay on Profits". Among other things, there are subtle differences regarding the interpretation of the main variable under investigation,<ref>According to Hollander 1973, p. 273, "the main variable under investigation in the Essay (
) is the general rate of profit".<br />According to Stigler 1952, pp. 201–202, the Essay contains "two main elements of the Ricardian system: the theory of rent and the dominant influence of diminishing returns in agriculture upon the rate of profit."<br />According to Eatwell 1975, p. 186, the Essay is "the first complete statement of a theory of distribution based on the concept of surplus; that is to say, of a deductive relationship between wages and profits".</ref> and there are disagreements about the relationship between the "Essay" and the "Principles".<ref>Compare, for example, the discussion between Hollander and Eatwell on the significance of the "corn model" in Hollander 1973 and 1975, and Eatwell 1975.</ref> In the ''Essay on Profits'' Ricardo presents a comprehensive theory of ground rent within the context of a "corn model".<ref>This model is set out on pages 10 to 18 of the ''Essay on Profits.'' From page 18 onwards, the grain is (suddenly) assigned a price.</ref> Ricardo examines economic relationships, which are aggregated in terms of quantities of corn. He employs a single-output model, in which corn is produced through the application of labour to land. Inputs, outputs and income shares are measured in quantities of corn. <br /> This so-called "corn model" must be viewed against the background of Ricardo’s deductive method.<ref>For an analysis of the importance of the deductive method of Ricardo see e.g. {{harvp|O'Brien|1975|p=42f., 68f.}}</ref> <br /> The model has very limited validity.<ref name=valid>{{harvp|Hollander|1973|p=275}}: Even in the event that an adequate relationship is defined between the agricultural and general rates of profit the model would be unsuitable for the treatment of the income shares, and in fact Ricardo nowhere states the belief that there is a parallel movement between the ''aggregate'' income shares and the shares in ''agricultural output'' as yielded by the model."</ref> This resource will be followed by some pages, in which aspects of some issues in the ''Essay on Profits'' will be examined a bit deeper: * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Graphical|Graphical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Mathematical|Mathematical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Nature|Some remarks]] concerning the role of "nature" in the Ricardian theory == Rent == To start with, Ricardo uses a definition of rent that is taken directly from [[:w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus|Thomas Robert Malthus]]: {{Bq|Mr. Malthus very correctly defines, "the rent of land to be that portion of the value of the whole produce which remains to the owner, after all the outgoings belonging to its cultivation, of whatever kind, have been paid, including the profits of the capital employed, estimated according to the usual and ordinary rate of the profits of agricultural stock at the time being."<ref name=rent1>{{harvp|Ricardo|1815}}, [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#3|p. 3]]. Ricardo quotes: {{harvp|Malthus|1815|p=1–2}}.</ref>}} When land is first brought into cultivation, and land is freely available, the total output will consist of costs and profits, without ground rent. As long as there is sufficient land of equal fertility available, and that land is always equally well situated, this will remain the case. The net product (‘neat produce’) will consist entirely of profit. If we now assume that no improvements take place in agriculture, and that capital and population grow at the same rate – and thus that real wages remain constant – and if, moreover, it is assumed that the rate of profit in agriculture, commerce and industry is the same, it is possible to ascertain what particular effects occur as capital accumulation takes place, the population grows and more land is brought into use, particularly land situated further away and/or less fertile land. Where land is equally fertile but situated further away, more capital and labour will have to be employed to produce the same quantity of goods available for consumption from the same area. Consequently, less profit will be made on this newly cultivated land. And because profits are determined by the profit made on the ‘marginal’ land, a lower profit will also be realised on the land that was cultivated earlier. The portion of the net product that thereby becomes available on this land – and which was previously appropriated as profit by the entrepreneurs or tenants – will now constitute ground rent. This process will occur each time new land of poorer quality, or less favourably situated, is brought into use: "Thus by bringing successively land of a worse quality, or less favourably situated into cultivation, rent would rise on the land previously cultivated, and precisely in the same degree would profits fall; and if the smallness of profits do not check accumulation, there are hardly any limits to the rise of rent, and the fall of profit." (p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#9|9]]–10) == The table in the ''Essay on Profits'' == To illustrate his line of reasoning and clarify how the process he describes works, Ricardo uses a table: the "Table, shewing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital".<ref name=tablerem>The table can be found on p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#14|14]]. Two remarks on this table: * 1 quarter = 8 bushel = about 291 litre. * Although the "Essay" refers to wheat, in line with the common usage amongst economists who specialise in Ricardo, the term “corn” will be used throughout this resource.</ref> This 'model' demonstrates how the economy might develop as new land is brought into use in succession. The table is constructed as follows: it is assumed that, when only the first plot of land is brought into use, a profit of one hundred quarters is made on a capital of two hundred quarters; when a second plot of land is brought into use, a capital of 210 quarters must be invested in it to achieve a profit of 90 q., and so on. The total output from each plot is therefore always 300 q. of wheat. The ‘net produce’ (total output minus production costs) amounts to 100 q. for the first plot; 90 for the second; 80 for the third; and so on. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center;" |+ '''''TABLE, showing the Progress of Rent and Profit under an assumed Augmentation of Capital.''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Capital estimated in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit per cent. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Neat produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production on each capital. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 1st portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 2d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 3d portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 4th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 5th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 6th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Rent of 7th portion of land in quarters of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid;" | Profit of 8th portion of land in quarters of wheat. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 210 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 86 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 90 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 220 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 72 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 28 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 76 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 80 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 230 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 63 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 66 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 240 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 52Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 55 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 57Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 250 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 60 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 46 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 48 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 260 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 70 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 31Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 58Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 47 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 34Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 35Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 37Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 40 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 78 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 23 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 67 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 24 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 56 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25.3 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 44.7 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 26.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 33.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 22Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 27.6 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 12.4 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 29.7 |} {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; margin: auto; text-align: center; width:90%;" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" ! style="width: 50px;" | ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | When the whole capital employed is ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of rent received by landlords in quarter of wheat. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Whole amount of profits in quarters received by owners of stock. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Profit per cent. on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Rent per cent, on the whole capital. ! style="border: 1px solid; width: 40px;" | Total produce in quarters of wheat, after paying the cost of production. |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1st&nbsp;Period | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 200 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | none. | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 50 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 100 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 2d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 410 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 14 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 176 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 43 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 190 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 3d Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 630 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 42 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 228 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 36 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 4th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 860 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 81 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 259 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 30 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 9Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 340 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 5th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1100 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 125 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 275 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 25 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 400 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 6th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1350 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 180 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 270 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 20 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 13Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 450 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 7th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1610 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 248Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 241Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 15Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 490 |- | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 8th Ditto | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 1880 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 314Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 205Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 11 | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 16Âœ | style="border-left: 1px solid; border-right: 1px solid;" | 520 |} Ricardo emphasises the illustrative nature of the figures in the table: "It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the data on which this table is constructed are assumed, and are probably very far from the truth. They were fixed on as tending to illustrate the principle,—which would be the same, whether the first profits were fifty per cent. or five,—or, whether an additional capital of ten quarters, or of one hundred, were required to obtain the same produce from the cultivation of new land."([[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#11|p. 11]], footnote). The table shows, according to Ricardo that "during the progress of a country the whole produce raised on its land, will increase, and for a certain time that part of the produce which belongs to the profits of stock, as well as that part which belongs to rent will increase; but that at a later period, every accumulation of capital will be attended with an absolute, as well as a proportionate diminution of profits,—though rents will uniformly increase. This is a view of the effects of accumulation which is exceedingly curious, and has, I believe, never before been noticed. It will be seen by the table, that, in a progressive country, rent is not only absolutely increasing, but that it is also increasing in its ratio to the capital employed on the land; thus when four hundred and ten was the whole capital employed, the landlord obtained three and a half per cent.; when one thousand one hundred—thirteen and a quarter per cent.; and when one thousand eight hundred and eighty—sixteen and a half per cent. The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share.(p. [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#12|12]]- 13). This is the essence of Ricardo’s theory of ground rent in the context of a growing economy: as the economy grows – that is, as population growth and capital accumulation take place – the rate of profit will fall, whilst the income accruing to landowners will rise both in absolute and relative terms. The bringing into use of inferior land leads, through competition amongst capitalists – who are repeatedly forced to settle for a lower rate of profit – to the continuous absolute and relative enrichment of landowners. == Rent: a 'pure surplus' == {| | | {{pad|700px}} |"Corn is not high because a rente is paid, but a rent is paid because corn is high."<br />({{harvp|Ricardo|1817|p=38}}). |} Having drawn his central conclusion regarding the development of income distribution in his model of economic growth, Ricardo observes: “Rent (...) is in all cases a portion of the profits previously obtained on the land. It is never a new creation of revenue, but always part of a revenue already created.” ({{harvp|Ricardo|1815}}, [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#15|p. 15]]) Various authors emphasise this treatment of rent as a 'pure surplus'.<ref name=pure>See for instance {{harvp|Howard|King|1975|page = 77}} (second edition 1985:{{harvp|Howard|King|1985|page = 76}}); and see {{harvp|Hollander|1973|page=273}} for an explanation of the significance of Ricardo’s analysis of ‘interest as a transfer payment’ in contrast to Malthus’s concept of rent.</ref> For Ricardo, rent is price-determined rather than price-determining: rent does not form part of the value of production, which is, after all, determined by the conditions of production on marginal land. For Adam Smith, however, rent does constitute a constituent part of the price of production. Benetti points out that, in Ricardo's view, rent is certainly not an original surplus: "it is never a newly created revenue". On the contrary: the "surplus product" originally takes the form of profit, but is increasingly ''redistributed'' in favour of landowners in the course of economic development {{sfnp|Benetti|1975|page = 12}}. Consequently, in Ricardo's theory, the formation of rent does not depend on private ownership of land. Its appropriation by landowners, however, does. Benetti draws the conclusion from this that the treatment of rent (in the theory) must in fact follow the treatment of the determination of the rate of profit. A curious phenomenon arises in this context: in Ricardo's approach, good-quality land is initially freely available, so there is no rent, and the entire 'net product' is appropriated by the capitalist farmers. At a certain point, land of poorer quality is brought into use and the 'first settlers' (those who have settled on the best land), as owners of that best land, will receive rent. In this approach, therefore, the first settlers are initially merely entrepreneurs, but at a certain point become both entrepreneurs and landowners.<br />In the view presented by Ricardo, there are initially only the classes of the ‘labouring poor’ and capitalists. It is only when land of inferior quality is brought into use that a class of landowners emerges, who appropriate the rent. It might be said that the (socio-)logical and historical analyses do not correspond at all in this respect.<ref name=Veen82>This observation was made by Robert J. v.d. Veen in his lecture at University of Amsterdam, 1982-10-04-10-82 (lecture notes db, pp. 6–7).</ref> Blaug points out that Ricardo's interpretation of rent as 'pure surplus' implies the assumption that land has no alternative uses other than those for which it is actually being used at any given time. {{sfnp|Blaug|1985|page=82}}<br />"From the notion that 'rent does not enter into price', that rent is not payment for the using up of resources, the classical economists drew the practical corollary that it would make no difference if landlords were thrown to the wolves."{{sfnp|Blaug|1985|page=82}} The expropriation (or taxation) of rent by the state would not affect the scale of production. == "The share of landlords" == {| | | {{pad|700px}} |"The landlord not only obtains a greater produce, but a larger share."<br />({{harvp|Ricardo|1815}}, [[:s:en:An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock#13|p. 13]]). |} In the second paragraph, above, it was stated that, according to Ricardo, the trends in the figures in the table show: * that total output rises in the course of the process of economic development; * that the share of output accruing to the capitalists as profit also increases for a time, but subsequently falls both in absolute and proportional terms; * that the rate of profit falls continuously; * that the sum of rent rises continuously; * that rent rises in relation to the capital invested: "the landowner receives not only a greater product, but also a greater share". Hollander points out that Ricardo "did not emphasise the behaviour of the rental and profit shares in the net or gross product."{{sfnp|Hollander|1973|p=274}} Indeed, apart from a highly ambiguous passage regarding "a larger share" in the ''Essay,'' there is no statement on the development of the share of rent in total (gross) production. From the context, one might infer that Ricardo has in mind here the ratio to the capital invested. The table does contain a column labelled "Rent per cent. on the whole capital"<ref name=whole>Compare the statement in {{harvp|Hollander|1973|p=274}} that Ricardo "is in fact mistaken" in that "beyond the eighth period the fraction (rent to agricultural capital) actually falls". {{harvp|Eatwell|1975|p=187}} (footnote) replies to this.</ref> (denoted in the next table as: R<sub>t</sub> / K<sub>t</sub>), but no column in which the share of rent in total production is calculated. However, the numerical example has apparently been chosen in such a way that the share of rent in total production rises continuously – as can be seen from the next table in the R<sub>t</sub> / K<sub>t</sub> column. {| style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid; text-align: center; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |+'''''Table, showing the part of rent in total production''''' |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" | rowspan=2 style="vertical-align: top; border-collapse: collapse; border-right: 1px solid;" | period | colspan=3 style="align: center; border-collapse: collapse; border-right: 1px solid;" | in quarters wheat | rowspan=2 style="align: center; border-collapse: collapse; border-right: 1px solid;" | "rent<br /> &nbsp; per cent.&nbsp; &nbsp; <br />on the<br />whole<br />capital" | rowspan=2 style="align: center; border-collapse: collapse;" | part<br />of rent<br />in<br />total<br /> &nbsp; production &nbsp; |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 70%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| total<br /> &nbsp; production &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| "whole<br />capital<br />employed" &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| "whole<br /> &nbsp; amount &nbsp;<br />of rent" |- style="border: 1px solid; font-size: 100%; hyphens: auto; text-align: center;" | style="border-right: 1px solid;" | t | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| X<sub>t</sub> | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| K<sub>t</sub> | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| R<sub>t</sub> | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| R<sub>t</sub> / K<sub>t</sub> | R<sub>t</sub> / X<sub>t</sub> |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 300 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 200 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| {{-}} | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| {{-}} | {{-}} |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 2 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 600 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 410 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 14 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 3,41 | 2,33 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 3 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 900 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 630 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 42 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 6,67 | 4,67 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 4 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1200 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 860 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 81 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 9,42 | 6,75 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 5 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1500 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1100 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 125 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 11,36 | 8,33 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 6 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1800 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1350 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 180 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 13,33 | 10,00 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 7 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 2100 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1610 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 248,5 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 15,43 | 11,83 |- | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 8 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 2400 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 1880 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 314,5 | style="border-right: 1px solid;"| 16,73 | 13,10 |} A number of authors are quite adamant in their view that, according to Ricardo, the share of rent in total output will rise, at the expense of the combined share of wages and profits. However, in general, the various authors do not appear to be particularly careful in citing the source for this view. O’Brien, for example, notes: “Ricardo made very clear predictions regarding the direction of change for all three shares” {{sfnp|O’Brien|1975|p=132}}. He argues that this can be clearly seen in the table in the “Essay”. He then immediately moves on to the question of whether Ricardo was justified in drawing the general conclusion from the table that rent rises as a proportion of output – an issue that will be discussed at length further in this resource. The fact that such a conclusion is not explicitly present in Ricardo’s work–at least in the ''Essay on Profits''–has already been noted above, but is not mentioned by O’Brien. Barkai speaks of "the definite conclusion" which Ricardo draws, "that in proportion to the progress of wealth and the difficulty of producing food, although the value of the labourer's portion will be increased, his real share will be diminished, whilst that of the landlord will not only be raised in value but will also be increased in quantity. The remaining quantity of the produce of the land constitutes the profit of stock . . . as society advances, this proportion of the whole produce will be diminished.<ref name=Barkai1>Barkai here points to {{harvp|Ricardo|1817}}, page 112 (Sraffa ed.).</ref> The proof of this theorem consists of an arithmetical example spread over three chapters of his Principles.”{{sfnp|Barkai|1959|p= 245}} Hollander’s statement at the beginning of this paragraph – that Ricardo places little emphasis on the behaviour of the shares of rent and profit in the net and/or gross product – is, in any case, difficult to refute. It may be concluded here that there is certainly reason to assume that Ricardo believed that the share of rent (as a proportion of total income or as a proportion of ‘the whole capital employed’, i.e. R/X or R/K) would rise in the course of the process of accumulation, and that this is certainly the case in the numerical example he gives in the ''Essay'' (and, incidentally, also in the numerical example in the ''Principles''), but that it is premature to assert this assumption with absolute certainty, and that the various authors who do so generally provide little or no evidence to support it.<br /> It can equally be argued that Ricardo is not very categorical in his conclusions regarding the development of rent, profit and wages as a proportion of total income. What will be set out in the page "on the mathematical interpretation of the ''Essay''," following this resource should be read against this background. A further difficulty that arises in this context – and to which the final paragraphs of the page "on the mathematical interpretation of the ''Essay''" are devoted – is that, if Ricardo believed he could conclude that the share of ground rent would rise in the course of economic development, this conclusion cannot possibly be derived consistently from the assumptions on which Ricardo based his model.<br /> It will become apparent that additional restrictions (particularly regarding the form of the production function used) are necessary to conclude that the share of ground rent will always rise when capital accumulation takes place under conditions of "diminishing returns". It is worth noting that [[:w:en:Edward West (economist and judge)|Edward West]], in his exposition of the "law of diminishing returns," as evidence for this law, argues, amongst other things, that the share of ground rent as a proportion of total agricultural output has fallen over the course of history. Stigler demonstrates that his reasoning in this regard is incorrect.{{sfnp|Stigler|1952|p=197}} == See also: == This resource will be followed by some pages, in which aspects of some issues in the ''Essay on Profits'' will be examined a bit deeper: * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Graphical|Graphical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Mathematical|Mathematical interpretation]] of the Ricardian theory of rent * [[David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits/Nature|Some remarks]] concerning the role of "nature" in the Ricardian theory == Footnotes == {{references}} == Sources == * {{cite journal | last = Barkai | first = H. | author-link = :w:de:Haim Barkai | date = 1959 | title = Ricardo on Factor Prices and Income Distribution in a Growing Economy | journal = Economica | volume = 26 | issue = 103 | pp = 240–250 | doi = 10.2307/2550483 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2550483 | ref = harv }} {{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} * {{cite book | last = Benetti | first = C. | date = 1975 | title = Valeur et rĂ©partition | lang = fr | location = Grenoble | publisher = Maspero | id = {{OCLC|461493533}} | ref = harv }} (2nd ed.) * {{cite book | last = Blaug | first = Mark | date = 1985 | title = Economic Theory in Retrospect (fourth ed.) | location = Cambridge etc. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | ISBN = 0 521 30354 0 | ref = harv | url = http://digamo.free.fr/blaug62.pdf }} * {{cite journal | last = Eatwell | first = John | author-link = w:en:John Eatwell | date = 1975 | title = The Interpretation of Ricardo's Essay on Profits | journal = Economica | volume = 42 | issue = 166 | pp = 182–187 | doi = 10.2307/2553593 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2553593 | ref = harv }}<br />{{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} * {{cite journal | last = Hollander | first = Samuel | author-link = :w:en:Samuel Hollander | date = 1973 | title = Ricardo’s Analysis of the Profit Rate, 1813-15 | journal = Economica | volume = 40 | issue = 159 | pages = 260–282 | doi = 10.2307/2552797 | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552797 | ref = harv }}<br />{{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} * Hollander 1975 * {{cite book | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.C. | last2 = King | first2 = J.E. | date = 1975 | title = The political economy of Marx | location = London | publisher = Longman | url = https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000howa | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.C. | last2 = King | first2 = J.E. | date = 1985 | title = The political economy of Marx (2nd ed.) | location = London | publisher = Longman | id = {{OCLC|10483279}} | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Malthus | first = T.R. | author-link = :w:en:Thomas Robert Malthus | date = 1815 | title = An Inquiry Into the Nature and Progress of Rent | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Nature_and_Progress_of_Rent }} * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = D.P. | author-link = :w:en:Denis Patrick O'Brien | date = 1975 | title = The Classical Economists | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | ISBN = 0 19 877015 4 | url = https://archive.org/details/classicaleconomi0000obri | url-access = restricted | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1815 | title = An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Influence_of_a_Low_Price_of_Corn_on_the_Profits_of_Stock }} * {{cite book | last = Ricardo | first = David | author-link = David Ricardo | date = 1817 | title = On the Principles of Political Economy; And Taxation | location = London | publisher = John Murray | ref = harv | url = }} (when referring we will use the page numbering of the Sraffa ed.) * {{cite journal | last = Stigler | first = George J. | author-link = :w:en:George Stigler | date = 1952 | title = The Ricardian Theory of Value and Distribution | journal = Journal of Political Economy | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pp = 187–207 | ref = harv | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/1826451 }}<br />{{small|(access via [[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|12px|alt=12 px Wikipedia Library Owl]] [[:w:en:Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library (TWL)]])}} 3xtcpxl5klry5hvpg9oinkgxcb0u1b1 Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sun exposure and protection motivation 1 331793 2842041 2838963 2026-10-22T05:11:11Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2842041 wikitext text/x-wiki == Food for thought: The health belief model == Hey there, Well done on your topic development, I enjoyed reading your book chapter so far! It is fascinating to see how protection motivation theory (PMT) can be applied to sun-related behaviours. I also noticed your inclusion of the [[wikipedia:Health_belief_model|health belief model]] (HBM) in the 'see also' section, and I wondered if you have considered elaborating on this framework within your book chapter. From my understanding, the HBM suggests cues to action are an important trigger for behaviour change, whereas PMT centres on internal threat appraisal. It might be interesting compare these frameworks in your chapter! Best regards.   [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 05:19, 3 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- 1-level --> # Excellent [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings) # Remove the "Key points" and "Learning features" headings; distribute this content into the substantively named sections <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # An engaging scenario with a relevant image is planned or presented in a feature box at start of the Overview # I reduced the scenario image size to fit better # I removed "university student" to make the scenario more relatable to a wider international audience; university students represent only around 3% of the world's population <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and top-level headings, but consider closer alignment # There is no need for a question dedicated to research; instead, integrate covered of research throughout |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Key points are well developed for each section # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Scope --> # The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad) <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant (fixed for Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies # Put scenarios etc. in feature boxes <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External linkse ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective <!-- Description about self --> # Very brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 01:20, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Social Contribution Edits == Hi, Just letting you know I've made a social contribution edit to your page by adding some multimedia (a picture of the sun) and making sure all figures were referenced in the text. I hope you find them helpful! If not, feel free to remove them. -- [[User:U3275992|U3275992]] ([[User talk:U3275992|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3275992|contribs]]) 02:07, 11 October 2026 (UTC) == Suggestion == Hey, I really enjoyed reading your book chapter. I like that the opening scenario was relatable and a strong hook for the chapter. I think it would have been really interesting to go into depth on the influence of social media specifically on tanning. Personally, I remember it being heavily promoted on platforms like Instagram and TikTok over the past few years. I have had a brief look over some of the current research and found that there is a lot of research to promote sun safety on social media platforms; however, doesn’t look over using social media platforms to explain the dangers of tanning and excessive sun exposure, could be something to look into. De La Garza, H., Maymone, M. B. C., & Vashi, N. A. (2021). Impact of Social Media on Skin Cancer Prevention. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''18''(9), 5002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18095002 ‌Overall, your work flows nicely and is clear and well supported. I wish you the best of luck on the rest of the assessment. [[User:JessJ117|JessJ117]] ([[User talk:JessJ117|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/JessJ117|contribs]]) 10:30, 11 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression (e.g., move from bullet-points and single-sentence paragraphs into more complete 3 to 5 sentence paragraphs) #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Insufficient use [[w:Help:Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FSun_exposure_and_protection_motivation&diff=2842040&oldid=2841737 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Consider explaining what the short- and longer-term consequences of sun exposure were for Mia <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Convert bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are reasonably good # Rather than having a separate question about research, consider integrating review of research into the the other topics |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # Also consider that some people may intentionally expose to sun light in order to boost Vitamin D for physical and mental health <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles or related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Insufficient review of relevant research # Insufficient emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, consider synthesising findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Basic summary and conclusion # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest (e.g., what is the prevalence/cost of skin cancer?) <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Well captioned <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations, where used, use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Many claims are made without sufficient citation <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent APA style ## A relatively small number of references were used as the basis for this chapter <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Basic use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Basic use of figure(s) # Basic use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by using the interactive [[Help:Quiz]] tool # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Also include links to related book chapters <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Target an international audience ## Add more links |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~4 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:11, 22 October 2026 (UTC) 2kgodjk5l74ahmyth0ktu4fqf04e9fq Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Generativity 1 331848 2841937 2831479 2026-10-21T21:37:59Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2841937 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:Monuc9|Hi [[User:Monuc9|Monuc9]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:13, 5 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement # The headings could be more detailed # Consider adding an initial heading for a section that explains what generativity is # The structure logic (a series of relations between two constructs at a time) is a little awkward - consider a more integrated approach <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Very good <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions can be improved by revising the wording so that they align more directly with the sub-title |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Partial development <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Basic <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- Move --> # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the "External links" section <!-- Citations --> # All references need APA style in-text citation <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## alphabetical order ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## full journal titles ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters) <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Insufficient <!-- Description about self --> # Very brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Add link to book chapter (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:13, 5 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic (in this case, there is surprisingly little about Erikson's theory itself) #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic, including detail about the method and strength of findings #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* In many places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in edit summaries when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; for example, link(s) to the genAI conversation(s) are not provided, so a reader is unable to determine which parts are human-written and which parts are AI-generated, which is insufficiently academically transparent <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGenerativity&diff=2841936&oldid=2837071 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Very good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Revise the scenario to better illustrate generativity than stagnation # Consider changing the perspective from second person to third person <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # The Figure 1 caption could more clearly explain how it illustrates generativity <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are basic # The focus questions are vague; they may be AI-generated rather than human-developed from reading primary sources # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # There is insufficient description of generativity based on Erikson's original conceptualisation <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Basic depth is provided about key theory(ies) # There is quite a bit of "wheel spinning" (saying the same thing in different ways) which is typical of overreliance on poorly prompted genAI output <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic based on independent human-reading and writing. <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal, particularly methodology and strength of findings # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, consider synthesising findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Basic summary and conclusion # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # General take-home message provided <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ### genAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # Only cite sources that you consulted <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Basic use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Basic use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Basic use of figure(s) # No use of table(s) # Excellent use of feature box(es) # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section <!-- Learning features – External links --> ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~5 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:37, 21 October 2026 (UTC) mv877htwul9ldqes5tu1xz5ccmrzzdq Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs 1 332031 2841956 2836669 2026-10-22T00:38:38Z U3247927 3005952 /* Generative AI declaration */ Reply 2841956 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:U3247927|Hi [[User:U3247927|U3247927]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:25, 14 September 2026 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement <!-- Other ---> # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) <!-- Remove --> # Remove sub-headings in the Overview <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Very good # Good # Basic # Insufficient # Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # Promising scenario; could benefit from further development # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest # I reduced the image size # The scenario figure needs an APA style caption <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Keep this description brief; move detail in subsequent sections # What are the most relevant psychological theories? # Use APA style for citations (no italics) (fixed) <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # There is no need for a question dedicated to research; instead, integrate covered of research throughout # There are too many focus questions; only include questions that are needed to address the sub-title; avoid side-quests—these are usually better treated as examples or scenarios, or left out altogether so that the chapter can concentrate on the core task of synthesising the best psychological theory and research about the topic. |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Partial development # On the right track, but don't beat around the bush; cut to the chase by explaining what the best psychological theory and research tells us about how romantic entertainment influences beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships. # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Citation style --> # Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not italicise) <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion hasn't been developed # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing/decreasing each image size(s) to better fit with the surrounding text <!-- Creation --> # Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Good # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic but effective # Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] <!-- Description about self --> # Brief description about self – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:25, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Suggestion for 'External links' section == Hi there, Well done on your topic development! I enjoyed reading through the work you have done thus far. I noticed that you hadn't yet included external links to related resources on the topic. You should check out these articles on romantic entertainment and beliefs about love, I think that they might be a valuable addition to your chapter: * [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/reel-therapy/202607/how-5-classic-rom-coms-teach-us-to-love-better How 5 classic rom-coms teach us to love better] (Psychology Today) * [https://medium.com/@michaelanava444/romantic-cinema-whats-real-and-what-s-not-2f1e3dffd7c Romantic cinema: what’s real and what’s not] (Medium) * [https://theconversation.com/what-love-island-can-tell-us-about-the-history-of-love-119751 What Love Island can tell us about the history of love] (The Conversation) Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 04:24, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you for finding these sources ! [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 00:31, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == Generative AI declaration == Microsoft Copilot (OpenAI GPT-5-based conversational AI) was used as a writing-support tool during preparation of the overview section. All content was subsequently reviewed, revised, and checked against academic sources by the author. [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 00:49, 25 September 2026 (UTC) :'''AI-generated image notice:''' Figure 1 was generated using Microsoft Copilot (OpenAI GPT-5-based conversational AI) based on author-developed prompts and subsequently reviewed and selected by the author for inclusion in this chapter. [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 01:01, 25 September 2026 (UTC) ::'''Generative AI use statement:''' Microsoft Copilot was used as a learning and writing support tool during the development of this book chapter. Copilot assisted with brainstorming, refining chapter structure, reviewing focus questions and headings, and providing feedback on alignment with the marking rubric and assessment guidelines. Assessment materials, including general feedback, the marked topic development, and the marking criteria, were uploaded to obtain guidance on approaches for developing the chapter. All suggestions were critically evaluated, revised where appropriate, and checked against scholarly sources. The author takes full responsibility for the final content, interpretation of evidence, referencing, and conclusions presented in this chapter. [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 00:38, 22 October 2026 (UTC) == links for media == photo for love island section is from -https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1151258/Tommy-Fury-Love-Island-2019-cast-Molly-Mae-Hague-ITV2-video-watch 7/10/2026 [[User:U3247927|U3247927]] ([[User talk:U3247927|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/U3247927|contribs]]) 02:59, 8 October 2026 (UTC) leec1w6z7bpzn8jwjbk88nllrsnnhgp Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Awe and the diminished self 1 332070 2842070 2833315 2026-10-22T09:43:37Z Jtneill 10242 Topic development feedback (fix) 2842070 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 3-level --> # Overly complicated [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|5-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying <!-- Conceptual --> # Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Other ---> # Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings # Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark) <!-- Remove --> # Remove sub-headings in the Overview and/or Conclusion (fixed) <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- Scenario --> # An engaging scenario with a relevant image is planned or presented in a feature box at start of the Overview <!-- Description --> # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Consider awe as an emotion # What are the most relevant psychological theories? # The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perceptio <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings # There is no need to go beyond the topic (e.g., the last focus question might be a stretch) |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development # Don't get bogged down in background concepts; the bulk of the chapter should focus on the best psychological theory and research about the effect of awe on the self <!-- Scope --> # It is likely that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is well underway # Keep this section brief # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Basic <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses? <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] <!-- External links --> # External links ## Very good ## Use alphabetical order |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 11:40, 15 September 2026 (UTC) cb06ljpl0y5m16c38l7ocw4t6zwmmdr Digital Media Concepts/Claude Code in Software Development 0 332507 2841888 2840756 2026-10-21T15:50:21Z MLResearchEngineer 3112735 Adding Impact on Tech Interviews Section 2841888 wikitext text/x-wiki == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad|title=Claude Code is suddenly everywhere inside Microsoft|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=2026-01-22|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref>. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-in-one-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/|title=Google engineer says Claude Code built in one hour what her team spent a year on|last=Bastian|first=Matthias|date=2026-01-04|website=The Decoder|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index|title=Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index|date=2025-02-10|website=www.anthropic.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anthropic.com/research/impact-software-development|title=Anthropic Economic Index: AI's impact on software development|date=2025-04-28|website=www.anthropic.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-write-code-by-hand-anymore/|title=The head of Claude Code hasn't 'written a line of code by hand' in 8 months|last=Lichtenberg|first=Nick|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Impact on Tech Interviews == Coding interviews used to ban AI and focus on solving coding questions without any help. But now that AI can solve many of these questions in seconds, those interviews don't always reflect what coding is actually like in the real world. In June 2025, Canva changed its interviews to require candidates to use AI tools like Copilot, Cursor, and Claude on realistic coding tasks. Instead of just writing code from scratch, candidates are tested on how well they use AI, review its code, and fix its mistakes. Meta has also started moving toward AI-enabled coding interviews where candidates can use an AI assistant. While some companies still ban AI during interviews, more companies may start allowing it as AI becomes a bigger part of software development. ==Citations== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} mv5081hn5roketxj5qg3axxmem76tlr 2841889 2841888 2026-10-21T15:53:27Z MLResearchEngineer 3112735 Canva 2841889 wikitext text/x-wiki == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad|title=Claude Code is suddenly everywhere inside Microsoft|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=2026-01-22|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref>. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-in-one-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/|title=Google engineer says Claude Code built in one hour what her team spent a year on|last=Bastian|first=Matthias|date=2026-01-04|website=The Decoder|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index|title=Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index|date=2025-02-10|website=www.anthropic.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canva.dev/blog/engineering/yes-you-can-use-ai-in-our-interviews/|title=Yes, You Can Use AI in Our Interviews. In fact, we insist|date=|website=|language=|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-write-code-by-hand-anymore/|title=The head of Claude Code hasn't 'written a line of code by hand' in 8 months|last=Lichtenberg|first=Nick|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Impact on Tech Interviews == Coding interviews used to ban AI and focus on solving coding questions without any help. But now that AI can solve many of these questions in seconds, those interviews don't always reflect what coding is actually like in the real world. In June 2025, Canva changed its interviews to require candidates to use AI tools like Copilot, Cursor, and Claude on realistic coding tasks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canva.dev/blog/engineering/yes-you-can-use-ai-in-our-interviews/|title=Yes, You Can Use AI in Our Interviews. In fact, we insist|date=Jun 11, 2025}}</ref> Instead of just writing code from scratch, candidates are tested on how well they use AI, review its code, and fix its mistakes. Meta has also started moving toward AI-enabled coding interviews where candidates can use an AI assistant. While some companies still ban AI during interviews, more companies may start allowing it as AI becomes a bigger part of software development. ==Citations== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 2s2n4yzecp4i3y1ogi018yzkil3y9rt 2841890 2841889 2026-10-21T15:54:18Z MLResearchEngineer 3112735 /* Impact on Tech Interviews */ 2841890 wikitext text/x-wiki == History and Development == Anthropic first released Claude Code in February 2025 and made it available to everyone in May 2025. Claude Code is an AI tool that helps people develop software by telling it what you want in plain English. It can build features, fix bugs, edit code, and run terminal commands. It has gotten popular enough that big companies are trying it out too. Microsoft encouraged thousands of employees, including people who do not code, to try Claude Code. It also asked engineers to compare it with Copilot<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/tech/865689/microsoft-claude-code-anthropic-partnership-notepad|title=Claude Code is suddenly everywhere inside Microsoft|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=2026-01-22|website=The Verge|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref>. A Google engineer named Jaana Dogan also shared that Claude Code built a simpler version of a system her team had spent a year working on in about an hour. That sounds impressive, but she also pointed out that the result was not ready to be used in a real product.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://the-decoder.com/google-engineer-says-claude-code-built-in-one-hour-what-her-team-spent-a-year-on/|title=Google engineer says Claude Code built in one hour what her team spent a year on|last=Bastian|first=Matthias|date=2026-01-04|website=The Decoder|language=en-US|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Testing Claude Code in Software Development == When GitHub Copilot was tested on a coding task, developers who used it finished 55.8% faster than those who did not. That sounds great, although it was just one task and does not mean every project will be that much faster. Another test had a surprising result. In 2025, researchers asked experienced developers to complete real coding tasks with and without AI. They took 19% longer when they used AI, even though they expected it to help them work faster. == Impact on Software Development == Anthropic found that computer and math-related tasks made up 37.2% of Claude conversations. It also found that 57% of AI use involved helping people do their work, while 43% involved AI doing tasks more independently.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anthropic.com/news/the-anthropic-economic-index|title=Introducing the Anthropic Economic Index|date=2025-02-10|website=www.anthropic.com|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Another Anthropic report looked at 500,000 coding interactions and found that Claude Code was being used for automation in 79% of the interactions studied, compared with 21% for helping people with their work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canva.dev/blog/engineering/yes-you-can-use-ai-in-our-interviews/|title=Yes, You Can Use AI in Our Interviews. In fact, we insist|date=|website=|language=|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> Some developers are already changing the way they code. Boris Cherny, who leads Claude Code, told Fortune that he had not written code by hand in eight months.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2026/06/11/anthropic-claude-boris-cherny-doesnt-write-code-by-hand-anymore/|title=The head of Claude Code hasn't 'written a line of code by hand' in 8 months|last=Lichtenberg|first=Nick|website=Fortune|language=en|access-date=2026-10-16}}</ref> == Impact on Tech Interviews == Coding interviews used to ban AI and focus on solving coding questions without any help. But now that AI can solve many of these questions in seconds, those interviews don't always reflect what coding is actually like in the real world. In June 2025, Canva changed its interviews to require candidates to use AI tools like Copilot, Cursor, and Claude on realistic coding tasks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canva.dev/blog/engineering/yes-you-can-use-ai-in-our-interviews/|title=Yes, You Can Use AI in Our Interviews. In fact, we insist|date=Jun 11, 2025}}</ref> Instead of just writing code from scratch, candidates are tested on how well they use AI, review its code, and fix its mistakes. Meta has also started moving toward AI-enabled coding interviews where candidates can use an AI assistant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.404media.co/meta-is-going-to-let-job-candidates-use-ai-during-coding-tests/|title=Meta Is Going to Let Job Candidates Use AI During Coding Tests|date=Jul 29, 2025}}</ref> While some companies still ban AI during interviews, more companies may start allowing it as AI becomes a bigger part of software development. ==Citations== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 1c4kurhgmorasmvzzm2kcwd56oby5zz Growth per Nobel economists and others 0 332549 2841910 2841741 2026-10-21T20:01:19Z DavidMCEddy 218607 new section on "Media COI in IP law 2841910 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers computations based on the data from both Maddison and MeasuringWorth: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth( % / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% | - | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 $ 54,379 ||2.24% ||1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16208.04 || $40191.3 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588 England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920 ... ." === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 9ycwcvz6jsgtu7k3wyaved2exkpyc0k 2841916 2841910 2026-10-21T20:11:59Z DavidMCEddy 218607 fix syntax w table 2841916 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers computations based on the data from both Maddison and MeasuringWorth: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth( % / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 $ 54,379 ||2.24% ||1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16208.04 || $40191.3 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588 England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 5qsk95dghlpt92ihjlqbv1p3l522pr9 2841917 2841916 2026-10-21T20:14:26Z DavidMCEddy 218607 fix table 1 2841917 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers computations based on the data from both Maddison and MeasuringWorth: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth( % / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 $ || 54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208.04 || $40,191.3 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588 England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> fgslj7gstdchkbzvuwjurfbq5rriox0 2841918 2841917 2026-10-21T20:17:27Z DavidMCEddy 218607 fix Table 1 2841918 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers computations based on the data from both Maddison and MeasuringWorth: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588 England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 31a30n120dlg3cmb0xxpsj5e7uqhq16 2841919 2841918 2026-10-21T20:19:07Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841919 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and MeasuringWorth: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588 England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> hpvatccoym8w2cmwvllcf3a2byarpf9 2841920 2841919 2026-10-21T20:21:44Z DavidMCEddy 218607 link 2841920 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588 England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 9vpwngr930p827qy6xu43nyopsckxjv 2841921 2841920 2026-10-21T20:23:05Z DavidMCEddy 218607 comma 2841921 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: Elizabeth I in England, Philip II in Spain, and Henry III in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the Parliament in England, the Cortes in Spain, and the Estates-General in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> h5lmwifwl0v5zlj8aqiksbb6j1cr18b 2841922 2841921 2026-10-21T20:39:55Z DavidMCEddy 218607 links 2841922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III}} in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> f04gvj5up8028ushcau8lmqkf7uxndn 2841923 2841922 2026-10-21T20:40:59Z DavidMCEddy 218607 syntax 2841923 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} However, consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 273cof70tsoyp4b3t13th401dbq0uo0 2841924 2841923 2026-10-21T20:43:42Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841924 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry let by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> cf2kxa54ggvnqlulawube0ax186c8ok 2841925 2841924 2026-10-21T20:47:41Z DavidMCEddy 218607 typo 2841925 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 9g52zxq2j4q9evnakpk1shu4yp5n633 2841926 2841925 2026-10-21T20:50:10Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841926 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000, which would bankrupt his parents and which they could not recover even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> h1l871514k20csfab78kchkjltnrgm2 2841927 2841926 2026-10-21T20:53:45Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841927 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents, and they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> o031dco7qn8x5zche6u9206trmdph7s 2841928 2841927 2026-10-21T20:55:13Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841928 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP) resting on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> tm1ev7ikblga4bw05r24no47fczuld9 2841929 2841928 2026-10-21T20:58:29Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841929 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations, which provide most of the money for the major media, to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> q6atfr1hzzjjk6dz5won66yh3gbxh1g 2841930 2841929 2026-10-21T21:11:01Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841930 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) SLAPP laws, because anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> s2oaoxiukv40uk2fmcx2xfsoh3w6rv8 2841931 2841930 2026-10-21T21:13:50Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841931 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 3lfbu16xttjrsb915ok2rptmfiwmxr2 2841932 2841931 2026-10-21T21:16:31Z DavidMCEddy 218607 syntax 2841932 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appeared in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displayed "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293). A relationship between corruption and diverse media, not funded by advertising was reported by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 0wveqludsyv7zk8v8ilqabsr0ufwr32 2841935 2841932 2026-10-21T21:25:15Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841935 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who replaced Charles I, refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, presumably supported by the growing number of independent publishers of pamphlets, books, and newspapers mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 7yeon7gwzht3q4x2lui2vfvvvroslvz 2841950 2841935 2026-10-22T00:12:34Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth -- Statute of Monopolies 2841950 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants, who became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], which threatened this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 2vpek49g9wf8cfmnejh3s1y9bada37w 2841951 2841950 2026-10-22T00:22:45Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841951 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it rais{{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in proclaiming the contributions of immigrants to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> mvnw4iwdhipob6pr1x7pa7ac8ccbqlr 2841965 2841951 2026-10-22T00:53:02Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841965 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant to thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 5ad3ogtawnaojpccgmfgbxd7rktpmax 2841968 2841965 2026-10-22T01:02:31Z DavidMCEddy 218607 typo 2841968 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> bzzphziv2o8qw2sp2v4wrma0t24jib1 2841971 2841968 2026-10-22T01:06:19Z DavidMCEddy 218607 typo 2841971 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs moved to confiscate "[[w:Commons|commons]]", land whose use had been traditionally shared by commoners, and give to nobles. The Levellers had been excluded from the government of Lord Protector Cromwell, but the spirit of levelling still stalked the land. Some commoners joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> onlgf07fl7iejawsiool3xcxsm8ffa9 2841974 2841971 2026-10-22T01:13:44Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841974 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts", according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 7je12o1c7w9d5d7fy8bq0n7yn5j8n3j 2841978 2841974 2026-10-22T01:29:42Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841978 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the English Parliament worked to prevent his return and then the return of his son and grandson to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] as the monarch of Scotland and Britain.</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 3vw0y5h2zrdhhvrjz7s1qhye3ui9fzz 2841994 2841978 2026-10-22T01:49:57Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841994 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland / Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The Manchester Observer called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> tuysz8mkfjz3kiulv11yzo8h8ri8vyf 2841997 2841994 2026-10-22T01:55:08Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2841997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland / Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to became successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> acru8xo4jv3o5xyrgt0kqs922ruezho 2842000 2841997 2026-10-22T01:57:28Z DavidMCEddy 218607 typo 2842000 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland / Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either change in administration -- a new head of state -- or some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 9nompa1q0lojq5galmkdde3ozkz3hlm 2842002 2842000 2026-10-22T01:59:41Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2842002 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland / Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> fn44zv27yb8oupkf0xpzjho1yxuyir2 2842003 2842002 2026-10-22T02:02:19Z DavidMCEddy 218607 del excess space 2842003 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland / Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 95pibl6y53o9jocfwod30xod8lo4upr 2842005 2842003 2026-10-22T02:06:20Z DavidMCEddy 218607 syntax 2842005 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. While no one really knows how to make economies grow, immigrants and free, competitive media markets have been suggested as playing major roles in the creative destruction that is required for economic growth at the technology frontier. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1809 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913. The dramatic drop in the orange line could be due to the change in reference, as [[w:Holland|Holland]] at that time was more prosperous than the rest of the Netherlands.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807, and the Dutch leadership in Figure 1 may have ended then, not because of the devastation from the [[w:Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic Wars]] (which negatively impacted them) but because the available data prior to 1807 are for [[w:Holland|Holland]], while more recent data are for the Netherlands, of which Holland is only a part, though probably the most prosperous part at that time. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives "the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long".<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref> Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972). Mokyr (1994) describes "the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation." Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). This provides one explanation for the end of growth of the economy of Holland shortly before 1600 and for the slowing of economic growth in recent decades in the US, the UK, and the Netherlands, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that sanctuary jurisdictions have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>MartĂ­nez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President Trump's Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so the secular elites would "protect" them in wars against the designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature.<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king traveling around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> A century later during the [[w:English Civil War|English Civil War]] (1642-1651), pamphlets and newspapers helped build the [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], who supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. Many were part of the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which won the war. The Levellers were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]], son of King James, in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that (over a century later) became the US. That growth was presumably supported by the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were both roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor, whose successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> But FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the administrations threats against the ABC network because they didn't like a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the Institute for Nonprofit News, relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) explain that (a) the success of Parliament in restricting the power of Elizabeth I to grant monopolies and (b) the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588 facilitated the growth of a class of independent merchants. The latter became wealthy from the Atlantic trade. When Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|Divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29, This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. This merchant class used the pamphlets and books mentioned by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461), cited above, to organize opposition to the excesses of James I and his son, Charles I. After Charles I was beheaded, his replacement, [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors ''and'' encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how "the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting abruptly after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820), then another dramatic increase in the slope starting abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. However, the data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland / Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Commons|commons]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That period came to an abrupt end at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices of cereal grains and products made by them, high. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, "The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the Fifteenth Hussars had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... ." And the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (2) immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s could make important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as suggested by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, CĂ©line Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)__>{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--RenĂ©e DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna DoƛpiaƂ-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--MartĂ­nez, Daniel E.; MartĂ­nez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> kk8dhgq7xuods1dzf26187g88c6x7km User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model 2 332587 2841869 2841868 2026-10-21T12:01:08Z Wb525 3112992 2841869 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} = Cosmology: UG.NUG an alternative coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many rolesː * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. 3hy8jyirdm7rbo8gbvakoyizzvpi4gn 2841885 2841869 2026-10-21T14:03:03Z Wb525 3112992 2841885 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} = Cosmology: UG.NUG an alternative coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Cosmic Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many rolesː * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. cuywozz2wt25vxwnb98inc5v2kb7h1n 2841886 2841885 2026-10-21T14:07:49Z Wb525 3112992 2841886 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} = Cosmology: UG.NUG an alternative coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Cosmic Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many roles: * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. 4n9n6ht6ntel8c14rhz92lqnx2of4gb 2842039 2841886 2026-10-22T05:00:40Z Wb525 3112992 2842039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} = Cosmology: UG.NUG an alternative coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = UG.NUG = This is the name of this model. It encompasses these two regimes that govern the entire universe. We will see that NUG (geometry) appears much later than UG, but once present, it becomes an integral part of the universe. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Cosmic Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many roles: * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. aovhf0mjn9xcm99chavjgqgowgemj2a 2842050 2842039 2026-10-22T07:10:36Z Wb525 3112992 2842050 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} ''Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG.'' = Cosmology: UG.NUG an alternative coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = UG.NUG = This is the name of this model. It encompasses these two regimes that govern the entire universe. We will see that NUG (geometry) appears much later than UG, but once present, it becomes an integral part of the universe. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Cosmic Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many roles: * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. swdk28r3ihc910mbfgpt4o545x7hiwm 2842063 2842050 2026-10-22T09:14:34Z Wb525 3112992 2842063 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} ''Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG.'' = Cosmology: UG.NUG an alternative coherent model = == Abstract == This article is a reading of what, in short, may have been the cosmogony of our universe and, consequently, how its structure allows [[/%CE%9BCDM|flaws and added patches]] to vanish. = UG = This term stands for French '''''UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' (''Gendered Uniformity''). We coined it to describe a phenomenon that, strangely, has gone unnoticed until now. In short, everything produced by the universe in its earliest stages — particles, atoms, nuclei, molecules — none of which possess geometry, is subject to this regime. Its objects have no individuality, no history, no variation. This uniformity is the hidden foundation of everything, the silent order governing the birth of the universe. For now, let’s simply understand that the world of the small — below the molecule or chemistry — has no geometry, even if textbooks erroneously suggest otherwise. = NUG = This term stands for French '''''Non-UniformitĂ© GenrĂ©e''''' ''(Non-Gendered Uniformity''). It represents everything else: stars, planets, meteors, and of course, all that derives from them — humans, artifacts, flora, fauna. All these objects are to be considered geometric because they have a form perceptible to humans without sophisticated optical equipment. From this, we can already deduce that humanity is an integral part of its own physics. Without humans, this text — and others like it — would have no reason to exist, and its understanding, or rather, its reading, would not have been necessary. This realization is of capital importance because time — the kind we count on our wristwatches — is also subject to the presence of humanity. = UG.NUG = This is the name of this model. It encompasses these two regimes that govern the entire universe. We will see that NUG (geometry) appears much later than UG, but once present, it becomes an integral part of the universe. = the Arrow of Emergence = This is the principle that decides the order of the elements' emergence or modification. It is part of the universe's properties, or even prior to it — it makes no difference. When a glass slips from our hands and, by misfortune, the floor is tiled rather than carpeted, it shatters. And if we read the universe simply, we catch its message — the message of the irreversible cosmic order: the one that prevents the glass from reassembling, the one that prevents events from denying their own existence. Thus, the universe gives us the direction from past to future, what current physics commonly calls the Arrow of Time. But no chronometric time. = Time = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/Cosmic Time|time]] is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of [[/Cosmic Time|time]] — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Universe Formation = Faraday intuited the possibility of a substrate. It was randomly discovered in 1964: what the standard model calls [[/the CMB|CMB]], is not a fossil, but this invisible substrate, an omnipresent quantum form of the universe, called here the [[/the GRID|GRID]], that plays many roles: * The support of the whole universe. * The quantum matrix of what is to become the universe and its geometry. * The  counter energy that will, by contortion and pressure, create the [[/gravity|gravity]]. Therefore, and clearly, the universe — at least as far as humans are concerned — has always existed in its first primordial form, the one of the [[/the CMB|CMB]]. Then, somehow, without entering into a detailed description of an unknown so-called nucleosynthesis, the Arrow of Emergence triggers the evolution of the elements into more complex forms to finally emerge as geometry — the NUG regime, * Where [[/gravity|gravity]], as said, is expressed by the pressure of geometry on the [[/the GRID|GRID]]. * Where the so-called [[/black holes|black holes]] are none other than permanent centers of geometry emergence, which explains the spiral form of galaxies * Where gravitational waves are ripples in the [[/the GRID|GRID]], produced by extreme geometric distortions. LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA detect them without contradiction and certainly with greater probability than a mathematical construct such as spacetime. 3uv02ol3mbtyn5zwxmhoghrgkiotsgy User:Wb525 2 332588 2841870 2026-10-21T12:07:34Z Wb525 3112992 sub page link 2841870 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Subpages/Pagename|User:Wb525}} q2jklc5ffdmtd9alcjl9ydfvsti9nm9 User talk:Dolittletech1 3 332589 2841872 2026-10-21T12:17:33Z MathXplore 2888076 advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2841872 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-21 == <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left" lang="en">[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Dolittletech1|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span> as a "soapbox"]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about <span style="white-space:nowrap">Wikiversity</span>. Thanks. </div><!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1792585049189.1s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:17, 21 October 2026 (UTC) r96fz8kqe5kwlb1mmnjmh373ps7xfby User talk:MS Siyam 3 332590 2841873 2026-10-21T12:18:54Z MathXplore 2888076 vandalism1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2841873 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-21 == [[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I’m letting you know that one or more of your recent contributions have been reverted because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|sandbox]] or ask for assistance at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]. Thank you.<!-- Glow-vandalism1 @ 1792585131355.5s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 21 October 2026 (UTC) a7fpfxxbbo74p3svsrh4kdwkzlccio1 User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM 2 332591 2841874 2026-10-21T12:22:26Z Wb525 3112992 links 2841874 wikitext text/x-wiki = Abstract = This article deals with the incongruities ΛCDM. = The Long Long list = # ΛCDM says that only the universe exists. Yet it posits a '''singularity''' and a Big Bang outside the universe. # If the singularity is impossible, ''' the Big Bang''' never happened. # If the Big Bang never happened, the age of the universe is not a question. # If '''expansion''' existed, the disks of spiral galaxies would be distorted — elongated along the direction of expansion. This is not observed. If space expands, then it must be a physical entity — something that can stretch. But in general relativity, [[/Cosmic Time|local-spacetime]] is a mathematical structure: a metric, a set of coordinates. An abstraction does not stretch. So either space is a substance, and general relativity is wrong about its nature — or space is not a substance, and the expansion is a mathematical artifact with no physical counterpart. </nowiki> # The '''mass of Newton''' is defined by a definition of the mass. As a result, mass has never been independently defined. # Even Einstein's definition substitutes for '''mass''' a value that defines compressed energy, not mass. # '''Cold dark matter''', the term used in the model's name, is a patch that has never been observed, and nobody knows what it is. # '''Dark energy''' is a patch that has never been observed and nobody knows what it is. # '''Black Holes''' are a pure mathematical conjecture that has never been observed and nobody knows what they are. What is observed is a compact, luminous source at galactic centres, with young stars orbiting around it. This suggests a process of active formation — not an ogre hungry for matter. # The '''CMB''' is described as a fossil, but a cosmological fossil is not defined. And if it were, its nature would be that of something long dead — not still emitting microwaves. # '''''Model and reality''''' (the mathematical model is taken as an ontological description). # '''Ghosts to Geometry''' (ΛCDM wants to put shoes on ghost particles in order to make them geometric, more "human" and less frightening.). # '''gravity quantization'''  (forced quantization of gravity without conceptual justification). # '''''Symmetries vs. reality''''' (mathematical symmetries treated as properties of the real world). # '''''Horizon problem''''' (regions too distant to have ever ''coordinated''). # '''''Flatness problem''''' (the universe is too flat without fine‑tuning). # '''Homogeneity and Isotropy'''  (initial homogeneity unexplained). # '''''Origin of geometry''''' (the model assumes geometry but does not explain it). # '''''Cosmological constant''''' (value inexplicable, off by 120 orders of magnitude). # '''the Measurement Problem'''  (introduced to fix the model, not predicted by it). # '''Quantum and Relativity'''  (two conceptually incompatible frameworks). # '''''Curvature of spacetime'''''. (Spacetime is an abstract mathematical construct. A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure). And one can add to this list the new flaws regularly revealed by the JWST. = the Divorce = Criticizing ΛCDM is not criticizing anyone — it is criticizing a reading of the universe. Despite its venerable name, ΛCDM '''is nothing more than an interpretation'''. And since the universe itself remains silent and sparing in its revelations, it is remarkably easy to be right — or wrong. What distinguishes one reading from another is, consequently, its coherence, its agreement with observation, and its capacity to be tested. Coherence alone is not enough — a perfectly coherent system can be false, and history has shown this more than once. As in a police investigation or a computer program, if coherence is missing, the culprit is never found, the program does not run, and the equations meant to describe the universe fail to match observation. It is not dramatic; it is only theory. The current theory — the BBP as it stands — does not account for the universe in a way that satisfies its own criteria. It accumulates unresolved problems and adds new entities to mask them. This may sound extreme, but once you add: ''and yet the world still works'', the statement becomes far less shocking. This is made possible by the existence of two distinct physics. This is what I discovered through my research. Yes, it is surprising. No, it is never mentioned. These two physics are: * A '''theoretical physics''', currently the Big Bang paradigm (BBP), which accumulates conceptual flaws. * An '''applied physics''', through which we build lasers, MP3s, smartphones, antennas, MRIs, and satellites — and in this case, everything works perfectly. Without this distinction, it is impossible to understand how the world can function despite a conceptual physics largely disconnected from reality — where many proposed theories have failed to deliver what they promised: * string theory (no experimental evidence, unverifiable extra dimensions), * M-theory (no testable predictions), * supergravity (never observed), * supersymmetry (no superpartners detected at the LHC), * GUTs (no proton decay), * canonical quantum gravity (non-renormalizable), * loop quantum gravity (no testable predictions). Some of these are genuinely ruled out by experiment: * local hidden variables (ruled out by Bell tests), * steady-state cosmology (contradicted by the CMB), * naĂŻve dark-matter-free cosmologies (invalidated), * naĂŻve emergent gravity (incomplete and non-predictive). Applied physics therefore relies primarily on operational equations of its own making — the ones capable of building machines. But it must be said clearly: applied physics is not a separate physics. It uses quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, and relativity — the same theories that foundational research develops. A transistor is quantum mechanics. A GPS is general relativity. The point is not that the theories differ. It is that cosmological constructs such as dark matter, dark energy, inflation, and the cosmological constant play no role in the design of any instrument. Not one component, not one calculation, not one correction. Physicists concerned with practical reality rarely interact with conceptual physicists who, judging by the distance separating the two communities, no longer seem to read the universe as it truly is. Applied physics coexists with these conceptual models without actually relying on them. Those models remain largely confined to academic settings, and their influence seldom extends beyond the walls of universities. Gradually, this became impossible to ignore. The divergence can be traced back almost to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, when he introduced into his most famous equation — as we shall examine in detail in the chapter on mass — a profoundly ambiguous factor, *m*, thereby freezing into place a fundamental confusion that has led, over the course of a century, to an ongoing conceptual drift. A tiny ambiguity, yet enough to divert an entire branch of physics from its natural course. Yes, this is precisely the kind of information that is rarely shared with the general public and that, without doubt, many physicists themselves have never even suspected. When a rocket must be sent to the Moon, engineers use Newtonian mechanics, orbital dynamics, and relativity. They do not consult cosmology. This separation is real, but it is not a separation between two physics. It is a separation between the physics that builds things and the physics that speculates about origins. Two cultures coexist, they speak the same language, but they no longer read the same universe — and no one seems particularly concerned by it. Well, perhaps taxpayers should be, although most of them are unaware of it. = Anthropocentrism = The universe provides no anchor, no reference. Without GPS, it is impossible to know a position. Thus, we do not know where Earth is located — especially given its minuscule size in the cosmic expanse, comparable to a pinhead on a trillion football fields. All the measurements we know are therefore anthropocentric or purely terrestrial. Their close connection to humanity and its existence is undeniable. If position does not exist in space, then distance does not exist either, nor acceleration, velocity, weight, mass, or time. When we send a rocket to the Moon, it navigates using GPS stations orbiting Earth, which provide a reference up to a certain distance — the range of communication. Beyond that distance, the rocket is lost. In the case of a space probe like Hubble, which travels millions of kilometers away, it is a radio signal sent back to Earth that informs us of its distance. If communication is lost, the probe is also lost. Nothing can occur in space without a terrestrial reference — or, in the future, a reference from another planet if humanity were to inhabit one. = No References = The lack of scientific rigour is nowhere more visible than in quantum mechanics — this mysterious regime present in every atom of matter, which the Big Bang paradigm (BBP) insists on reducing to mere mathematics out of fear of the unknown. It represents the unique, singular, and indelible signature of the universe. The BBP has constructed mathematical spaces, geometries, and states that no observation has ever confirmed. They work — they predict the right numbers. But they do not describe what exists. Elementary particles are invisible to the naked eye and to the scanning tunneling microscope. No one has ever observed a wave function. This means that any representation of this regime is purely conjectural. These representations are all the more useless because only certain non-geometric parameters allow the use of quantum mechanics in research: * Energy levels via spectrometry, * Transition probabilities in lasers, * Electronic structures via STM, * Conduction bands in solid-state physics, * Bound states in quantum chemistry. 5sppsl47f3npmzrbtyk2s2r6vuwq7bs 2841882 2841874 2026-10-21T13:37:45Z Wb525 3112992 2841882 wikitext text/x-wiki = Abstract = This article deals with the incongruities ΛCDM. = The Long Long list = # ΛCDM says that only the universe exists. Yet it posits a '''singularity''' and a Big Bang outside the universe. # If the singularity is impossible, ''' the Big Bang''' never happened. # If the Big Bang never happened, the age of the universe is not a question. # If '''expansion''' existed, the disks of spiral galaxies would be distorted — elongated along the direction of expansion. This is not observed. If space expands, then it must be a physical entity — something that can stretch. But in general relativity, [[/Cosmic Time|local-spacetime]] is a mathematical structure: a metric, a set of coordinates. An abstraction does not stretch. So either space is a substance, and general relativity is wrong about its nature — or space is not a substance, and the expansion is a mathematical artifact with no physical counterpart. </nowiki> # The [[/the Mass Imbroglio|mass of Newton]] is defined by a definition of the mass. As a result, mass has never been independently defined. # Even Einstein's definition substitutes for [[/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]] a value that defines compressed energy, not mass. # '''Cold dark matter''', the term used in the model's name, is a patch that has never been observed, and nobody knows what it is. # '''Dark energy''' is a patch that has never been observed and nobody knows what it is. # [[/Black Holes|Black holes]] are a pure mathematical conjecture that has never been observed and nobody knows what they are. What is observed is a compact, luminous source at galactic centres, with young stars orbiting around it. This suggests a process of active formation — not an ogre hungry for matter. # The [[/the CMB|CMB]] is described as a fossil, but a cosmological fossil is not defined. And if it were, its nature would be that of something long dead — not still emitting microwaves. # '''''Model and reality''''' (the mathematical model is taken as an ontological description). # '''Ghosts to Geometry''' (ΛCDM wants to put shoes on ghost particles in order to make them geometric, more "human" and [[/the_Fear_of_the_Unexplainable|less frightening]].). # '''gravity quantization'''  (forced quantization of gravity without conceptual justification). # '''''Symmetries vs. reality''''' (mathematical symmetries treated as properties of the real world). # '''''Horizon problem''''' (regions too distant to have ever ''coordinated''). # '''''Flatness problem''''' (the universe is too flat without fine‑tuning). # '''Homogeneity and Isotropy'''  (initial homogeneity unexplained). # '''''Origin of geometry''''' (the model assumes geometry but does not explain it). # '''''Cosmological constant''''' (value inexplicable, off by 120 orders of magnitude). # '''the Measurement Problem'''  (introduced to fix the model, not predicted by it). # '''Quantum and Relativity'''  (two conceptually incompatible frameworks). # '''''Curvature of spacetime'''''. (Spacetime is an abstract mathematical construct. A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure). And one can add to this list the new flaws regularly revealed by the JWST. = the Divorce = Criticizing ΛCDM is not criticizing anyone — it is criticizing a reading of the universe. Despite its venerable name, ΛCDM '''is nothing more than an interpretation'''. And since the universe itself remains silent and sparing in its revelations, it is remarkably easy to be right — or wrong. What distinguishes one reading from another is, consequently, its coherence, its agreement with observation, and its capacity to be tested. Coherence alone is not enough — a perfectly coherent system can be false, and history has shown this more than once. As in a police investigation or a computer program, if coherence is missing, the culprit is never found, the program does not run, and the equations meant to describe the universe fail to match observation. It is not dramatic; it is only theory. The current theory — the BBP as it stands — does not account for the universe in a way that satisfies its own criteria. It accumulates unresolved problems and adds new entities to mask them. This may sound extreme, but once you add: ''and yet the world still works'', the statement becomes far less shocking. This is made possible by the existence of two distinct physics. This is what I discovered through my research. Yes, it is surprising. No, it is never mentioned. These two physics are: * A '''theoretical physics''', currently the Big Bang paradigm (BBP), which accumulates conceptual flaws. * An '''applied physics''', through which we build lasers, MP3s, smartphones, antennas, MRIs, and satellites — and in this case, everything works perfectly. Without this distinction, it is impossible to understand how the world can function despite a conceptual physics largely disconnected from reality — where many proposed theories have failed to deliver what they promised: * string theory (no experimental evidence, unverifiable extra dimensions), * M-theory (no testable predictions), * supergravity (never observed), * supersymmetry (no superpartners detected at the LHC), * GUTs (no proton decay), * canonical quantum [[/Gravity|gravity]] (non-renormalizable), * loop quantum [[/Gravity|gravity]] (no testable predictions). Some of these are genuinely ruled out by experiment: * local hidden variables (ruled out by Bell tests), * steady-state cosmology (contradicted by the [[/the CMB|CMB]]), * naĂŻve dark-matter-free cosmologies (invalidated), * naĂŻve emergent [[/Gravity|gravity]] (incomplete and non-predictive). Applied physics therefore relies primarily on operational equations of its own making — the ones capable of building machines. But it must be said clearly: applied physics is not a separate physics. It uses quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, and relativity — the same theories that foundational research develops. A transistor is quantum mechanics. A GPS is general relativity. The point is not that the theories differ. It is that cosmological constructs such as dark matter, dark energy, inflation, and the cosmological constant play no role in the design of any instrument. Not one component, not one calculation, not one correction. Physicists concerned with practical reality rarely interact with conceptual physicists who, judging by the distance separating the two communities, no longer seem to read the universe as it truly is. Applied physics coexists with these conceptual models without actually relying on them. Those models remain largely confined to academic settings, and their influence seldom extends beyond the walls of universities. Gradually, this became impossible to ignore. The divergence can be traced back almost to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, when he introduced into his most famous equation — as we shall examine in detail in the chapter on mass — a profoundly ambiguous factor, *m*, thereby freezing into place a fundamental confusion that has led, over the course of a century, to an ongoing conceptual drift. A tiny ambiguity, yet enough to divert an entire branch of physics from its natural course. Yes, this is precisely the kind of information that is rarely shared with the general public and that, without doubt, many physicists themselves have never even suspected. When a rocket must be sent to the Moon, engineers use Newtonian mechanics, orbital dynamics, and relativity. They do not consult cosmology. This separation is real, but it is not a separation between two physics. It is a separation between the physics that builds things and the physics that speculates about origins. Two cultures coexist, they speak the same language, but they no longer read the same universe — and no one seems particularly concerned by it. Well, perhaps taxpayers should be, although most of them are unaware of it. = Anthropocentrism = The universe provides no anchor, no reference. Without GPS, it is impossible to know a position. Thus, we do not know where Earth is located — especially given its minuscule size in the cosmic expanse, comparable to a pinhead on a trillion football fields. All the measurements we know are therefore anthropocentric or purely terrestrial. Their close connection to humanity and its existence is undeniable. If position does not exist in space, then distance does not exist either, nor acceleration, velocity, weight, mass, or time. When we send a rocket to the Moon, it navigates using GPS stations orbiting Earth, which provide a reference up to a certain distance — the range of communication. Beyond that distance, the rocket is lost. In the case of a space probe like Hubble, which travels millions of kilometers away, it is a radio signal sent back to Earth that informs us of its distance. If communication is lost, the probe is also lost. Nothing can occur in space without a terrestrial reference — or, in the future, a reference from another planet if humanity were to inhabit one. = No References = The lack of scientific rigour is nowhere more visible than in quantum mechanics — this mysterious regime present in every atom of matter, which the Big Bang paradigm (BBP) insists on reducing to mere mathematics out of fear of the unknown. It represents the unique, singular, and indelible signature of the universe. The BBP has constructed mathematical spaces, geometries, and states that no observation has ever confirmed. They work — they predict the right numbers. But they do not describe what exists. Elementary particles are invisible to the naked eye and to the scanning tunneling microscope. No one has ever observed a wave function. This means that any representation of this regime is purely conjectural. These representations are all the more useless because only certain non-geometric parameters allow the use of quantum mechanics in research: * Energy levels via spectrometry, * Transition probabilities in lasers, * Electronic structures via STM, * Conduction bands in solid-state physics, * Bound states in quantum chemistry. byw0m0dj5yg6q2lzclbh9xbgs1xt9ta 2841887 2841882 2026-10-21T14:12:01Z Wb525 3112992 2841887 wikitext text/x-wiki = Abstract = This article deals with the incongruities ΛCDM. = The Long Long list = # ΛCDM says that only the universe exists. Yet it posits a '''singularity''' and a Big Bang outside the universe. # If the singularity is impossible, ''' the Big Bang''' never happened. # If the Big Bang never happened, the age of the universe is not a question. # If '''expansion''' existed, the disks of spiral galaxies would be distorted — elongated along the direction of expansion. This is not observed. If space expands, then it must be a physical entity — something that can stretch. But in general relativity, [[/Cosmic Time|local-spacetime]] is a mathematical structure: a metric, a set of coordinates. An abstraction does not stretch. So either space is a substance, and general relativity is wrong about its nature — or space is not a substance, and the expansion is a mathematical artifact with no physical counterpart. # The [[/the Mass Imbroglio|mass of Newton]] is defined by a definition of the mass. As a result, mass has never been independently defined. # Even Einstein's definition substitutes for [[/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]] a value that defines compressed energy, not mass. # '''Cold dark matter''', the term used in the model's name, is a patch that has never been observed, and nobody knows what it is. # '''Dark energy''' is a patch that has never been observed and nobody knows what it is. # [[/Black Holes|Black holes]] are a pure mathematical conjecture that has never been observed and nobody knows what they are. What is observed is a compact, luminous source at galactic centres, with young stars orbiting around it. This suggests a process of active formation — not an ogre hungry for matter. # The [[/the CMB|CMB]] is described as a fossil, but a cosmological fossil is not defined. And if it were, its nature would be that of something long dead — not still emitting microwaves. # '''''Model and reality''''' (the mathematical model is taken as an ontological description). # '''Ghosts to Geometry''' (ΛCDM wants to put shoes on ghost particles in order to make them geometric, more "human" and [[/the_Fear_of_the_Unexplainable|less frightening]].). # '''gravity quantization'''  (forced quantization of gravity without conceptual justification). # '''''Symmetries vs. reality''''' (mathematical symmetries treated as properties of the real world). # '''''Horizon problem''''' (regions too distant to have ever ''coordinated''). # '''''Flatness problem''''' (the universe is too flat without fine‑tuning). # '''Homogeneity and Isotropy'''  (initial homogeneity unexplained). # '''''Origin of geometry''''' (the model assumes geometry but does not explain it). # '''''Cosmological constant''''' (value inexplicable, off by 120 orders of magnitude). # '''the Measurement Problem'''  (introduced to fix the model, not predicted by it). # '''Quantum and Relativity'''  (two conceptually incompatible frameworks). # '''''Curvature of spacetime'''''. (Spacetime is an abstract mathematical construct. A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure). And one can add to this list the new flaws regularly revealed by the JWST. = the Divorce = Criticizing ΛCDM is not criticizing anyone — it is criticizing a reading of the universe. Despite its venerable name, ΛCDM '''is nothing more than an interpretation'''. And since the universe itself remains silent and sparing in its revelations, it is remarkably easy to be right — or wrong. What distinguishes one reading from another is, consequently, its coherence, its agreement with observation, and its capacity to be tested. Coherence alone is not enough — a perfectly coherent system can be false, and history has shown this more than once. As in a police investigation or a computer program, if coherence is missing, the culprit is never found, the program does not run, and the equations meant to describe the universe fail to match observation. It is not dramatic; it is only theory. The current theory — the BBP as it stands — does not account for the universe in a way that satisfies its own criteria. It accumulates unresolved problems and adds new entities to mask them. This may sound extreme, but once you add: ''and yet the world still works'', the statement becomes far less shocking. This is made possible by the existence of two distinct physics. This distinction is rarely made. Yes, it is surprising. No, it is never mentioned. These two physics are: * A '''theoretical physics''', currently the Big Bang paradigm (BBP), which accumulates conceptual flaws. * An '''applied physics''', through which we build lasers, MP3s, smartphones, antennas, MRIs, and satellites — and in this case, everything works perfectly. Without this distinction, it is impossible to understand how the world can function despite a conceptual physics largely disconnected from reality — where many proposed theories have failed to deliver what they promised: * string theory (no experimental evidence, unverifiable extra dimensions), * M-theory (no testable predictions), * supergravity (never observed), * supersymmetry (no superpartners detected at the LHC), * GUTs (no proton decay), * canonical quantum [[/Gravity|gravity]] (non-renormalizable), * loop quantum [[/Gravity|gravity]] (no testable predictions). Some of these are genuinely ruled out by experiment: * local hidden variables (ruled out by Bell tests), * steady-state cosmology (contradicted by the [[/the CMB|CMB]]), * naĂŻve dark-matter-free cosmologies (invalidated), * naĂŻve emergent [[/Gravity|gravity]] (incomplete and non-predictive). Applied physics therefore relies primarily on operational equations of its own making — the ones capable of building machines. But it must be said clearly: applied physics is not a separate physics. It uses quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, and relativity — the same theories that foundational research develops. A transistor is quantum mechanics. A GPS is general relativity. The point is not that the theories differ. It is that cosmological constructs such as dark matter, dark energy, inflation, and the cosmological constant play no role in the design of any instrument. Not one component, not one calculation, not one correction. Physicists concerned with practical reality rarely interact with conceptual physicists who, judging by the distance separating the two communities, no longer seem to read the universe as it truly is. Applied physics coexists with these conceptual models without actually relying on them. Those models remain largely confined to academic settings, and their influence seldom extends beyond the walls of universities. Gradually, this became impossible to ignore. The divergence can be traced back almost to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, when he introduced into his most famous equation — as we shall examine in detail in the chapter on mass — a profoundly ambiguous factor, *m*, thereby freezing into place a fundamental confusion that has led, over the course of a century, to an ongoing conceptual drift. A tiny ambiguity, yet enough to divert an entire branch of physics from its natural course. Yes, this is precisely the kind of information that is rarely shared with the general public and that, without doubt, many physicists themselves have never even suspected. When a rocket must be sent to the Moon, engineers use Newtonian mechanics, orbital dynamics, and relativity. They do not consult cosmology. This separation is real, but it is not a separation between two physics. It is a separation between the physics that builds things and the physics that speculates about origins. Two cultures coexist, they speak the same language, but they no longer read the same universe — and no one seems particularly concerned by it. Well, perhaps taxpayers should be, although most of them are unaware of it. = Anthropocentrism = The universe provides no anchor, no reference. Without GPS, it is impossible to know a position. Thus, we do not know where Earth is located — especially given its minuscule size in the cosmic expanse, comparable to a pinhead on a trillion football fields. All the measurements we know are therefore anthropocentric or purely terrestrial. Their close connection to humanity and its existence is undeniable. If position does not exist in space, then distance does not exist either, nor acceleration, velocity, weight, mass, or time. When we send a rocket to the Moon, it navigates using GPS stations orbiting Earth, which provide a reference up to a certain distance — the range of communication. Beyond that distance, the rocket is lost. In the case of a space probe like Hubble, which travels millions of kilometers away, it is a radio signal sent back to Earth that informs us of its distance. If communication is lost, the probe is also lost. Nothing can occur in space without a terrestrial reference — or, in the future, a reference from another planet if humanity were to inhabit one. = No References = The lack of scientific rigour is nowhere more visible than in quantum mechanics — this mysterious regime present in every atom of matter, which the Big Bang paradigm (BBP) insists on reducing to mere mathematics out of fear of the unknown. It represents the unique, singular, and indelible signature of the universe. The BBP has constructed mathematical spaces, geometries, and states that no observation has ever confirmed. They work — they predict the right numbers. But they do not describe what exists. Elementary particles are invisible to the naked eye and to the scanning tunneling microscope. No one has ever observed a wave function. This means that any representation of this regime is purely conjectural. These representations are all the more useless because only certain non-geometric parameters allow the use of quantum mechanics in research: * Energy levels via spectrometry, * Transition probabilities in lasers, * Electronic structures via STM, * Conduction bands in solid-state physics, * Bound states in quantum chemistry. s38bth1y9gf36wbemz07ugg9vpbzbl0 2842055 2841887 2026-10-22T07:15:00Z Wb525 3112992 2842055 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG. = Abstract = This article deals with the incongruities ΛCDM. = The Long Long list = # ΛCDM says that only the universe exists. Yet it posits a '''singularity''' and a Big Bang outside the universe. # If the singularity is impossible, ''' the Big Bang''' never happened. # If the Big Bang never happened, the age of the universe is not a question. # If '''expansion''' existed, the disks of spiral galaxies would be distorted — elongated along the direction of expansion. This is not observed. If space expands, then it must be a physical entity — something that can stretch. But in general relativity, [[/Cosmic Time|local-spacetime]] is a mathematical structure: a metric, a set of coordinates. An abstraction does not stretch. So either space is a substance, and general relativity is wrong about its nature — or space is not a substance, and the expansion is a mathematical artifact with no physical counterpart. # The [[/the Mass Imbroglio|mass of Newton]] is defined by a definition of the mass. As a result, mass has never been independently defined. # Even Einstein's definition substitutes for [[/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]] a value that defines compressed energy, not mass. # '''Cold dark matter''', the term used in the model's name, is a patch that has never been observed, and nobody knows what it is. # '''Dark energy''' is a patch that has never been observed and nobody knows what it is. # [[/Black Holes|Black holes]] are a pure mathematical conjecture that has never been observed and nobody knows what they are. What is observed is a compact, luminous source at galactic centres, with young stars orbiting around it. This suggests a process of active formation — not an ogre hungry for matter. # The [[/the CMB|CMB]] is described as a fossil, but a cosmological fossil is not defined. And if it were, its nature would be that of something long dead — not still emitting microwaves. # '''''Model and reality''''' (the mathematical model is taken as an ontological description). # '''Ghosts to Geometry''' (ΛCDM wants to put shoes on ghost particles in order to make them geometric, more "human" and [[/the_Fear_of_the_Unexplainable|less frightening]].). # '''gravity quantization'''  (forced quantization of gravity without conceptual justification). # '''''Symmetries vs. reality''''' (mathematical symmetries treated as properties of the real world). # '''''Horizon problem''''' (regions too distant to have ever ''coordinated''). # '''''Flatness problem''''' (the universe is too flat without fine‑tuning). # '''Homogeneity and Isotropy'''  (initial homogeneity unexplained). # '''''Origin of geometry''''' (the model assumes geometry but does not explain it). # '''''Cosmological constant''''' (value inexplicable, off by 120 orders of magnitude). # '''the Measurement Problem'''  (introduced to fix the model, not predicted by it). # '''Quantum and Relativity'''  (two conceptually incompatible frameworks). # '''''Curvature of spacetime'''''. (Spacetime is an abstract mathematical construct. A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure). And one can add to this list the new flaws regularly revealed by the JWST. = the Divorce = Criticizing ΛCDM is not criticizing anyone — it is criticizing a reading of the universe. Despite its venerable name, ΛCDM '''is nothing more than an interpretation'''. And since the universe itself remains silent and sparing in its revelations, it is remarkably easy to be right — or wrong. What distinguishes one reading from another is, consequently, its coherence, its agreement with observation, and its capacity to be tested. Coherence alone is not enough — a perfectly coherent system can be false, and history has shown this more than once. As in a police investigation or a computer program, if coherence is missing, the culprit is never found, the program does not run, and the equations meant to describe the universe fail to match observation. It is not dramatic; it is only theory. The current theory — the BBP as it stands — does not account for the universe in a way that satisfies its own criteria. It accumulates unresolved problems and adds new entities to mask them. This may sound extreme, but once you add: ''and yet the world still works'', the statement becomes far less shocking. This is made possible by the existence of two distinct physics. This distinction is rarely made. Yes, it is surprising. No, it is never mentioned. These two physics are: * A '''theoretical physics''', currently the Big Bang paradigm (BBP), which accumulates conceptual flaws. * An '''applied physics''', through which we build lasers, MP3s, smartphones, antennas, MRIs, and satellites — and in this case, everything works perfectly. Without this distinction, it is impossible to understand how the world can function despite a conceptual physics largely disconnected from reality — where many proposed theories have failed to deliver what they promised: * string theory (no experimental evidence, unverifiable extra dimensions), * M-theory (no testable predictions), * supergravity (never observed), * supersymmetry (no superpartners detected at the LHC), * GUTs (no proton decay), * canonical quantum [[/Gravity|gravity]] (non-renormalizable), * loop quantum [[/Gravity|gravity]] (no testable predictions). Some of these are genuinely ruled out by experiment: * local hidden variables (ruled out by Bell tests), * steady-state cosmology (contradicted by the [[/the CMB|CMB]]), * naĂŻve dark-matter-free cosmologies (invalidated), * naĂŻve emergent [[/Gravity|gravity]] (incomplete and non-predictive). Applied physics therefore relies primarily on operational equations of its own making — the ones capable of building machines. But it must be said clearly: applied physics is not a separate physics. It uses quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, and relativity — the same theories that foundational research develops. A transistor is quantum mechanics. A GPS is general relativity. The point is not that the theories differ. It is that cosmological constructs such as dark matter, dark energy, inflation, and the cosmological constant play no role in the design of any instrument. Not one component, not one calculation, not one correction. Physicists concerned with practical reality rarely interact with conceptual physicists who, judging by the distance separating the two communities, no longer seem to read the universe as it truly is. Applied physics coexists with these conceptual models without actually relying on them. Those models remain largely confined to academic settings, and their influence seldom extends beyond the walls of universities. Gradually, this became impossible to ignore. The divergence can be traced back almost to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, when he introduced into his most famous equation — as we shall examine in detail in the chapter on mass — a profoundly ambiguous factor, *m*, thereby freezing into place a fundamental confusion that has led, over the course of a century, to an ongoing conceptual drift. A tiny ambiguity, yet enough to divert an entire branch of physics from its natural course. Yes, this is precisely the kind of information that is rarely shared with the general public and that, without doubt, many physicists themselves have never even suspected. When a rocket must be sent to the Moon, engineers use Newtonian mechanics, orbital dynamics, and relativity. They do not consult cosmology. This separation is real, but it is not a separation between two physics. It is a separation between the physics that builds things and the physics that speculates about origins. Two cultures coexist, they speak the same language, but they no longer read the same universe — and no one seems particularly concerned by it. Well, perhaps taxpayers should be, although most of them are unaware of it. = Anthropocentrism = The universe provides no anchor, no reference. Without GPS, it is impossible to know a position. Thus, we do not know where Earth is located — especially given its minuscule size in the cosmic expanse, comparable to a pinhead on a trillion football fields. All the measurements we know are therefore anthropocentric or purely terrestrial. Their close connection to humanity and its existence is undeniable. If position does not exist in space, then distance does not exist either, nor acceleration, velocity, weight, mass, or time. When we send a rocket to the Moon, it navigates using GPS stations orbiting Earth, which provide a reference up to a certain distance — the range of communication. Beyond that distance, the rocket is lost. In the case of a space probe like Hubble, which travels millions of kilometers away, it is a radio signal sent back to Earth that informs us of its distance. If communication is lost, the probe is also lost. Nothing can occur in space without a terrestrial reference — or, in the future, a reference from another planet if humanity were to inhabit one. = No References = The lack of scientific rigour is nowhere more visible than in quantum mechanics — this mysterious regime present in every atom of matter, which the Big Bang paradigm (BBP) insists on reducing to mere mathematics out of fear of the unknown. It represents the unique, singular, and indelible signature of the universe. The BBP has constructed mathematical spaces, geometries, and states that no observation has ever confirmed. They work — they predict the right numbers. But they do not describe what exists. Elementary particles are invisible to the naked eye and to the scanning tunneling microscope. No one has ever observed a wave function. This means that any representation of this regime is purely conjectural. These representations are all the more useless because only certain non-geometric parameters allow the use of quantum mechanics in research: * Energy levels via spectrometry, * Transition probabilities in lasers, * Electronic structures via STM, * Conduction bands in solid-state physics, * Bound states in quantum chemistry. kqiok4tfn3gojmhpieu5od90fymec4q 2842069 2842055 2026-10-22T09:34:48Z Wb525 3112992 2842069 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG. = Abstract = This article deals with the incongruities ΛCDM. = The Long Long list = # ΛCDM says that only the universe exists. Yet it posits a '''singularity''' and a Big Bang outside the universe. # If the singularity is impossible, ''' the Big Bang''' never happened. # If the Big Bang never happened, the age of the universe is not a question. # If '''expansion''' existed, the disks of spiral galaxies would be distorted — elongated along the direction of expansion. This is not observed. If space expands, then it must be a physical entity — something that can stretch. But in general relativity, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/Cosmic Time|local-spacetime]] is a mathematical structure: a metric, a set of coordinates. An abstraction does not stretch. So either space is a substance, and general relativity is wrong about its nature — or space is not a substance, and the expansion is a mathematical artifact with no physical counterpart. # The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the Mass Imbroglio|mass of Newton]] is defined by a definition of the mass. As a result, mass has never been independently defined. # Even Einstein's definition substitutes for [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]] a value that defines compressed energy, not mass. # '''Cold dark matter''', the term used in the model's name, is a patch that has never been observed, and nobody knows what it is. # '''Dark energy''' is a patch that has never been observed and nobody knows what it is. # [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/black holes|Black holes]] are a pure mathematical conjecture that has never been observed and nobody knows what they are. What is observed is a compact, luminous source at galactic centres, with young stars orbiting around it. This suggests a process of active formation — not an ogre hungry for matter. # The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] is described as a fossil, but a cosmological fossil is not defined. And if it were, its nature would be that of something long dead — not still emitting microwaves. # '''''Model and reality''''' (the mathematical model is taken as an ontological description). # '''Ghosts to Geometry''' (ΛCDM wants to put shoes on ghost particles in order to make them geometric, more "human" and less frightening.). # '''gravity quantization'''  (forced quantization of gravity without conceptual justification). # '''''Symmetries vs. reality''''' (mathematical symmetries treated as properties of the real world). # '''''Horizon problem''''' (regions too distant to have ever ''coordinated''). # '''''Flatness problem''''' (the universe is too flat without fine‑tuning). # '''Homogeneity and Isotropy'''  (initial homogeneity unexplained). # '''''Origin of geometry''''' (the model assumes geometry but does not explain it). # '''''Cosmological constant''''' (value inexplicable, off by 120 orders of magnitude). # '''the Measurement Problem'''  (introduced to fix the model, not predicted by it). # '''Quantum and Relativity'''  (two conceptually incompatible frameworks). # '''''Curvature of spacetime'''''. (Spacetime is an abstract mathematical construct. A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure). And one can add to this list the new flaws regularly revealed by the JWST. = the Divorce = Criticizing ΛCDM is not criticizing anyone — it is criticizing a reading of the universe. Despite its venerable name, ΛCDM '''is nothing more than an interpretation'''. And since the universe itself remains silent and sparing in its revelations, it is remarkably easy to be right — or wrong. What distinguishes one reading from another is, consequently, its coherence, its agreement with observation, and its capacity to be tested. Coherence alone is not enough — a perfectly coherent system can be false, and history has shown this more than once. As in a police investigation or a computer program, if coherence is missing, the culprit is never found, the program does not run, and the equations meant to describe the universe fail to match observation. It is not dramatic; it is only theory. The current theory — the BBP as it stands — does not account for the universe in a way that satisfies its own criteria. It accumulates unresolved problems and adds new entities to mask them. This may sound extreme, but once you add: ''and yet the world still works'', the statement becomes far less shocking. This is made possible by the existence of two distinct physics. This distinction is rarely made. Yes, it is surprising. No, it is never mentioned. These two physics are: * A '''theoretical physics''', currently the Big Bang paradigm (BBP), which accumulates conceptual flaws. * An '''applied physics''', through which we build lasers, MP3s, smartphones, antennas, MRIs, and satellites — and in this case, everything works perfectly. Without this distinction, it is impossible to understand how the world can function despite a conceptual physics largely disconnected from reality — where many proposed theories have failed to deliver what they promised: * string theory (no experimental evidence, unverifiable extra dimensions), * M-theory (no testable predictions), * supergravity (never observed), * supersymmetry (no superpartners detected at the LHC), * GUTs (no proton decay), * canonical quantum [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]] (non-renormalizable), * loop quantum [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]] (no testable predictions). Some of these are genuinely ruled out by experiment: * local hidden variables (ruled out by Bell tests), * steady-state cosmology (contradicted by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]), * naĂŻve dark-matter-free cosmologies (invalidated), * naĂŻve emergent [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]] (incomplete and non-predictive). Applied physics therefore relies primarily on operational equations of its own making — the ones capable of building machines. But it must be said clearly: applied physics is not a separate physics. It uses quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, and relativity — the same theories that foundational research develops. A transistor is quantum mechanics. A GPS is general relativity. The point is not that the theories differ. It is that cosmological constructs such as dark matter, dark energy, inflation, and the cosmological constant play no role in the design of any instrument. Not one component, not one calculation, not one correction. Physicists concerned with practical reality rarely interact with conceptual physicists who, judging by the distance separating the two communities, no longer seem to read the universe as it truly is. Applied physics coexists with these conceptual models without actually relying on them. Those models remain largely confined to academic settings, and their influence seldom extends beyond the walls of universities. Gradually, this became impossible to ignore. The divergence can be traced back almost to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, when he introduced into his most famous equation — as we shall examine in detail in the chapter on mass — a profoundly ambiguous factor, *m*, thereby freezing into place a fundamental confusion that has led, over the course of a century, to an ongoing conceptual drift. A tiny ambiguity, yet enough to divert an entire branch of physics from its natural course. Yes, this is precisely the kind of information that is rarely shared with the general public and that, without doubt, many physicists themselves have never even suspected. When a rocket must be sent to the Moon, engineers use Newtonian mechanics, orbital dynamics, and relativity. They do not consult cosmology. This separation is real, but it is not a separation between two physics. It is a separation between the physics that builds things and the physics that speculates about origins. Two cultures coexist, they speak the same language, but they no longer read the same universe — and no one seems particularly concerned by it. Well, perhaps taxpayers should be, although most of them are unaware of it. = Anthropocentrism = The universe provides no anchor, no reference. Without GPS, it is impossible to know a position. Thus, we do not know where Earth is located — especially given its minuscule size in the cosmic expanse, comparable to a pinhead on a trillion football fields. All the measurements we know are therefore anthropocentric or purely terrestrial. Their close connection to humanity and its existence is undeniable. If position does not exist in space, then distance does not exist either, nor acceleration, velocity, weight, mass, or time. When we send a rocket to the Moon, it navigates using GPS stations orbiting Earth, which provide a reference up to a certain distance — the range of communication. Beyond that distance, the rocket is lost. In the case of a space probe like Hubble, which travels millions of kilometers away, it is a radio signal sent back to Earth that informs us of its distance. If communication is lost, the probe is also lost. Nothing can occur in space without a terrestrial reference — or, in the future, a reference from another planet if humanity were to inhabit one. = No References = The lack of scientific rigour is nowhere more visible than in quantum mechanics — this mysterious regime present in every atom of matter, which the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|Big Bang paradigm]] (BBP) insists on reducing to mere mathematics out of fear of the unknown. It represents the unique, singular, and indelible signature of the universe. The BBP has constructed mathematical spaces, geometries, and states that no observation has ever confirmed. They work — they predict the right numbers. But they do not describe what exists. Elementary particles are invisible to the naked eye and to the scanning tunneling microscope. No one has ever observed a wave function. This means that any representation of this regime is purely conjectural. These representations are all the more useless because only certain non-geometric parameters allow the use of quantum mechanics in research: * Energy levels via spectrometry, * Transition probabilities in lasers, * Electronic structures via STM, * Conduction bands in solid-state physics, * Bound states in quantum chemistry. 2r5njksqaucl1y2qapdq1iwmcd42vj7 Artificial intelligence/Confident wrong answers from language models 0 332592 2841875 2026-10-21T12:38:12Z Evgenii Arsentev 3110906 New learning resource: why language models give confident wrong answers and how much to check 2841875 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Why language models state false things fluently}} This learning resource is a sub-page of [[Artificial intelligence]]. It is about one habit in working with chat assistants: '''checking an answer in proportion to what depends on it'''. This page is about one property of language models, the programs behind chat assistants. A false statement comes out in the same fluent, confident tone as a true one. The wording, the structure and the level of detail look the same whether the content is correct or invented. The goal is not fear. The goal is a habit of checking that grows with the stakes: a little effort when little is at risk, a lot when a mistake would be costly. Nothing on this page depends on one product; it applies to any assistant that writes text. {{RightTOC}} == Learning objectives == After working through this resource a learner should be able to: * explain why fluency is not evidence that an answer is correct * recognise the usual forms of a confident wrong answer * move a task from recall to reading * match the amount of checking to the consequences * use three short questions before relying on an answer == 1. Why it happens == A language model is trained to continue text in the most plausible way. It learns from a very large amount of writing which words tend to follow which, and it uses that to produce an answer that reads like a good answer. Plausible and true overlap most of the time, which is why the tool is useful. Ask about a well-known topic and the most plausible continuation is usually also the correct one. The trouble starts where the two come apart. When the model does not have the fact, nothing inside it stops and says "unknown". It still produces the most plausible continuation, in the same tone. So the tone of the answer carries no information about whether it is right. The model is not lying on purpose; there is simply no built-in step that checks the claim before it is written. == 2. What it looks like == These answers rarely look like nonsense. They look like ordinary, helpful answers. The warning sign is precise detail with nothing you can open behind it: a name, a number or a title that you cannot trace to a place. Typical forms, each with an invented everyday example: * A source that does not exist - a report title and year that sound real, but no library or search finds them * A precise number without origin - "about 38% of small firms" with no survey named * A quotation nobody said - a sentence put in the mouth of a well-known scientist * A feature that is not there - a menu item or setting that the program has never had * A step that skips a rule - an instruction that sounds standard but ignores a local regulation Note that the 38% above is an invented example of a number without origin, not a real finding. In each case the sentence is fluent and specific, and that is exactly why it is believed. '''Exercise 1.''' Ask an assistant for three sources on a narrow topic you know well, then try to open each one. Write down which ones exist and whether they say what the answer claimed. == 3. Reading instead of recalling == The same model is much more reliable as a reader than as a memory. When you give it the actual document, table or page and ask it to answer only from that material, the task changes from "remember" to "read what is in front of you". False facts become much rarer, because the answer can be built from the text on the screen instead of from general plausibility. Ask it to point to the place in the material for each claim: a page, a section, a row. An answer that cannot point anywhere is a guess. This does not make checking unnecessary; it makes checking fast, because each claim comes with its location and you can open that spot in a few seconds. '''Exercise 2.''' Take a two-page document and ask five questions about it twice - once without the document, and once with it pasted in and the instruction to answer only from it and give the place. Compare how many answers you could confirm in each case. == 4. Checking in proportion to consequences == A wrong detail in a brainstorm costs nothing. The same wrong detail in a published figure, a contract, a medical or legal statement, or code that goes to users can cost a lot. So the effort of checking should follow the consequences, not the tone of the answer. A simple guide, from light to heavy: * Ideas, first drafts - nothing; read it as a suggestion * Internal notes and summaries - one claim picked at random, opened in the source * Numbers and quotations that will be published - every one, in the original source * Medical, legal or financial statements - every one, by a qualified person, before anyone acts on it * Code or settings that will reach users - run it and look at the result, not at the explanation == 5. Three questions before relying on an answer == When an answer is about to leave the chat and become part of your work, pause for a few seconds and ask three short questions: * Where does this come from? * Can I open that place myself? * What happens if it is wrong? If the third answer is "nothing much", move on. If it is "something serious", the first two questions are not optional: you need a place the claim comes from, and you need to open it yourself. '''Exercise 3.''' Take an answer you were about to use this week and go through the three questions in writing. Note how long it took. == Discussion questions == * Why is a confident tone persuasive even when people know the tool can be wrong? * Is asking the model "are you sure?" a check? (It is not a source.) * What changes when the answer will be read by someone who trusts you? == See also == * [[Artificial intelligence/Checking AI output with a second agent]] * [[Artificial intelligence/Giving an AI agent a task it can check]] * [[Large language models]] [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] [[Category:Information literacy]] sky0jtr8lxhhdvsgx38pnuw19u9q7up File:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261021.pdf 6 332593 2841880 2026-10-21T13:32:01Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841880 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} sefphndvp78q42jz9gwws7ujz0r6h56 File:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261021.pdf 6 332594 2841881 2026-10-21T13:32:46Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2841881 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261021 - 20261020) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-21 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 0sjad4y65yr66n28xt9eiuo6vrpdfd5 User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/Cosmic Time 2 332595 2841883 2026-10-21T13:44:06Z Wb525 3112992 cosmic time page creation 2841883 wikitext text/x-wiki = Current Definition = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of time — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Succession = What does exist, however, is '''Succession.''' This sequence of events gives the idea of past and future. A glass that breaks cannot reassemble itself. Indeed, once it has broken, we can say: it was intact (past), and now (present/future) it is shattered. This succession gives the impression of time passing, but without chronometry it is not the useful time indicated by our watches; it is simply a '''Succession''' of events. The confusion is easy, but the difference is immense. Our prehistoric ancestors saw that days followed one another, that the dead did not wake up, that water flowed in one direction in streams and rivers. But they had no watches. They did not measure time. They had no appointments at 3:00 p.m. At best, they could agree to meet at sunrise or sunset — nothing more. And it is precisely this reference — '''sunrise or sunset''' — actually '''the circadian periodicity,''' that makes time measurement possible. = the Circadian Periodicity = What we wear on our wrist is the calculation of this periodicity, divided into units of measurement: hours, minutes, seconds. Time zones are interpretations of this periodicity, based on the dance of the Sun and Earth for each latitude. People wake with the day in America, and in France as well — at the same local time, '''but not at the same moment'''. Universal time therefore does not exist. On the contrary, it exists only for this pin‑head called Earth, hidden among trillions of football fields. Worse still, it exists only for the humans who live on it. Animals do not care. Time zones are the best evidence of the circadian periodicity as they measure the sleep and awake time of humans all around the world. = the Mistake = Chronometric time is a key value for many physical parameters and equations. It is the basis of acceleration and velocity, which in turn allow us to calculate force, thrust, and so on. So total was the misunderstanding even for Einstein, who named his “spacetime,” whereas its true name should have been closer to “local-space‑time” since time exists only for humans, locally, and not in the universe.   ΛCDM itself, when it calculates the age of the universe as 13.7 billion years, speaks of years that did not exist before the appearance of the Earth and the Sun. It obviously gives an idea of duration in a human's mind but says nothing about the real age of the universe. = The Light Years = Since distances are expressed in kilometres travelled by light in a year, we assume that cosmic distances are a question and a function of time. This is why this passage is of immense importance for the understanding of cosmology — or rather, for its misunderstanding, because this mistake calls the whole of it into question. The light-year is a human mind unit. The same is true of the speed of light. It is usually presented as a universal constant — 299,792,458 metres per second. But the metre and the second are human units. The second is defined by the circadian periodicity of life on Earth. The metre is defined by the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Each unit refers back to the other, and both refer back to the Earth and its humans. The speed of light is therefore not a constant of the universe, but a human convention — a circular one. '''Nothing is measurable in the universe.''' rc75we9pt8w2jzg51w7kn4grewo6qf2 2841884 2841883 2026-10-21T14:01:36Z Wb525 3112992 2841884 wikitext text/x-wiki = Current Definition = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of time — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Succession = What does exist, however, is '''Succession.''' This sequence of events gives the idea of past and future. A glass that breaks cannot reassemble itself. Indeed, once it has broken, we can say: it was intact (past), and now (present/future) it is shattered. This succession gives the impression of time passing, but without chronometry it is not the useful time indicated by our watches; it is simply a '''Succession''' of events. The confusion is easy, but the difference is immense. Our prehistoric ancestors saw that days followed one another, that the dead did not wake up, that water flowed in one direction in streams and rivers. But they had no watches. They did not measure time. They had no appointments at 3:00 p.m. At best, they could agree to meet at sunrise or sunset — nothing more. And it is precisely this reference — '''sunrise or sunset''' — actually '''the circadian periodicity,''' that makes time measurement possible. = the Circadian Periodicity = What we wear on our wrist is the calculation of this periodicity, divided into units of measurement: hours, minutes, seconds. Time zones are interpretations of this periodicity, based on the dance of the Sun and Earth for each latitude. People wake with the day in America, and in France as well — at the same local time, '''but not at the same moment'''. Universal time therefore does not exist. On the contrary, it exists only for this pin‑head called Earth, hidden among trillions of football fields. Worse still, it exists only for the humans who live on it. Animals do not care. Time zones are the best evidence of the circadian periodicity as they measure the sleep and awake time of humans all around the world. = the Misundertanding = Chronometric time is a key value for many physical parameters and equations. It is the basis of acceleration and velocity, which in turn allow us to calculate force, thrust, and so on. Even Einstein misunderstood this, naming his concept ''spacetime'', whereas its true name should have been closer to ''local-space‑time'' since time exists only for humans, locally, and not in the universe.   ΛCDM itself, when it calculates the age of the universe as 13.7 billion years, speaks of years that did not exist before the appearance of the Earth and the Sun. It obviously gives an idea of duration in a human's mind but says nothing about the real age of the universe. = The Light Years = Since distances are expressed in kilometres travelled by light in a year, we assume that cosmic distances are a question and a function of time. This is why this passage is of immense importance for the understanding of cosmology — or rather, for its misunderstanding, because this mistake calls the whole of it into question. The light-year is a human mind unit. The same is true of the speed of light. It is usually presented as a universal constant — 299,792,458 metres per second. But the metre and the second are human units. The second is defined by the circadian periodicity of life on Earth. The metre is defined by the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Each unit refers back to the other, and both refer back to the Earth and its humans. The speed of light is therefore not a constant of the universe, but a human convention — a circular one. '''Nothing is measurable in the universe without a human or any other entity's reference..''' 5z2ivbfnqy2yxm2a46nrzp5v2m3pyfr 2842048 2841884 2026-10-22T07:06:02Z Wb525 3112992 2842048 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} ''This is an original research project by Willy Bohane.'' = Current Definition = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of time — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Succession = What does exist, however, is '''Succession.''' This sequence of events gives the idea of past and future. A glass that breaks cannot reassemble itself. Indeed, once it has broken, we can say: it was intact (past), and now (present/future) it is shattered. This succession gives the impression of time passing, but without chronometry it is not the useful time indicated by our watches; it is simply a '''Succession''' of events. The confusion is easy, but the difference is immense. Our prehistoric ancestors saw that days followed one another, that the dead did not wake up, that water flowed in one direction in streams and rivers. But they had no watches. They did not measure time. They had no appointments at 3:00 p.m. At best, they could agree to meet at sunrise or sunset — nothing more. And it is precisely this reference — '''sunrise or sunset''' — actually '''the circadian periodicity,''' that makes time measurement possible. = the Circadian Periodicity = What we wear on our wrist is the calculation of this periodicity, divided into units of measurement: hours, minutes, seconds. Time zones are interpretations of this periodicity, based on the dance of the Sun and Earth for each latitude. People wake with the day in America, and in France as well — at the same local time, '''but not at the same moment'''. Universal time therefore does not exist. On the contrary, it exists only for this pin‑head called Earth, hidden among trillions of football fields. Worse still, it exists only for the humans who live on it. Animals do not care. Time zones are the best evidence of the circadian periodicity as they measure the sleep and awake time of humans all around the world. = the Misundertanding = Chronometric time is a key value for many physical parameters and equations. It is the basis of acceleration and velocity, which in turn allow us to calculate force, thrust, and so on. Even Einstein misunderstood this, naming his concept ''spacetime'', whereas its true name should have been closer to ''local-space‑time'' since time exists only for humans, locally, and not in the universe.   ΛCDM itself, when it calculates the age of the universe as 13.7 billion years, speaks of years that did not exist before the appearance of the Earth and the Sun. It obviously gives an idea of duration in a human's mind but says nothing about the real age of the universe. = The Light Years = Since distances are expressed in kilometres travelled by light in a year, we assume that cosmic distances are a question and a function of time. This is why this passage is of immense importance for the understanding of cosmology — or rather, for its misunderstanding, because this mistake calls the whole of it into question. The light-year is a human mind unit. The same is true of the speed of light. It is usually presented as a universal constant — 299,792,458 metres per second. But the metre and the second are human units. The second is defined by the circadian periodicity of life on Earth. The metre is defined by the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Each unit refers back to the other, and both refer back to the Earth and its humans. The speed of light is therefore not a constant of the universe, but a human convention — a circular one. '''Nothing is measurable in the universe without a human or any other entity's reference..''' f3yhxt5yjgg7djvp3mri4c1n5wf2wn7 2842049 2842048 2026-10-22T07:08:20Z Wb525 3112992 2842049 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} ''Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG.'' = Current Definition = In encyclopedias, one cannot really say that time is defined, and when it is, it is closer to a sequence of events than to the measurement of time — its chronometry. A year, a day, a minute
 This chronometry is only possible relative to precise references. References that are not other than the circadian pace of day and night that impact and rhythm the life of living beings. References that now exist throughout the universe, since the cesium atom is used to measure the second — even though its origin remains a human convention and the second itself expresses a duration, not human chronometric time. So one could live on Mars using the same time we use on the Earth by convention. A watch, based on cesium pace, could tell him when to stop working or watch TV. The only absolute necessity would be to keep contact with Earth in order to check, from time to time if their time systems are correctly synchronized to the circadian time. It is then evident that it is technically realizable as long as a logical limit of communication delay is not reached — delay that could affect the precision of the synchronization. This shows that this little interplanetary arrangement is not a universal solution and that still, cosmic time does not exist. We can add that time remains a human interpretation and chronometry of duration — and that, without Man, time exists nowhere. Not even on Earth. = Succession = What does exist, however, is '''Succession.''' This sequence of events gives the idea of past and future. A glass that breaks cannot reassemble itself. Indeed, once it has broken, we can say: it was intact (past), and now (present/future) it is shattered. This succession gives the impression of time passing, but without chronometry it is not the useful time indicated by our watches; it is simply a '''Succession''' of events. The confusion is easy, but the difference is immense. Our prehistoric ancestors saw that days followed one another, that the dead did not wake up, that water flowed in one direction in streams and rivers. But they had no watches. They did not measure time. They had no appointments at 3:00 p.m. At best, they could agree to meet at sunrise or sunset — nothing more. And it is precisely this reference — '''sunrise or sunset''' — actually '''the circadian periodicity,''' that makes time measurement possible. = the Circadian Periodicity = What we wear on our wrist is the calculation of this periodicity, divided into units of measurement: hours, minutes, seconds. Time zones are interpretations of this periodicity, based on the dance of the Sun and Earth for each latitude. People wake with the day in America, and in France as well — at the same local time, '''but not at the same moment'''. Universal time therefore does not exist. On the contrary, it exists only for this pin‑head called Earth, hidden among trillions of football fields. Worse still, it exists only for the humans who live on it. Animals do not care. Time zones are the best evidence of the circadian periodicity as they measure the sleep and awake time of humans all around the world. = the Misundertanding = Chronometric time is a key value for many physical parameters and equations. It is the basis of acceleration and velocity, which in turn allow us to calculate force, thrust, and so on. Even Einstein misunderstood this, naming his concept ''spacetime'', whereas its true name should have been closer to ''local-space‑time'' since time exists only for humans, locally, and not in the universe.   ΛCDM itself, when it calculates the age of the universe as 13.7 billion years, speaks of years that did not exist before the appearance of the Earth and the Sun. It obviously gives an idea of duration in a human's mind but says nothing about the real age of the universe. = The Light Years = Since distances are expressed in kilometres travelled by light in a year, we assume that cosmic distances are a question and a function of time. This is why this passage is of immense importance for the understanding of cosmology — or rather, for its misunderstanding, because this mistake calls the whole of it into question. The light-year is a human mind unit. The same is true of the speed of light. It is usually presented as a universal constant — 299,792,458 metres per second. But the metre and the second are human units. The second is defined by the circadian periodicity of life on Earth. The metre is defined by the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. Each unit refers back to the other, and both refer back to the Earth and its humans. The speed of light is therefore not a constant of the universe, but a human convention — a circular one. '''Nothing is measurable in the universe without a human or any other entity's reference..''' t548s8m2g5lnxwkoh8vw6ww3ob5lqkk Practical MRI Exercises: Parameter Optimization 0 332596 2841901 2026-10-21T19:08:54Z Frafugaro 3113073 Practical MRI Exercises: Parameter Optimization 2841901 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction and Basic Physical Principles == Image formation in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is based on the interaction between the magnetic moments of hydrogen atomic nuclei (<sup>1</sup>H) present in biological tissues and a main static magnetic field (B<sub>0</sub>). Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the nuclear magnetization vectors align parallel or antiparallel to the B<sub>0</sub> field, generating a macroscopic longitudinal magnetization vector (M<sub>z</sub>). The application of a radiofrequency (RF) pulse at the Larmor resonance frequency (<nowiki>&</nowiki>omega;<nowiki><sub>0</sub></nowiki> = <nowiki>&</nowiki>gamma; B<nowiki><sub>0</sub></nowiki>) nutates the M<nowiki><sub>z</sub></nowiki> vector into the transverse plane (M<nowiki><sub>xy</sub></nowiki>). Following the cessation of the RF pulse, the system returns to its equilibrium state through two distinct physical relaxation processes: <nowiki>*</nowiki> <nowiki>'''</nowiki>Longitudinal Relaxation (T1):<nowiki>'''</nowiki> also known as spin-lattice relaxation, describes the recovery of magnetization along the z-axis. <nowiki>*</nowiki> <nowiki>'''</nowiki>Transverse Relaxation (T2):<nowiki>'''</nowiki> also known as spin-spin relaxation, describes the decay of magnetization in the transverse plane due to the dephasing of magnetic moment components. <nowiki>*</nowiki> <nowiki>'''</nowiki>Effective Transverse Relaxation (T2*):<nowiki>'''</nowiki> includes both intrinsic spin-spin interactions and macroscopic magnetic susceptibility inhomogeneities of the B<nowiki><sub>0</sub></nowiki> field. h2mypup45j76f8bscf800dbltsckija 2841902 2841901 2026-10-21T19:09:25Z Frafugaro 3113073 2841902 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction and Basic Physical Principles == Image formation in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is based on the interaction between the magnetic moments of hydrogen atomic nuclei (<sup>1</sup>H) present in biological tissues and a main static magnetic field (B<sub>0</sub>). Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the nuclear magnetization vectors align parallel or antiparallel to the B<sub>0</sub> field, generating a macroscopic longitudinal magnetization vector (M<sub>z</sub>). The application of a radiofrequency (RF) pulse at the Larmor resonance frequency (&omega;<sub>0</sub> = &gamma; B<sub>0</sub>) nutates the M<sub>z</sub> vector into the transverse plane (M<sub>xy</sub>). Following the cessation of the RF pulse, the system returns to its equilibrium state through two distinct physical relaxation processes: * '''Longitudinal Relaxation (T1):''' also known as spin-lattice relaxation, describes the recovery of magnetization along the z-axis. * '''Transverse Relaxation (T2):''' also known as spin-spin relaxation, describes the decay of magnetization in the transverse plane due to the dephasing of magnetic moment components. * '''Effective Transverse Relaxation (T2*):''' includes both intrinsic spin-spin interactions and macroscopic magnetic susceptibility inhomogeneities of the B<sub>0</sub> field. == Acquisition Parameters and Contrast Control == The operator and the Magnetic Resonance Technologist (Radiographer / TSRM) adjust specific sequence parameters to modulate contrast between tissues with different relaxation times and proton density (PD): === Repetition Time (TR) === Repetition Time represents the time interval between two consecutive RF excitation pulses applied to the same slice. * A '''short TR''' (< 800 ms in Spin Echo) does not allow complete longitudinal magnetization recovery of tissues with long T1 (e.g., CSF), highlighting T1 differences between tissues (T1-weighting). * A '''long TR''' (> 2000 ms) allows nearly complete longitudinal magnetization recovery for all tissues, eliminating the T1 effect (required for T2 and Proton Density weighting). === Echo Time (TE) === Echo Time defines the interval between the RF excitation pulse and the measurement of the signal induced in the receiver coil. * A '''short TE''' (< 20 ms) minimizes transverse magnetization decay, reducing the T2 effect. * A '''long TE''' (> 80 ms) allows marked spin dephasing, clearly differentiating tissues with short T2 from those with long T2 (T2-weighting). === Flip Angle (&alpha;) === In Gradient Echo (GRE) sequences, the use of flip angles below 90° maintains a fraction of residual longitudinal magnetization, allowing the use of very short TRs without incurring complete signal saturation (Ernst Angle). === Matrix, Slice Thickness, and Voxel === Spatial resolution and signal quality depend on the voxel volume (V), defined by: <math>V = \frac{\text{FOV}_x}{N_x} \times \frac{\text{FOV}_y}{N_y} \times \text{Slice Thickness}</math> where FOV represents the field of view, while N<sub>x</sub> and N<sub>y</sub> indicate the number of points and matrix steps along the frequency and phase encoding axes, respectively. == Quantitative Image Quality Evaluation == === Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) === The Signal-to-Noise Ratio is the fundamental parameter quantifying image fidelity. Signal S increases proportionally with voxel volume and the square root of total acquisition time: <math>\text{SNR} \propto V \cdot \sqrt{\frac{N_y \cdot N_{\text{avg}}}{\text{BW}_{\text{px}}}}</math> where N<sub>avg</sub> represents the number of averages (NEX/NSA) and BW<sub>px</sub> indicates receiver bandwidth per pixel. === Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) === The Contrast-to-Noise Ratio describes the image's ability to distinguish two adjacent structures (A and B): <math>\text{CNR} = \frac{|S_A - S_B|}{\sigma_{\text{noise}}}</math> where S<sub>A</sub> and S<sub>B</sub> represent the signal intensities of the two tissues and &sigma;<sub>noise</sub> the standard deviation of background noise. == Virtual Laboratory and Interactive Exercises == To operationally understand the complex, non-linear interaction between physical, geometric, and sampling parameters in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, simulated analysis via analytical models of Bloch equations is used. === Simulation Tools === * '''SIMRM Portal''' ([https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ https://simrmportal.vercel.app/])<ref>Fugaro, F. (2026). ''SIMRM: MRI Sequence and Parameter Simulator''. [https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ https://simrmportal.vercel.app/]</ref>: an interactive web-based simulator designed as an educational tool for exploring and optimizing sequence parameters. Access to the platform is completely free for both students and healthcare professionals upon registration. ==== Scope of Application and Features ==== The simulator allows numerical modeling of technical variations (TR, TE, TI, Flip Angle, matrix, FOV, slice thickness, averages, and bandwidth) on 2D and 3D sequences. Key educational features include: * '''Real-Time Contrast Simulation:''' Immediate visual rendering of weighting variations (T1, T2, PD) on synthetic anatomical maps as parameters are adjusted. * '''Quantitative Indicator Estimation:''' Instant analytical calculation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (estimated SNR), Acquisition Time (TA), spatial resolution, echo spacing, and energy deposition (SAR). * '''Technological Constraint Modeling:''' Evaluation of bandwidth per pixel, ETL, and acceleration factors on sampling and voxel geometry. ==== Operational Limitations and Disclaimer ==== The simulator is strictly intended for educational, study, and theoretical research purposes. The software works on ideal analytical models and does not replicate real hardware, field imperfections, or complex scanner artifacts. Output data (including SAR, estimated SNR, and TA) are algorithmic simulations and must not be used for clinical planning or diagnostic purposes on real patients. == Educational Notes and Guided Exercises == 1. '''T1 vs T2 Analysis:''' Set a Spin Echo sequence with TR = 500 ms and TE = 10 ms to evaluate hyperintensity of adipose tissue relative to water. Next, increase TE to 100 ms and TR to 3000 ms to observe contrast inversion of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). 2. '''SNR Optimization:''' Analyze the effect of halving bandwidth per pixel (BW<sub>px</sub>) on noise level and the onset of chemical shift artifacts. == Notes == <references /> [[Category:Medicine]] [[Category:Medical physics]] [[Category:Magnetic resonance imaging]] azgo44651ih1vszvjpeauc2fhasa00h 2841903 2841902 2026-10-21T19:10:43Z Frafugaro 3113073 2841903 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction and Basic Physical Principles == Image formation in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is based on the interaction between the magnetic moments of hydrogen atomic nuclei (<sup>1</sup>H) present in biological tissues and a main static magnetic field (B<sub>0</sub>). Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the nuclear magnetization vectors align parallel or antiparallel to the B<sub>0</sub> field, generating a macroscopic longitudinal magnetization vector (M<sub>z</sub>). The application of a radiofrequency (RF) pulse at the Larmor resonance frequency (&omega;<sub>0</sub> = &gamma; B<sub>0</sub>) nutates the M<sub>z</sub> vector into the transverse plane (M<sub>xy</sub>). Following the cessation of the RF pulse, the system returns to its equilibrium state through two distinct physical relaxation processes: * '''Longitudinal Relaxation (T1):''' also known as spin-lattice relaxation, describes the recovery of magnetization along the z-axis. * '''Transverse Relaxation (T2):''' also known as spin-spin relaxation, describes the decay of magnetization in the transverse plane due to the dephasing of magnetic moment components. * '''Effective Transverse Relaxation (T2*):''' includes both intrinsic spin-spin interactions and macroscopic magnetic susceptibility inhomogeneities of the B<sub>0</sub> field. == Acquisition Parameters and Contrast Control == The operator and the Magnetic Resonance Technologist (Radiographer / TSRM) adjust specific sequence parameters to modulate contrast between tissues with different relaxation times and proton density (PD): === Repetition Time (TR) === Repetition Time represents the time interval between two consecutive RF excitation pulses applied to the same slice. * A '''short TR''' (< 800 ms in Spin Echo) does not allow complete longitudinal magnetization recovery of tissues with long T1 (e.g., CSF), highlighting T1 differences between tissues (T1-weighting). * A '''long TR''' (> 2000 ms) allows nearly complete longitudinal magnetization recovery for all tissues, eliminating the T1 effect (required for T2 and Proton Density weighting). === Echo Time (TE) === Echo Time defines the interval between the RF excitation pulse and the measurement of the signal induced in the receiver coil. * A '''short TE''' (< 20 ms) minimizes transverse magnetization decay, reducing the T2 effect. * A '''long TE''' (> 80 ms) allows marked spin dephasing, clearly differentiating tissues with short T2 from those with long T2 (T2-weighting). === Flip Angle (&alpha;) === In Gradient Echo (GRE) sequences, the use of flip angles below 90° maintains a fraction of residual longitudinal magnetization, allowing the use of very short TRs without incurring complete signal saturation (Ernst Angle). === Matrix, Slice Thickness, and Voxel === Spatial resolution and signal quality depend on the voxel volume (V), defined by: <math>V = \frac{\text{FOV}_x}{N_x} \times \frac{\text{FOV}_y}{N_y} \times \text{Slice Thickness}</math> where FOV represents the field of view, while N<sub>x</sub> and N<sub>y</sub> indicate the number of points and matrix steps along the frequency and phase encoding axes, respectively. == Quantitative Image Quality Evaluation == === Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) === The Signal-to-Noise Ratio is the fundamental parameter quantifying image fidelity. Signal S increases proportionally with voxel volume and the square root of total acquisition time: <math>\text{SNR} \propto V \cdot \sqrt{\frac{N_y \cdot N_{\text{avg}}}{\text{BW}_{\text{px}}}}</math> where N<sub>avg</sub> represents the number of averages (NEX/NSA) and BW<sub>px</sub> indicates receiver bandwidth per pixel. === Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) === The Contrast-to-Noise Ratio describes the image's ability to distinguish two adjacent structures (A and B): <math>\text{CNR} = \frac{|S_A - S_B|}{\sigma_{\text{noise}}}</math> where S<sub>A</sub> and S<sub>B</sub> represent the signal intensities of the two tissues and &sigma;<sub>noise</sub> the standard deviation of background noise. == Virtual Laboratory and Interactive Exercises == To operationally understand the complex, non-linear interaction between physical, geometric, and sampling parameters in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, simulated analysis via analytical models of Bloch equations is used. === Simulation Tools === * '''[https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ SIMRM Portal]''' ([https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ https://simrmportal.vercel.app/])<ref>Fugaro, F. (2026). ''SIMRM: MRI Sequence and Parameter Simulator''. [https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ https://simrmportal.vercel.app/]</ref>: an interactive web-based simulator designed as an educational tool for exploring and optimizing sequence parameters. Access to the platform is completely free for both students and healthcare professionals upon registration. ==== Scope of Application and Features ==== The simulator allows numerical modeling of technical variations (TR, TE, TI, Flip Angle, matrix, FOV, slice thickness, averages, and bandwidth) on 2D and 3D sequences. Key educational features include: * '''Real-Time Contrast Simulation:''' Immediate visual rendering of weighting variations (T1, T2, PD) on synthetic anatomical maps as parameters are adjusted. * '''Quantitative Indicator Estimation:''' Instant analytical calculation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (estimated SNR), Acquisition Time (TA), spatial resolution, echo spacing, and energy deposition (SAR). * '''Technological Constraint Modeling:''' Evaluation of bandwidth per pixel, ETL, and acceleration factors on sampling and voxel geometry. ==== Operational Limitations and Disclaimer ==== The simulator is strictly intended for educational, study, and theoretical research purposes. The software works on ideal analytical models and does not replicate real hardware, field imperfections, or complex scanner artifacts. Output data (including SAR, estimated SNR, and TA) are algorithmic simulations and must not be used for clinical planning or diagnostic purposes on real patients. == Educational Notes and Guided Exercises == 1. '''T1 vs T2 Analysis:''' Set a Spin Echo sequence with TR = 500 ms and TE = 10 ms to evaluate hyperintensity of adipose tissue relative to water. Next, increase TE to 100 ms and TR to 3000 ms to observe contrast inversion of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). 2. '''SNR Optimization:''' Analyze the effect of halving bandwidth per pixel (BW<sub>px</sub>) on noise level and the onset of chemical shift artifacts. == Notes == <references /> [[Category:Medicine]] [[Category:Medical physics]] [[Category:Magnetic resonance imaging]] ae8jycoqvbpufik5qzqur9s1e13tvxc 2841906 2841903 2026-10-21T19:15:49Z Frafugaro 3113073 2841906 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction and Basic Physical Principles == Image formation in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is based on the interaction between the magnetic moments of hydrogen atomic nuclei (<sup>1</sup>H) present in biological tissues and a main static magnetic field (B<sub>0</sub>). Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the nuclear magnetization vectors align parallel or antiparallel to the B<sub>0</sub> field, generating a macroscopic longitudinal magnetization vector (M<sub>z</sub>). The application of a radiofrequency (RF) pulse at the Larmor resonance frequency (&omega;<sub>0</sub> = &gamma; B<sub>0</sub>) nutates the M<sub>z</sub> vector into the transverse plane (M<sub>xy</sub>). Following the cessation of the RF pulse, the system returns to its equilibrium state through two distinct physical relaxation processes: * '''Longitudinal Relaxation (T1):''' also known as spin-lattice relaxation, describes the recovery of magnetization along the z-axis. * '''Transverse Relaxation (T2):''' also known as spin-spin relaxation, describes the decay of magnetization in the transverse plane due to the dephasing of magnetic moment components. * '''Effective Transverse Relaxation (T2*):''' includes both intrinsic spin-spin interactions and macroscopic magnetic susceptibility inhomogeneities of the B<sub>0</sub> field. == Acquisition Parameters and Contrast Control == The operator and the Magnetic Resonance Technologist (Radiographer / TSRM) adjust specific sequence parameters to modulate contrast between tissues with different relaxation times and proton density (PD): === Repetition Time (TR) === Repetition Time represents the time interval between two consecutive RF excitation pulses applied to the same slice. * A '''short TR''' (< 800 ms in Spin Echo) does not allow complete longitudinal magnetization recovery of tissues with long T1 (e.g., CSF), highlighting T1 differences between tissues (T1-weighting). * A '''long TR''' (> 2000 ms) allows nearly complete longitudinal magnetization recovery for all tissues, eliminating the T1 effect (required for T2 and Proton Density weighting). === Echo Time (TE) === Echo Time defines the interval between the RF excitation pulse and the measurement of the signal induced in the receiver coil. * A '''short TE''' (< 20 ms) minimizes transverse magnetization decay, reducing the T2 effect. * A '''long TE''' (> 80 ms) allows marked spin dephasing, clearly differentiating tissues with short T2 from those with long T2 (T2-weighting). === Flip Angle (&alpha;) === In Gradient Echo (GRE) sequences, the use of flip angles below 90° maintains a fraction of residual longitudinal magnetization, allowing the use of very short TRs without incurring complete signal saturation (Ernst Angle). === Matrix, Slice Thickness, and Voxel === Spatial resolution and signal quality depend on the voxel volume (V), defined by: <math>V = \frac{\text{FOV}_x}{N_x} \times \frac{\text{FOV}_y}{N_y} \times \text{Slice Thickness}</math> where FOV represents the field of view, while N<sub>x</sub> and N<sub>y</sub> indicate the number of points and matrix steps along the frequency and phase encoding axes, respectively. == Quantitative Image Quality Evaluation == === Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) === The Signal-to-Noise Ratio is the fundamental parameter quantifying image fidelity. Signal S increases proportionally with voxel volume and the square root of total acquisition time: <math>\text{SNR} \propto V \cdot \sqrt{\frac{N_y \cdot N_{\text{avg}}}{\text{BW}_{\text{px}}}}</math> where N<sub>avg</sub> represents the number of averages (NEX/NSA) and BW<sub>px</sub> indicates receiver bandwidth per pixel. === Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) === The Contrast-to-Noise Ratio describes the image's ability to distinguish two adjacent structures (A and B): <math>\text{CNR} = \frac{|S_A - S_B|}{\sigma_{\text{noise}}}</math> where S<sub>A</sub> and S<sub>B</sub> represent the signal intensities of the two tissues and &sigma;<sub>noise</sub> the standard deviation of background noise. == Virtual Laboratory and Interactive Exercises == To operationally understand the complex, non-linear interaction between physical, geometric, and sampling parameters in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, simulated analysis via analytical models of Bloch equations is used. === Simulation Tools === * '''[https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ SIMRM Portal]''' <ref>Fugaro, F. (2026). ''SIMRM: MRI Sequence and Parameter Simulator''. [https://simrmportal.vercel.app/ https://simrmportal.vercel.app/]</ref>: an interactive web-based simulator designed as an educational tool for exploring and optimizing sequence parameters. Access to the platform is completely free for both students and healthcare professionals upon registration. ==== Scope of Application and Features ==== The simulator allows numerical modeling of technical variations (TR, TE, TI, Flip Angle, matrix, FOV, slice thickness, averages, and bandwidth) on 2D and 3D sequences. Key educational features include: * '''Real-Time Contrast Simulation:''' Immediate visual rendering of weighting variations (T1, T2, PD) on synthetic anatomical maps as parameters are adjusted. * '''Quantitative Indicator Estimation:''' Instant analytical calculation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (estimated SNR), Acquisition Time (TA), spatial resolution, echo spacing, and energy deposition (SAR). * '''Technological Constraint Modeling:''' Evaluation of bandwidth per pixel, ETL, and acceleration factors on sampling and voxel geometry. ==== Operational Limitations and Disclaimer ==== The simulator is strictly intended for educational, study, and theoretical research purposes. The software works on ideal analytical models and does not replicate real hardware, field imperfections, or complex scanner artifacts. Output data (including SAR, estimated SNR, and TA) are algorithmic simulations and must not be used for clinical planning or diagnostic purposes on real patients. == Educational Notes and Guided Exercises == 1. '''T1 vs T2 Analysis:''' Set a Spin Echo sequence with TR = 500 ms and TE = 10 ms to evaluate hyperintensity of adipose tissue relative to water. Next, increase TE to 100 ms and TR to 3000 ms to observe contrast inversion of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). 2. '''SNR Optimization:''' Analyze the effect of halving bandwidth per pixel (BW<sub>px</sub>) on noise level and the onset of chemical shift artifacts. == Notes == <references /> [[Category:Medicine]] [[Category:Medical physics]] [[Category:Magnetic resonance imaging]] a5idagp1t9vc3mmzs5xvgn2kj86ol03 WikiJournal Preprints/CAR T-cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS), an autoimmune disease of the lungs 0 332598 2841939 2026-10-21T22:53:40Z ~2026-56409-73 3113084 Created page with "==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS), an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical stud..." 2841939 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS), an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival1 is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)8 CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells are unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case,4 a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case,5 a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient,8 who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. anceyi2j7rkmxmli7q0e47zpxdfuk1h 2841942 2841939 2026-10-21T23:18:59Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 I added my name as I am the author of this preprint 2841942 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS), an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival1 is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)8 CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells are unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case,4 a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case,5 a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient,8 who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 5mx19jxkdrgrvl5j2b1rmlx4onjus2e 2841943 2841942 2026-10-21T23:21:09Z ~2026-56407-30 3113088 /* Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D. */ 2841943 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS), an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival1 is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)8 CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells are unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case,4 a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case,5 a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient,8 who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 6sbzyjyw1iw6mqpilbr535p1u02u19h 2841944 2841943 2026-10-21T23:34:07Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Abstract */ 2841944 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival1 is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)8 CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells are unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case,4 a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case,5 a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient,8 who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. todbg9n4h0owecqfmprngqrz2gp8xlm 2841945 2841944 2026-10-21T23:39:31Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841945 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival1 is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR genome, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case,5 a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient,8 who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. ckdaxs2pb88vb5ovoetl4pv0dvnjlbf 2841946 2841945 2026-10-21T23:42:33Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841946 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival1 is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells are a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR genome, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. set49gwd1kmwhf71h5jlkye00s44xtq 2841947 2841946 2026-10-21T23:45:11Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841947 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells is a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR genome, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. bfl0b7zsa6qk0pu5hac9044kqamcllh 2841948 2841947 2026-10-21T23:46:15Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841948 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells is a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 8ydigqxt4ebnlk18os3j5abmqs4waya 2841949 2841948 2026-10-21T23:47:57Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841949 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells is a common strategy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 5a3168fnhn1nshq8u97zhncy92o6hsd 2841985 2841949 2026-10-22T01:37:21Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841985 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment strategy when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 502glj10azpw94dd62yhomowqod3tpu 2841987 2841985 2026-10-22T01:38:10Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841987 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T-cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T-cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T-cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T-cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 6xrd27nskhidpsxvenp6h339moncf4l 2841988 2841987 2026-10-22T01:41:20Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Introduction */ 2841988 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR T-cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR T-cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR T-cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 692emxbrryanykbzkiz27ra22em797t 2841990 2841988 2026-10-22T01:44:55Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* */ 2841990 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor-T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR-T cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR-T cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR-T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR-T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x108 CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR-T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR-T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. jwruhyn75leu0g3oba70q8oc571hrs7 2841999 2841990 2026-10-22T01:56:34Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS */ 2841999 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor-T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR-T cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR-T cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8+ T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR-T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR-T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x10<sup>8</sup> CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR-T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR-T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. 8o2ufrukqldvlz4hf1z1kl9r57sajz7 2842001 2841999 2026-10-22T01:58:43Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS */ 2842001 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor-T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR-T cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR-T cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8<sup>+</sup> T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR-T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR-T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x10<sup>8</sup> CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR-T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR-T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a new approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. q66msxpxnnge4k91gpdpkuqk0oy4v2m 2842010 2842001 2026-10-22T02:30:04Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* Conclusion */ 2842010 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor-T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR-T cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR-T cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentivirus Al vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8<sup>+</sup> T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR-T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR-T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x10<sup>8</sup> CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR-T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR-T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a promising approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. picz7381h03rys2x7425ws1aka5lqb3 2842084 2842010 2026-10-22T11:56:00Z Francisyoshimoto2 3113085 /* The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS */ 2842084 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Francis K. Yoshimoto, Ph.D.== Corresponding author: francis.yoshimoto@gmail.com ==Abstract== Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks healthy tissue in the body and its causes and treatments are not well understood. Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease that affects the lungs. Recent efforts that use chimeric antigen receptor-T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy to treat ASyS have been reported. CAR-T cell therapy removes overreactive B cells in the immune system. This review will present findings on five clinical studies that used CAR-T cells to treat ASyS. ==Introduction== Antisynthetase syndrome (ASS or ASyS) is an autoimmune disease<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Witt|first=L.J.|year=2016|title=The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006392/|journal=Clinical Pulmonary Medicine|volume=23|pages=218-226}}</ref> that affects the lungs. ASyS is commonly diagnosed with the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hegde|first=A.|year=2022|title=Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease.|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075366/|journal=Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology|volume=33|pages=437-443}}</ref> in patients detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=H.|year=2024|title=Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38811943/|journal=Respiratory Research|volume=25|pages=222}}</ref> (ELISA). The 5-year survival<ref name=":7" /> is 90% and 75% for patients with anti-Jo-1-positive and non-Jo-1-positive patients, respectively. Symptoms of ASyS include: difficulty breathing,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Taubmann|first=J.|year=2024|title=Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37432378/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=63|pages=e12-e14}}</ref> muscle pain, serological detection of anti-Jo-1 autoantibodies,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schneider|first=C.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37367976/|journal=JAMA|volume=329|pages=2154-2162}}</ref> signs of alveolitis from CT<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2023|title=CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36930673/|journal=The Lancet|volume=401|pages=815-817}}</ref> scans, myositis, interstitial lung disease (ILD), arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, and mechanic’s<ref name=":3" /> hands. Muscle biopsies of patients with antisynthetase syndrome show perifascicular muscle atrophy and necrotic muscle fibers.<ref name=":3" /> The main treatment strategy involves the use of immunosuppressive drugs such as mycophenolate, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, intravenous immunoglobulins,<ref name=":1" /> methotrexate,<ref name=":2" /> leflunomide, baricitinib, and azathioprine. The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cells has been a strategy employed to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Haase|first=I.|title=A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40268741/|journal=Rheumatology|volume=64|pages=5101-5107}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2025|title=BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40245922/|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=31|pages=1793-1797}}</ref> In the case of relapse, B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA)<ref name=":5" /> CAR-T cell therapy provided an alternative treatment approach when reintroduction of CD19 CAR-T cells was unsuccessful due to the presence of T cells targeting CD19 CAR. CAR-T cells are produced in two ways: autologous or allogeneic. Autologous CAR-T cells are generated from the patients themselves,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Lonez|first=C.|title=Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38247837/|journal=Cells|volume=13|pages=146}}</ref> while allogeneic CAR-T cells involve harvesting T cells from a healthy donor’s blood. In the production of CAR-T cells,<ref name=":6" /> the six steps include: 1. Aphaeresis (cells harvested from the patient’s blood or healthy donor’s blood, depending on autologous or allogeneic, respectively), 2. T cell isolation, 3. Transduction of T cells to incorporate the CAR gene, 4. Expansion of T cells, 5. Cryopreservation of T-cells, and 6. Infusion of CAR-T cells into the patient. This review discusses five clinical cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. The five clinical cases are summarized in Table 1. ==The five cases that used CAR-T cell therapy to treat ASyS== Case 1:<ref name=":1" /> In the first case, a 44-year old Caucasian woman was presented with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1. Initially, immunosuppressive drug treatments included: glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate, tacrolimus, tofacitinib, tocilizumab, and intravenous immunoglobulins, CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab). All initial treatments were ineffective at improving the disease activity. In particular, two CD20-targeting B-cell depleting monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ocrelizumab) failed. Subsequently, CAR-T cell treatment was initiated: glucocorticoids were tapered to 10 mg/day at time of leukapheresis, and mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. After infusion, CAR-T cells expanded after - day 4: 0.8 cells/𝜇l, day 7: 456.2 cells/𝜇l, day 10: 1524.2 cells/𝜇l. Creatinine kinase (CK) dropped from 4298 U/l at baseline to 99 U/l at day 150, myoglobin from 2495 𝜇g/l to 53 𝜇g/l, and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels went from 317 U/l to 37 U/l. For the outcome: The patient had improvement of physical function in International Myositis Assessment & Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) core set measures with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength at 150/150. MRI results of the thighs showed complete resolution of myositis. The patient had resolution of arthritis based on ultrasound examination of their knee joints. After infusion, cytokine release syndrome was treated with tocilizumab. Case 2:<ref name=":2" /> In the second case, a 41-year old male patient diagnosed with antisynthetase syndrome was treated from December 2020 to February 2023. Over a 9-week period a bridging therapy was administered, which included: azathioprine (150 mg/day), methylprednisone (beginning with 60 mg/day to 4 mg/day), and intravenous immunoglobulins every 4 weeks. Treatment was interrupted for 7 days before leukapheresis for harvesting of T cells (autologous immunotherapy). Conditioning chemotherapy prior to CD19-targeting CAR-T cells: fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) and cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before), then infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. On day 35, mycophenolate mofetil was started because of enhanced CD8<sup>+</sup> T-cell subsets detected in patient’s peripheral blood possibly contributing to autoimmunity. After the first week of CD19 targeting CAR-T cell infusion, the patient had a grade 1 cytokine release syndrome with elevated IL-6 (>1000 U/L at day 4) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (>1500 U/L at day 4) levels. CAR-T cells expanded in peripheral blood with peak at day 7 (>100 cells/𝜇l) and decrease at day 14 and low to undetectable at days 28, 49, and 149 post infusion. B cell depletion was recorded in peripheral blood. Before CD19 CAR-T cell treatment, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were elevated, and they declined after cell infusion. Hemoglobin, leukocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts decreased after CD19-targeting CAR-T cell infusion, and these levels recovered over time. After 7 days of CAR-T cell infusion, the patient’s non-CAR lymphoid compartment showed higher percentages of (non-CAR) Temra cells (CD45RA<sup>+</sup>CD27<sup>-</sup>) and CD8 T cells but not CD4 T cells likely due to cytokines released after CAR-T cell therapy. Therefore, at day 28, azathioprine was started and switched to mycophenolate mofetil (2g/day) on day 35 because of nausea associated with azathioprine. As a result, CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells decreased. Case 3:<ref name=":3" /> In the third case, a 41-year old male patient had refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Eighteen months prior to CAR-T cell treatment, the patient was treated with oral glucocorticoids (10-250 mg prednisolone per day), intravenous rituximab (2 x 1 g) that resulted in initial improvement but subsequent intravenous treatment of rituximab (1x1 g), was not successful. Intravenous immunoglobulins (2 mg/kg) followed by oral tacrolimus (10 mg/day for 4 months) also had initial improvement but subsequently relapsed even after a third dose of intravenous rituximab (2 x 1g) and intravenous cyclophosphamide (1 g/m<sup>2</sup>). Before treatment with CD19 targeting CAR-T cells: the patient had increased concentrations of creatinine kinase (9305 U/L; normal: <190 U/L), myoglobin (2148 𝜇g/L; normal <70 𝜇g/L), and C-reactive protein (21.7 mg/L; normal <5 mg/L). After the transfer of 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CD19 CAR-T cells per kg of body weight, the number of CAR T cells increased (day 2: 0.1 cells/𝜇L, day 8: 60.3 cells/𝜇L). Circulating B cells were depleted for a 100 day period and reconstituted after that period. Creatinine kinase concentration increased to 13600 U/L likely from B cell depletion and CAR-T cell activation from cytokine release syndrome. After the short worsening, the patient’s condition improved (from manual muscle test score of 115/150 to 149/150) at day 180 after CAR-T cell administration. Creatinine kinase concentration decreased from 13 600 U/L to 102 U/L, myoglobin from 2148 𝜇g/L to 70 𝜇g/L, anti-Jo-1 antibodies decreased from 331 U/L to 5 U/L. From 1-3 days after CAR-T cell treatment, the patient developed a fever at 38-39°C, which was treated with paracetamol and 3 x 720 mg toclizumab. Case 4:<ref name=":4" /> In the fourth case, 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS was treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy. Methotrexate (15 mg/week) was started and replaced by mycophenolate mofetil (720 mg twice a day) when ILD was diagnosed. Disease persisted following 6 months. Immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins with a cumulative dose of 160 g, cyclophosphamide (single dose 1400 mg, 6 x with a cumulative dose of 8.4 g), rituximab (3 x 1 g), tacrolimus (5-10 𝜇g/l), failed to control disease activity. After 23 months from initial hospital admission, a therapy involving CD38-targeting monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, was started (4 subcutaneous injections of 1800 mg/week). 8 weeks after the final daratumumab injection, disease relapse followed. CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was initiated (Kyverna Therapeutics, KYV-101) after persistent disease activity (myositis, arthritis, skin disease) and lack of response to combinations of therapies including tacrolimus, glucocorticoid pulse therapy (1 mg/kg body weight for 3 days), azathioprine (150 mg/day), and IVIG (145 g over 4 days). Prior to CAR-T cell therapy, DMARD was stopped, glucocorticoid treatment (prednisolone) was tapered from 40 mg to 17.5 mg per day at the time of apheresis, and decreased to 12.5 mg before infusion with CAR-T cells, which continued for 14 days following CAR-T cell infusion. From apheresis until 2 days before lymphodepletion, tacrolimus was resumed. Single infusion of 1 x10<sup>8</sup> CD19-targeting CAR-T cells was administered on day 0 after lymphodepletion with fludarabine (30 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3) and cyclophosphamide (300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> on day -5, -4, -3). A second generation CAR-T cell product (KYV-101) that has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain to enhance the response was used. CAR-T cell expansion was detected by PCR within peripheral blood at day 8 (37 cells/𝜇l). Cytokine release syndrome grade 2 (fever up to 38.3°C) occurred on day 1 and was treated with tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight), which is an interleukin 6 receptor antagonist. Days 4-8: fever again occurred up to 38.6°C and was treated with 2 doses of intravenous tocilizumab (8 mg/kg body weight) and single dose of intravenous dexamethasone (10 mg), and anankinra (100 mg/day, increased to 200 mg/day). Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow up on low-dose prednisolone (5 mg/day) and with no immunosuppressive treatment. Case 5:<ref name=":5" /> In the fifth case, a 45-year old female patient, who had initially achieved disease remission after CD19 CAR-T cell therapy (original report: patient 2 in a prior<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muller|first=F.|year=2024|title=CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up.|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38381673/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=390|pages=687-700}}</ref> reference). After the first treatment of CD19 targeting CAR-T cells, the patient’s interstitial lung disease (ILD) did not progress. However, after a drug and disease free state of 9 months, the patient had a gradual recurrence of myositis and worsening of muscle strength. Therefore, a second cycle of CD19 CAR-T cell therapy was conducted, with no therapeutic response. Subsequently, the patient was treated with B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (idecabtagene vicleucel) (6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable BCMA CAR T cells per kg body weight). Targeting BCMA in autoimmune disease also depletes circulating B cells. On day 3, the patient experienced cytokine release syndrome (grade 1), which was treated with tocilizumab. The patient became 9 months in drug free remission without any symptoms. == Table 1. Summary of five cases of using CAR-T cells to treat antisynthetase syndrome. == {| class="wikitable" |+ | valign="top" |'''Patient''' | valign="top" |'''Treatment''' | valign="top" |'''Outcome''' |- | valign="top" |'''Case 1: 44-year old Caucasian woman with myositis (elevated creatinine kinase (CK) levels of 29 133 U/l, poly arthritis, high titre of anti-Jo-1.<sup>4</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids (10 mg/day) at time of leukapheresis * mycophenolate was stopped 4 weeks before leukapheresis. * T cells transfected with CD19 CAR lentiviral vector and expanded through 12 days. * Standard conditioning treatment: 1 g/m<sup>2</sup> cyclophosphamide and 3 x 25 mg fludarabine. * 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg body weight administered by single i.v. infusion. | valign="top" |At the latest followup (day 150 after treatment), muscle strength was regained with a manual muscle test score of 103/150 at baseline to full strength with a test score of 150/150. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 2: 41-year old male patient.<sup>5</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Fludarabine (25 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 5 days before until 3 days before) * Cyclophosphamide (1000 mg/m<sup>2</sup>, 3 days before) * Infusion with 1.23 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR-T cells/kg bodyweight on day 0. | valign="top" |8 months after treatment, patient’s scores on pulmonary function tests improved. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 3: 41-year old man with refractory antisynthetase syndrome.<sup>6</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Glucocorticoids lowered to 10 mg/day with leukapheresis (13 days before CAR T-cell administration). * CD19 CAR lentiviral vector was used and after conditioning, 1 x 10<sup>6</sup> CAR T cells per kg body weight was administered. | valign="top" |3 months after treatment, CT scans (computed tomography scans) showed complete resolution of alveoli’s and minor residual findings of basal interstitial lung disease. |- | valign="top" |'''Case 4: 54-year old female patient with refractory ASyS.<sup>7</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Treated with a second generation autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy (KYV-101, which has a construct with a CD28 costimulatory domain). | valign="top" |Patient remained in stable remission after 6 months of follow-up on prednisolone (5 mg/day). |- | valign="top" |'''Case 5: 45-year old female patient experienced disease relapse after 9 months.<sup>8</sup>''' | valign="top" | * Cyclophosphamide (300 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3) for lymphodepletion. * Fludarabine (30 mg per m<sup>2</sup> per day, days -5 to -3). * Plasma cell targeting B-cell maturation antigen (BCMA) CAR-T cells (463 x 10<sup>6</sup> cells, relative dose: 6 x 10<sup>6</sup> viable cells per kg body weight). | valign="top" |9-months in drug free remission without any symptoms of disease. |} == Conclusion == In conclusion, CAR-T cell therapy provides a promising approach to treat autoimmune diseases. This review article presented the five clinical cases of using CD19-targeting CAR-T cell therapy to treat antisynthetase syndrome.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== For Jennie. ===Competing interests=== The author has no competing interest. ===Ethics statement=== An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section. ==References== {{reflist|35em}} # L.J. Witt, J.J. Curran, M.E. Strek. The diagnosis and treatment of antisynthetase syndrome. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, 2016, 23, 218-226. # A. Hegde, V. Marwah, S. V, R. Choudhary, V. Malik. Anti-Jo1 syndrome: understanding a rare cause of interstitial lung disease. Mediterranean Journal of Rheumatology, 2022, 33, 437-443. # H. Yang, Q. Chen, C. Sun, Q. Jin, L. Zhang, Q. Liu, Q. Peng, G. Wang, X. Lu. Clinical and prognostic associations of anti-Jo-1 antibody levels in patients with antisynthetase syndrome. Respiratory Research, 2024, 25, 222. # J. Taubmann, J. Knitza, F. Muller, S. Volke, M. Aigner, A. Kleyer, R. Gary, S. Kretschmann, S. Beltz, A. Atzinger, T. Kuvert, F. Roemer, M. Uder, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. Rescue therapy of antisynthetase syndrome with CD-19-targeted CAR-T cells after failure of several B-cell depleting antibodies. Rheumatology, 2024, 63, e12-e14. # A.-C. Pecher, L. Hensen, R. Klein, R. Schairer, K. Lutz, D. Atar, C. Seitz, A. Stanger, J. Schneider, C. Braun, M. Schmidt, M. Horger, A. Bornemann, C. Faul, W. Bethge, J. Hense, C. Lengerke. CD19-targeting CAR T cells for myositis and interstitial lung disease associated with antisynthetase syndrome. JAMA, 2023, 329, 2154-2162. # F. Muller, S. Boeltz, J. Knits, M. Aigner, S. Volke, S. Kharboutli, H. Reimann, J. Taubmann, S. Kretschmann, W. Rosler, B. Manger, J. Wacker, D. Mougiakakos, S. Jabari, R. Schroder, M. Uder, F. Roemer, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. The Lancet, 2023, 401, 815-817. # I. Haase, J. Richter, M.-T. Holzer, B. Fehse, N. Ruffer, J. Seibel, S.C. Berger, N. Gagelmann, D. Borie, F. Ayuk, I. Kotter, M. Keusche, N. Kroger. A novel approach to refractory idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: CD19 CAR T-cell therapy - case report and literature review. Rheumatology, 2025, 64, 5101-5107. # F. Muller, A. Wirsing, M. Hagen, S. Volke, C. Tur, M.G. Raimondo, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, L. Zhang, S. Kretschmann, M. Aigner, M. Eckstein. L. Munoz, G. Schett, A. Mackensen, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer. BCMA CAR T cells in a patient with relapsing idiopathic inflammatory myositis after initial and repeat therapy with CD19 CAR T cells. Nature Medicine, 2025, 31, 1793-1797. # C. Lonez, E. Breman. Allogeneic CAR-T therapy technology: has the promise been met? Cells, 2024, 13, 146. # F. Muller, J. Taubmann, L. Bucci, A. Wilhelm, C. Bergmann, S. Volke, M. Aigner, T. Rothe, I. Minopoulou, C. Tur, J. Knitza, S. Kharboutli, S. Kretschmann, I. Vasova, S. Spörl, H. Reimann, L. Munoz, R.G. Gerlach, S. Schafer, R. Grieshaber-Bouyer, A.-S. Korganow, D. Farge-Bancel, D. Mougiakakos, A. Bozec, T. Winkler, G. Kronke, A. Mackensen, G. Schett. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease - a case series with follow-up. The New England Journal of Medicine, 2024, 390, 687-700. ox9wk39pa14wldb8wxbz5nlzeg7sy8f Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Instructor notes 0 332599 2841992 2026-10-22T01:47:07Z Jtneill 10242 Created page with "{{title|Tutorials}} __NOTOC__ <div align="center"> {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- ! '''Week''' ! '''Tutorial''' ! '''Topic''' ! '''Instructor notes''' |- | 01 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Topic selection]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 02 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] | Mot..." 2841992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Tutorials}} __NOTOC__ <div align="center"> {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- ! '''Week''' ! '''Tutorial''' ! '''Topic''' ! '''Instructor notes''' |- | 01 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Topic selection]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 02 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 03 | 03 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 04 | 04 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 05 | 05 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 06 | 06 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 07 | 07 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions|Core emotions]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 08 | 08 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 09 | - | No tutorial | - |- | 10 | 09 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions|20 emotions]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 11 | 10 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 12 | 11 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 13 | 12 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review|Review]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |} </div> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials]] rceedu6z8occuvxghqfzpznak5umw2e 2841993 2841992 2026-10-22T01:48:47Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill moved page [[Motivation and emotino/Tutorials/Instructor notes]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Instructor notes]] without leaving a redirect 2841992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Tutorials}} __NOTOC__ <div align="center"> {| border=1 cellpadding=5 class="sortable" cellspacing="0" width:100% background:transparent" |- ! '''Week''' ! '''Tutorial''' ! '''Topic''' ! '''Instructor notes''' |- | 01 | 01 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Topic selection]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 02 | 02 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 03 | 03 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 04 | 04 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 05 | 05 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Functionalist theory and self-tracking]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 06 | 06 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 07 | 07 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions|Core emotions]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Core emotions/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 08 | 08 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion|Measuring emotion]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 09 | - | No tutorial | - |- | 10 | 09 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions|20 emotions]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/20 emotions/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 11 | 10 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective|Time perspective]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 12 | 11 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |- | 13 | 12 | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review|Review]] | [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Review/Instructor notes|Instructor notes]] |} </div> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials]] rceedu6z8occuvxghqfzpznak5umw2e File:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261009.pdf 6 332600 2842019 2026-10-22T03:04:00Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261009 - 20261008) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842019 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261009 - 20261008) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} rtxt1pqzjsw5pbifoglxuyna1dujvyb File:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261010.pdf 6 332601 2842021 2026-10-22T03:04:49Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261010 - 20261009) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842021 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261010 - 20261009) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} kanypek7gqu27gucrj49lbv0ncod1jr User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB 2 332602 2842024 2026-10-22T03:17:48Z Wb525 3112992 text setting 2842024 wikitext text/x-wiki The CMB, which could be renamed Cosmic Matrix Background, is what we call the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] (Global Reference in Dynamics). In other words, it is a substrate intuited by Faraday, which he never named. What is observed is simple: one single, omnipresent radiation at 2.7 K, with a perfect blackbody spectrum, in all directions. One temperature. Yet it is presented as fossil light from 380,000 years after the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|Big Bang]], before galaxies existed, but already containing the disposition of the "seeds of the universe". Here are some observations about what is mistaken in these assertions: = of the Fossil = For an object to be a fossil, the fossil definition must exist. It is not the case for a cosmological fossil. Let us be magnanimous and suppose this noun has been inherited from paleontology as it stands. In this case it is ''the preserved remains, impression, or trace of a plant or animal from a past geologic age, typically found embedded in sedimentary rock. The term can also informally refer to an outdated person or thing.'' But in no way, an object that still emits anything. It is a dead thing. A long dead thing. '''''This definition alone proves that the CMB is not a fossil'''''. = of the Blackbody = The blackbody is observed as being a perfect one. But to claim that this temperature is a cooled remnant is an assumption. And a quite weird one. A perfect blackbody can more likely be an original property of the universe. This temperature of 2.7 K is indispensable to the existence of a structured universe. If space were filled with hot photons, the universe would be a burning plasma, without atoms, without galaxies, without life. The CMB is therefore preferably a property rather than a coincidence: a condition for a ready‑to‑use universe to be able to make geometry appear. Furthermore, such homogeneity in temperature cannot, statistically, be the result of long‑term cooling over such vast distances. The alea of the journey would never have allowed such a feat. Conversely, it is a property the universe masters perfectly, as it is precisely what characterizes the gendered uniformity of quantum objects. More fundamentally, an expanding space cannot maintain thermal equilibrium. The stretching of wavelengths breaks the Planck distribution. A perfect blackbody is the signature of an isolated system at equilibrium — not of a photon that has traveled through an expanding universe. This alone proves that the CMB is not a fossil, but the permanent matrix of the universe. = of the Dated? Noise = It is really preferable not to know how the date has been fixed — especially since Universal Time does not exist. And if this logic is admitted, it is clear that nobody can imagine the CMB is a no‑date fossil. Furthermore, fixing this date at 380,000 years after the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|singularity]] is an unpredicted exploit, far more impressive than the COBE mission results themselves. For such a statement, the date would have to be engraved on each photon at the very least. The word "years" is misleading. Its historical origin is tied to the circadian and terrestrial cycle, a cycle that did not exist at that epoch. To project our current clock — defined by 9,192,631,770 vibrations of a cesium atom — onto an epoch where the cesium atom itself did not exist is an extrapolation, not a direct measurement. The tough truth is that the universe's durations are not definable. = of the S''eeds of the'' ''Universe'' = What is called "seeds" cannot exist as a visible image. Before geometry, there is only a ghostly regime, that is to say, an invisible and ungraspable regime that we know today as quantum and that remains ghostly even though we have learned to manipulate some energetic manifestations of elementary particles. These particles have always remained elusive, invisible and unmaterialized. ''Therefore, seeds, if they exist, are by definition not photographable.'' Before showing a photograph of seeds and calling the amplified spots ''seeds of galaxies'', one must first prove what a seed is in the invisible regime. = of the Map = If the CMB were a true fossil from well before the creation of galaxies, then once cleaned of our own galaxy, its map should be smooth. Forever smooth. No structure of the present universe should appear. The real cleaned map (SMICA) is indeed smooth and grey at 2.726K. But once the uniform 2.726K is subtracted and residuals are amplified 100,000 times in false colors, the image we obtain resembles the present large-scale structure. And this is completely incompatible. '''A fossil from before structure cannot have the shape of the structure that was created after.''' = of the Temperature = Today we observe only two kinds of photons in the universe: # Very hot, always found around stars. Proof of a continuous local production. # Very cold at 2.7K, diffuse everywhere. This is the CMB. If the cold came, according to [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|ΛCDM]], from hot distant photons cooling during their journey, * we should find the whole continuum in between: a uniform diffuse background of lukewarm photons at 50K, 1000K wandering among the cold. We find nothing of the kind. * Furthermore, the hot photons found around stars would have also cooled during the journey. It is not the case. = Prediction = If a reanalysis of the Planck data, performed without any expansion model (neither [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|ΛCDM]] nor a pre‑integrated cosmological background), reveals a persistent acoustic peak, then the interpretation of the CMB as a fundamental state is invalidated. = Conclusion = '''The CMB is not a fossil.''' The CMB is not the echo of a Bang that no one has ever seen. It is the thermal condition of a stable, non-expanding universe: the proof that the universe is unfolded and ready to host structure, not that it was born, just like that, who knows where, on a fine summer day in -13,800,000,000 AD." And the consequence is that we have a universe genesis in 3 points: # The CMB, called [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB/the GRID|GRID]] in this work, is not a fossil but the unfolded universe in its quantum primordial form. # When the quantum elements are ready, the emergence of their geometry is triggered. # This geometry exerts pressure on the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]]. '''That is enough to make all known paradoxes vanish as well as the new JWST revealed anomalies.''' sc7isax9qk0g9eu28ezigvuih7qkgkb 2842033 2842024 2026-10-22T03:32:06Z Wb525 3112992 2842033 wikitext text/x-wiki The CMB, which could be renamed Cosmic Matrix Background, is what we call the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] (Global Reference in Dynamics). In other words, it is a substrate intuited by Faraday, which he never named. What is observed is simple: one single, omnipresent radiation at 2.7 K, with a perfect blackbody spectrum, in all directions. One temperature. Yet it is presented as fossil light from 380,000 years after the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|Big Bang]], before galaxies existed, but already containing the disposition of the ''seeds of the universe''. Here are some observations about what is mistaken in these assertions: = of the Fossil = For an object to be a fossil, the fossil definition must exist. It is not the case for a cosmological fossil. <ref>University of California Museum of Paleontology, "What is a fossil?", Fossils Home Page, https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/fossils/ </ref> Let us be magnanimous and suppose this noun has been inherited from paleontology as it stands. In this case it is ''the preserved remains, impression, or trace of a plant or animal from a past geologic age, typically found embedded in sedimentary rock. The term can also informally refer to an outdated person or thing.'' But in no way, an object that still emits anything. It is a dead thing. A long dead thing. '''''This definition alone proves that the CMB is not a fossil'''''. = of the Blackbody = The blackbody is observed as being a perfect one. But to claim that this temperature is a cooled remnant is an assumption. And a quite weird one. A perfect blackbody can more likely be an original property of the universe. This temperature of 2.7 K is indispensable to the existence of a structured universe. If space were filled with hot photons, the universe would be a burning plasma, without atoms, without galaxies, without life. The CMB is therefore preferably a property rather than a coincidence: a condition for a ready‑to‑use universe to be able to make geometry appear. Furthermore, such homogeneity in temperature cannot, statistically, be the result of long‑term cooling over such vast distances. The alea of the journey would never have allowed such a feat. Conversely, it is a property the universe masters perfectly, as it is precisely what characterizes the gendered uniformity of quantum objects. More fundamentally, an expanding space cannot maintain thermal equilibrium. The stretching of wavelengths breaks the Planck distribution. A perfect blackbody is the signature of an isolated system at equilibrium — not of a photon that has traveled through an expanding universe. This alone proves that the CMB is not a fossil, but the permanent matrix of the universe. = of the Dated? Noise = It is really preferable not to know how the date has been fixed — especially since Universal Time does not exist. And if this logic is admitted, it is clear that nobody can imagine the CMB is a no‑date fossil. Furthermore, fixing this date at 380,000 years after the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|singularity]] is an unpredicted exploit, far more impressive than the COBE mission results themselves. For such a statement, the date would have to be engraved on each photon at the very least. The word "years" is misleading. Its historical origin is tied to the circadian and terrestrial cycle, a cycle that did not exist at that epoch. To project our current clock — defined by 9,192,631,770 vibrations of a cesium atom — onto an epoch where the cesium atom itself did not exist is an extrapolation, not a direct measurement. The tough truth is that the universe's durations are not definable. = of the S''eeds of the'' ''Universe'' = What is called "seeds" cannot exist as a visible image. Before geometry, there is only a ghostly regime, that is to say, an invisible and ungraspable regime that we know today as quantum and that remains ghostly even though we have learned to manipulate some energetic manifestations of elementary particles. These particles have always remained elusive, invisible and unmaterialized. ''Therefore, seeds, if they exist, are by definition not photographable.'' Before showing a photograph of seeds and calling the amplified spots ''seeds of galaxies'', one must first prove what a seed is in the invisible regime. = of the Map = If the CMB were a true fossil from well before the creation of galaxies, then once cleaned of our own galaxy, its map should be smooth. Forever smooth. No structure of the present universe should appear. The real cleaned map (SMICA) is indeed smooth and grey at 2.726K. But once the uniform 2.726K is subtracted and residuals are amplified 100,000 times in false colors, the image we obtain resembles the present large-scale structure. And this is completely incompatible. '''A fossil from before structure cannot have the shape of the structure that was created after.''' = of the Temperature = Today we observe only two kinds of photons in the universe: # Very hot, always found around stars. Proof of a continuous local production. # Very cold at 2.7K, diffuse everywhere. This is the CMB. If the cold came, according to [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|ΛCDM]], from hot distant photons cooling during their journey, * we should find the whole continuum in between: a uniform diffuse background of lukewarm photons at 50K, 1000K wandering among the cold. We find nothing of the kind. * Furthermore, the hot photons found around stars would have also cooled during the journey. It is not the case. <ref>Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...142..419P</ref> = Prediction = If a reanalysis of the Planck data, performed without any expansion model (neither [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|ΛCDM]] nor a pre‑integrated cosmological background), reveals a persistent acoustic peak, then the interpretation of the CMB as a fundamental state is invalidated. = Conclusion = '''The CMB is not a fossil.''' The CMB is not the echo of a Bang that no one has ever seen. It is the thermal condition of a stable, non-expanding universe: the proof that the universe is unfolded and ready to host structure, not that it was born, just like that, who knows where, on a fine summer day in -13,800,000,000 AD." And the consequence is that we have a universe genesis in 3 points: # The CMB, called [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB/the GRID|GRID]] in this work, is not a fossil but the unfolded universe in its quantum primordial form. # When the quantum elements are ready, the emergence of their geometry is triggered. # This geometry exerts pressure on the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]]. '''That is enough to make all known paradoxes vanish as well as the new JWST revealed anomalies.''' == References == {{reflist}} 5c7vg5qjst2wvkhj4i41oei03g1lxzu 2842053 2842033 2026-10-22T07:13:15Z Wb525 3112992 2842053 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG. The CMB, which could be renamed Cosmic Matrix Background, is what we call the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] (Global Reference in Dynamics). In other words, it is a substrate intuited by Faraday, which he never named. What is observed is simple: one single, omnipresent radiation at 2.7 K, with a perfect blackbody spectrum, in all directions. One temperature. Yet it is presented as fossil light from 380,000 years after the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|Big Bang]], before galaxies existed, but already containing the disposition of the ''seeds of the universe''. Here are some observations about what is mistaken in these assertions: = of the Fossil = For an object to be a fossil, the fossil definition must exist. It is not the case for a cosmological fossil. <ref>University of California Museum of Paleontology, "What is a fossil?", Fossils Home Page, https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/fossils/ </ref> Let us be magnanimous and suppose this noun has been inherited from paleontology as it stands. In this case it is ''the preserved remains, impression, or trace of a plant or animal from a past geologic age, typically found embedded in sedimentary rock. The term can also informally refer to an outdated person or thing.'' But in no way, an object that still emits anything. It is a dead thing. A long dead thing. '''''This definition alone proves that the CMB is not a fossil'''''. = of the Blackbody = The blackbody is observed as being a perfect one. But to claim that this temperature is a cooled remnant is an assumption. And a quite weird one. A perfect blackbody can more likely be an original property of the universe. This temperature of 2.7 K is indispensable to the existence of a structured universe. If space were filled with hot photons, the universe would be a burning plasma, without atoms, without galaxies, without life. The CMB is therefore preferably a property rather than a coincidence: a condition for a ready‑to‑use universe to be able to make geometry appear. Furthermore, such homogeneity in temperature cannot, statistically, be the result of long‑term cooling over such vast distances. The alea of the journey would never have allowed such a feat. Conversely, it is a property the universe masters perfectly, as it is precisely what characterizes the gendered uniformity of quantum objects. More fundamentally, an expanding space cannot maintain thermal equilibrium. The stretching of wavelengths breaks the Planck distribution. A perfect blackbody is the signature of an isolated system at equilibrium — not of a photon that has traveled through an expanding universe. This alone proves that the CMB is not a fossil, but the permanent matrix of the universe. = of the Dated? Noise = It is really preferable not to know how the date has been fixed — especially since Universal Time does not exist. And if this logic is admitted, it is clear that nobody can imagine the CMB is a no‑date fossil. Furthermore, fixing this date at 380,000 years after the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|singularity]] is an unpredicted exploit, far more impressive than the COBE mission results themselves. For such a statement, the date would have to be engraved on each photon at the very least. The word "years" is misleading. Its historical origin is tied to the circadian and terrestrial cycle, a cycle that did not exist at that epoch. To project our current clock — defined by 9,192,631,770 vibrations of a cesium atom — onto an epoch where the cesium atom itself did not exist is an extrapolation, not a direct measurement. The tough truth is that the universe's durations are not definable. = of the S''eeds of the'' ''Universe'' = What is called "seeds" cannot exist as a visible image. Before geometry, there is only a ghostly regime, that is to say, an invisible and ungraspable regime that we know today as quantum and that remains ghostly even though we have learned to manipulate some energetic manifestations of elementary particles. These particles have always remained elusive, invisible and unmaterialized. ''Therefore, seeds, if they exist, are by definition not photographable.'' Before showing a photograph of seeds and calling the amplified spots ''seeds of galaxies'', one must first prove what a seed is in the invisible regime. = of the Map = If the CMB were a true fossil from well before the creation of galaxies, then once cleaned of our own galaxy, its map should be smooth. Forever smooth. No structure of the present universe should appear. The real cleaned map (SMICA) is indeed smooth and grey at 2.726K. But once the uniform 2.726K is subtracted and residuals are amplified 100,000 times in false colors, the image we obtain resembles the present large-scale structure. And this is completely incompatible. '''A fossil from before structure cannot have the shape of the structure that was created after.''' = of the Temperature = Today we observe only two kinds of photons in the universe: # Very hot, always found around stars. Proof of a continuous local production. # Very cold at 2.7K, diffuse everywhere. This is the CMB. If the cold came, according to [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|ΛCDM]], from hot distant photons cooling during their journey, * we should find the whole continuum in between: a uniform diffuse background of lukewarm photons at 50K, 1000K wandering among the cold. We find nothing of the kind. * Furthermore, the hot photons found around stars would have also cooled during the journey. It is not the case. <ref>Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...142..419P</ref> = Prediction = If a reanalysis of the Planck data, performed without any expansion model (neither [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|ΛCDM]] nor a pre‑integrated cosmological background), reveals a persistent acoustic peak, then the interpretation of the CMB as a fundamental state is invalidated. = Conclusion = '''The CMB is not a fossil.''' The CMB is not the echo of a Bang that no one has ever seen. It is the thermal condition of a stable, non-expanding universe: the proof that the universe is unfolded and ready to host structure, not that it was born, just like that, who knows where, on a fine summer day in -13,800,000,000 AD." And the consequence is that we have a universe genesis in 3 points: # The CMB, called [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB/the GRID|GRID]] in this work, is not a fossil but the unfolded universe in its quantum primordial form. # When the quantum elements are ready, the emergence of their geometry is triggered. # This geometry exerts pressure on the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]]. '''That is enough to make all known paradoxes vanish as well as the new JWST revealed anomalies.''' == References == {{reflist}} entna7tcyy7f5l5mzi6mjtlo9ps8qfz File:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261012.pdf 6 332603 2842026 2026-10-22T03:26:47Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261012 - 20261010) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842026 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261012 - 20261010) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} al8hvpa6vniy5mfkc4djscta1ho5ioo File:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261013.pdf 6 332604 2842028 2026-10-22T03:27:33Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261013 - 20261012) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842028 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261013 - 20261012) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 9wcso1x8c9598rqansaqpafcb9soto4 File:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261014.pdf 6 332605 2842031 2026-10-22T03:28:38Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261014 - 20261013) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842031 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261014 - 20261013) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 9hmyzotga0ascn161rdsp2fw54vlsl7 User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID 2 332606 2842034 2026-10-22T04:02:17Z Wb525 3112992 text setting 2842034 wikitext text/x-wiki Faraday rejected the idea of empty space, insisting that a minimal presence must always exist. The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] <ref name=":1">Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421</ref> — omnipresent, uniform, and indelible — directly confirms this intuition. Instead of recognizing it as the universe’s permanent substrate, it was interpreted as fossil radiation, a conceptual mistake with lasting consequences.<ref>Faraday's Theories of Matter and Electricity", The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press)</ref> This presence plays exactly the role Faraday anticipated: a diffuse, coherent support in which emerging geometric objects float and maintain their stability. Without it, the universe would collapse. Faraday argued that lines of force exist even without matter — not as an ether, but as the minimal presence required for electromagnetic phenomena. His intuition anticipated the non‑trivial quantum vacuum, the need for natural support, and the impossibility of true emptiness. * Primary energy allows everything to exist and imposes simple laws: straight → inertia; curved → gravity; orbit → equilibrium; fall → gradient; collision → interaction. This unnamed presence is what Faraday could not name: the GRID — Global Reference In Dynamics. * The GRID is the persistent, universal presence revealed by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]. <ref name=":1" /> Its roles vary with context: * CMB = GRID when referring to the permanent omnipresent background, * Primary energy when referring to the coherence it maintains, GRID when acting as regulator, engine of emergence, or filter enabling motion and supporting geometry. The GRID is pre‑geometric. It precedes space, has no form, position, or measurable dimension, yet contains the information required for the emergence of objects (particles, atoms). It is a source code that, once executed, generates the geometric world ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM#NUG|NUG]]) we partially know. Everything that moves interacts with the GRID. Fast rotation leaves a dynamic imprint, producing friction — the magnetic field — just like a dynamo. Gravity is the static imprint; inertia is the dynamic one. Modern physics forbids mass for W and Z bosons to preserve gauge symmetry, yet experiments show they are massive. The Higgs mechanism was added to bypass this contradiction. With the GRID, inertia comes from deformation of the GRID around objects, eliminating the need for mass and resolving the paradox. From the primordial stage onward, the GRID enables emergence (UG → NUG). UG contains particles and primary energy without geometry; NUG contains geometric objects. The GRID filters UG objects, organizes them into pre‑geometric structures, and provides a non‑geometric phase space allowing them to evolve toward NUG. * The GRID binds the phase of emergence: * Phase 1 → Phase 2: stabilizing nuclei (gravity). * Phase 2 → Phase 3: enabling dynamic interactions (magnetic imprint). Without the GRID, UG objects could never assemble into NUG structures. Once objects emerge, the GRID maintains stability through inertia and gravity. Inertia is a deformation of the GRID; gravity is its static imprint. Orbits are equilibria between these deformations. The GRID preserves the Order of emergence — the Arrow of Emergence — acting as the engine of the cosmic sequence without timekeeping. It bridges UG and NUG by translating non‑geometric properties into geometric ones. Thus the GRID is: * the physical substrate (primary energy), * the mediator between UG and NUG (filter, bridge), * the guarantor of cosmic Order (Arrow of Emergence). It resolves the paradoxes of the Big Bang paradigm while preserving a non‑anthropocentric reading of the universe. = Prediction — Constancy of c = If a space‑based interferometric mission (at 1 AU from the Sun) were to measure no systematic deviation in the speed of light compared with the terrestrial value, after correcting for known relativistic effects, then the idea of a local dependence of c on the GRID potential would be refuted. == References == {{reflist}} 4vvpa0owytexwnyvrnr0cgsmk31usgm 2842035 2842034 2026-10-22T04:08:57Z Wb525 3112992 2842035 wikitext text/x-wiki Faraday rejected the idea of empty space, insisting that a minimal presence must always exist. The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] <ref name=":1">Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421</ref> — omnipresent, uniform, and indelible — directly confirms this intuition. Instead of recognizing it as the universe’s permanent substrate, it was interpreted as fossil radiation, a conceptual mistake with lasting consequences.<ref>Faraday's Theories of Matter and Electricity", The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press)</ref> This presence plays exactly the role Faraday anticipated: a diffuse, coherent support in which emerging geometric objects float and maintain their stability. Without it, the universe would collapse. Faraday argued that lines of force exist even without matter — not as an ether, but as the minimal presence required for electromagnetic phenomena. His intuition anticipated the non‑trivial quantum vacuum, the need for natural support, and the impossibility of true emptiness. * Primary energy allows everything to exist and imposes simple laws: straight → inertia; curved → gravity; orbit → equilibrium; fall → gradient; collision → interaction. This unnamed presence is what Faraday could not name: the GRID — Global Reference In Dynamics. * The GRID is the persistent, universal presence revealed by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]. <ref name=":1" /> Its roles vary with context: * CMB = GRID when referring to the permanent omnipresent background, * Primary energy when referring to the coherence it maintains, GRID when acting as regulator, engine of emergence, or filter enabling motion and supporting geometry. The GRID is pre‑geometric. It precedes space, has no form, position, or measurable dimension, yet contains the information required for the emergence of objects (particles, atoms). It is a source code that, once executed, generates the geometric world ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM#NUG%7CNUG|NUG]]) we partially know. Everything that moves interacts with the GRID. Fast rotation leaves a dynamic imprint, producing friction — the magnetic field — just like a dynamo. Gravity is the static imprint; inertia is the dynamic one. Modern physics forbids mass for W and Z bosons to preserve gauge symmetry, yet experiments show they are massive. The Higgs mechanism was added to bypass this contradiction. With the GRID, inertia comes from deformation of the GRID around objects, eliminating the need for mass and resolving the paradox. From the primordial stage onward, the GRID enables emergence (UG → NUG). UG contains particles and primary energy without geometry; NUG contains geometric objects. The GRID filters UG objects, organizes them into pre‑geometric structures, and provides a non‑geometric phase space allowing them to evolve toward NUG. * The GRID binds the phase of emergence: * Phase 1 → Phase 2: stabilizing nuclei (gravity). * Phase 2 → Phase 3: enabling dynamic interactions (magnetic imprint). Without the GRID, UG objects could never assemble into NUG structures. Once objects emerge, the GRID maintains stability through inertia and gravity. Inertia is a deformation of the GRID; gravity is its static imprint. Orbits are equilibria between these deformations. The GRID preserves the Order of emergence — the Arrow of Emergence — acting as the engine of the cosmic sequence without timekeeping. It bridges UG and NUG by translating non‑geometric properties into geometric ones. Thus the GRID is: * the physical substrate (primary energy), * the mediator between UG and NUG (filter, bridge), * the guarantor of cosmic Order (Arrow of Emergence). It resolves the paradoxes of the Big Bang paradigm while preserving a non‑anthropocentric reading of the universe. = Prediction — Constancy of c = If a space‑based interferometric mission (at 1 AU from the Sun) were to measure no systematic deviation in the speed of light compared with the terrestrial value, after correcting for known relativistic effects, then the idea of a local dependence of c on the GRID potential would be refuted. == References == {{reflist}} hslxcm0y7j6h223uu76q1yweknc95b1 2842036 2842035 2026-10-22T04:19:23Z Wb525 3112992 2842036 wikitext text/x-wiki Faraday rejected the idea of empty space, insisting that a minimal presence must always exist. The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] <ref name=":1">Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421</ref> — omnipresent, uniform, and indelible — directly confirms this intuition. Instead of recognizing it as the universe’s permanent substrate, it was interpreted as fossil radiation, a conceptual mistake with lasting consequences.<ref>Faraday's Theories of Matter and Electricity", The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press)</ref> This presence plays exactly the role Faraday anticipated: a diffuse, coherent support in which emerging geometric objects float and maintain their stability. Without it, the universe would collapse. Faraday argued that lines of force exist even without matter — not as an ether, but as the minimal presence required for electromagnetic phenomena. His intuition anticipated the non‑trivial quantum vacuum, the need for natural support, and the impossibility of true emptiness. * Primary energy allows everything to exist and imposes simple laws: straight → inertia; curved → gravity; orbit → equilibrium; fall → gradient; collision → interaction. This unnamed presence is what Faraday could not name: the GRID — Global Reference In Dynamics. * The GRID is the persistent, universal presence revealed by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]. <ref name=":1" /> Its roles vary with context: * CMB = GRID when referring to the permanent omnipresent background, * Primary energy when referring to the coherence it maintains, GRID when acting as regulator, engine of emergence, or filter enabling motion and supporting geometry. The GRID is pre‑geometric. It precedes space, has no form, position, or measurable dimension, yet contains the information required for the emergence of objects (particles, atoms). It is a source code that, once executed, generates the geometric world ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG%7CNUG|NUG]]) we partially know. Everything that moves interacts with the GRID. Fast rotation leaves a dynamic imprint, producing friction — the magnetic field — just like a dynamo. Gravity is the static imprint; inertia is the dynamic one. Modern physics forbids mass for W and Z bosons to preserve gauge symmetry, yet experiments show they are massive. The Higgs mechanism was added to bypass this contradiction. With the GRID, inertia comes from deformation of the GRID around objects, eliminating the need for mass and resolving the paradox. From the primordial stage onward, the GRID enables emergence (UG → NUG). UG contains particles and primary energy without geometry; NUG contains geometric objects. The GRID filters UG objects, organizes them into pre‑geometric structures, and provides a non‑geometric phase space allowing them to evolve toward NUG. * The GRID binds the phase of emergence: * Phase 1 → Phase 2: stabilizing nuclei (gravity). * Phase 2 → Phase 3: enabling dynamic interactions (magnetic imprint). Without the GRID, UG objects could never assemble into NUG structures. Once objects emerge, the GRID maintains stability through inertia and gravity. Inertia is a deformation of the GRID; gravity is its static imprint. Orbits are equilibria between these deformations. The GRID preserves the Order of emergence — the Arrow of Emergence — acting as the engine of the cosmic sequence without timekeeping. It bridges UG and NUG by translating non‑geometric properties into geometric ones. Thus the GRID is: * the physical substrate (primary energy), * the mediator between UG and NUG (filter, bridge), * the guarantor of cosmic Order (Arrow of Emergence). It resolves the paradoxes of the Big Bang paradigm while preserving a non‑anthropocentric reading of the universe. = Prediction — Constancy of c = If a space‑based interferometric mission (at 1 AU from the Sun) were to measure no systematic deviation in the speed of light compared with the terrestrial value, after correcting for known relativistic effects, then the idea of a local dependence of c on the GRID potential would be refuted. == References == {{reflist}} c8u8w5h7x3ygqg8gbgnj9rnejqhfluk 2842037 2842036 2026-10-22T04:20:45Z Wb525 3112992 2842037 wikitext text/x-wiki Faraday rejected the idea of empty space, insisting that a minimal presence must always exist. The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] <ref name=":1">Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421</ref> — omnipresent, uniform, and indelible — directly confirms this intuition. Instead of recognizing it as the universe’s permanent substrate, it was interpreted as fossil radiation, a conceptual mistake with lasting consequences.<ref>Faraday's Theories of Matter and Electricity", The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press)</ref> This presence plays exactly the role Faraday anticipated: a diffuse, coherent support in which emerging geometric objects float and maintain their stability. Without it, the universe would collapse. Faraday argued that lines of force exist even without matter — not as an ether, but as the minimal presence required for electromagnetic phenomena. His intuition anticipated the non‑trivial quantum vacuum, the need for natural support, and the impossibility of true emptiness. * Primary energy allows everything to exist and imposes simple laws: straight → inertia; curved → gravity; orbit → equilibrium; fall → gradient; collision → interaction. This unnamed presence is what Faraday could not name: the GRID — Global Reference In Dynamics. * The GRID is the persistent, universal presence revealed by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]. <ref name=":1" /> Its roles vary with context: * CMB = GRID when referring to the permanent omnipresent background, * Primary energy when referring to the coherence it maintains, GRID when acting as regulator, engine of emergence, or filter enabling motion and supporting geometry. The GRID is pre‑geometric. It precedes space, has no form, position, or measurable dimension, yet contains the information required for the emergence of objects (particles, atoms). It is a source code that, once executed, generates the geometric world ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]]) we partially know. Everything that moves interacts with the GRID. Fast rotation leaves a dynamic imprint, producing friction — the magnetic field — just like a dynamo. Gravity is the static imprint; inertia is the dynamic one. Modern physics forbids mass for W and Z bosons to preserve gauge symmetry, yet experiments show they are massive. The Higgs mechanism was added to bypass this contradiction. With the GRID, inertia comes from deformation of the GRID around objects, eliminating the need for mass and resolving the paradox. From the primordial stage onward, the GRID enables emergence (UG → NUG). UG contains particles and primary energy without geometry; NUG contains geometric objects. The GRID filters UG objects, organizes them into pre‑geometric structures, and provides a non‑geometric phase space allowing them to evolve toward NUG. * The GRID binds the phase of emergence: * Phase 1 → Phase 2: stabilizing nuclei (gravity). * Phase 2 → Phase 3: enabling dynamic interactions (magnetic imprint). Without the GRID, UG objects could never assemble into NUG structures. Once objects emerge, the GRID maintains stability through inertia and gravity. Inertia is a deformation of the GRID; gravity is its static imprint. Orbits are equilibria between these deformations. The GRID preserves the Order of emergence — the Arrow of Emergence — acting as the engine of the cosmic sequence without timekeeping. It bridges UG and NUG by translating non‑geometric properties into geometric ones. Thus the GRID is: * the physical substrate (primary energy), * the mediator between UG and NUG (filter, bridge), * the guarantor of cosmic Order (Arrow of Emergence). It resolves the paradoxes of the Big Bang paradigm while preserving a non‑anthropocentric reading of the universe. = Prediction — Constancy of c = If a space‑based interferometric mission (at 1 AU from the Sun) were to measure no systematic deviation in the speed of light compared with the terrestrial value, after correcting for known relativistic effects, then the idea of a local dependence of c on the GRID potential would be refuted. == References == {{reflist}} ej21jjzed98gve8rofib44rcl9r72w6 2842054 2842037 2026-10-22T07:14:06Z Wb525 3112992 2842054 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG. Faraday rejected the idea of empty space, insisting that a minimal presence must always exist. The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] <ref name=":1">Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421</ref> — omnipresent, uniform, and indelible — directly confirms this intuition. Instead of recognizing it as the universe’s permanent substrate, it was interpreted as fossil radiation, a conceptual mistake with lasting consequences.<ref>Faraday's Theories of Matter and Electricity", The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press)</ref> This presence plays exactly the role Faraday anticipated: a diffuse, coherent support in which emerging geometric objects float and maintain their stability. Without it, the universe would collapse. Faraday argued that lines of force exist even without matter — not as an ether, but as the minimal presence required for electromagnetic phenomena. His intuition anticipated the non‑trivial quantum vacuum, the need for natural support, and the impossibility of true emptiness. * Primary energy allows everything to exist and imposes simple laws: straight → inertia; curved → gravity; orbit → equilibrium; fall → gradient; collision → interaction. This unnamed presence is what Faraday could not name: the GRID — Global Reference In Dynamics. * The GRID is the persistent, universal presence revealed by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]. <ref name=":1" /> Its roles vary with context: * CMB = GRID when referring to the permanent omnipresent background, * Primary energy when referring to the coherence it maintains, GRID when acting as regulator, engine of emergence, or filter enabling motion and supporting geometry. The GRID is pre‑geometric. It precedes space, has no form, position, or measurable dimension, yet contains the information required for the emergence of objects (particles, atoms). It is a source code that, once executed, generates the geometric world ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]]) we partially know. Everything that moves interacts with the GRID. Fast rotation leaves a dynamic imprint, producing friction — the magnetic field — just like a dynamo. Gravity is the static imprint; inertia is the dynamic one. Modern physics forbids mass for W and Z bosons to preserve gauge symmetry, yet experiments show they are massive. The Higgs mechanism was added to bypass this contradiction. With the GRID, inertia comes from deformation of the GRID around objects, eliminating the need for mass and resolving the paradox. From the primordial stage onward, the GRID enables emergence (UG → NUG). UG contains particles and primary energy without geometry; NUG contains geometric objects. The GRID filters UG objects, organizes them into pre‑geometric structures, and provides a non‑geometric phase space allowing them to evolve toward NUG. * The GRID binds the phase of emergence: * Phase 1 → Phase 2: stabilizing nuclei (gravity). * Phase 2 → Phase 3: enabling dynamic interactions (magnetic imprint). Without the GRID, UG objects could never assemble into NUG structures. Once objects emerge, the GRID maintains stability through inertia and gravity. Inertia is a deformation of the GRID; gravity is its static imprint. Orbits are equilibria between these deformations. The GRID preserves the Order of emergence — the Arrow of Emergence — acting as the engine of the cosmic sequence without timekeeping. It bridges UG and NUG by translating non‑geometric properties into geometric ones. Thus the GRID is: * the physical substrate (primary energy), * the mediator between UG and NUG (filter, bridge), * the guarantor of cosmic Order (Arrow of Emergence). It resolves the paradoxes of the Big Bang paradigm while preserving a non‑anthropocentric reading of the universe. = Prediction — Constancy of c = If a space‑based interferometric mission (at 1 AU from the Sun) were to measure no systematic deviation in the speed of light compared with the terrestrial value, after correcting for known relativistic effects, then the idea of a local dependence of c on the GRID potential would be refuted. == References == {{reflist}} 1k4va3egwlrpxllnktnbhgirva52sr6 2842067 2842054 2026-10-22T09:26:57Z Wb525 3112992 2842067 wikitext text/x-wiki Faraday rejected the idea of empty space, insisting that a minimal presence must always exist. The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] <ref name=":1">Penzias, A. A., & Wilson, R. W. (1965). "A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s". The Astrophysical Journal, 142, 419-421</ref> — omnipresent, uniform, and indelible — directly confirms this intuition. Instead of recognizing it as the universe’s permanent substrate, it was interpreted as fossil radiation, a conceptual mistake with lasting consequences.<ref>Faraday's Theories of Matter and Electricity", The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press)</ref> This presence plays exactly the role Faraday anticipated: a diffuse, coherent support in which emerging geometric objects float and maintain their stability. Without it, the universe would collapse. Faraday argued that lines of force exist even without matter — not as an ether, but as the minimal presence required for electromagnetic phenomena. His intuition anticipated the non‑trivial quantum vacuum, the need for natural support, and the impossibility of true emptiness. * Primary energy allows everything to exist and imposes simple laws: straight → inertia; curved → gravity; orbit → equilibrium; fall → gradient; collision → interaction. This unnamed presence is what Faraday could not name: the GRID — Global Reference In Dynamics. * The GRID is the persistent, universal presence revealed by the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]]. <ref name=":1" /> Its roles vary with context: * CMB = GRID when referring to the permanent omnipresent background, * Primary energy when referring to the coherence it maintains, GRID when acting as regulator, engine of emergence, or filter enabling motion and supporting geometry. The GRID is pre‑geometric. It precedes space, has no form, position, or measurable dimension, yet contains the information required for the emergence of objects (particles, atoms). It is a source code that, once executed, generates the geometric world ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]]) we partially know. Everything that moves interacts with the GRID. Fast rotation leaves a dynamic imprint, producing friction — the magnetic field — just like a dynamo. [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|Gravity]] is the static imprint; inertia is the dynamic one. Modern physics forbids mass for W and Z bosons to preserve gauge symmetry, yet experiments show they are massive. The Higgs mechanism was added to bypass this contradiction. With the GRID, inertia comes from deformation of the GRID around objects, eliminating the need for mass and resolving the paradox. From the primordial stage onward, the GRID enables emergence (UG → NUG). [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#UG|UG]] contains particles and primary energy without geometry; NUG contains geometric objects. The GRID filters UG objects, organizes them into pre‑geometric structures, and provides a non‑geometric phase space allowing them to evolve toward [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]]. * The GRID binds the phase of emergence: * Phase 1 → Phase 2: stabilizing nuclei (gravity). * Phase 2 → Phase 3: enabling dynamic interactions (magnetic imprint). Without the GRID, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#UG|UG]] objects could never assemble into [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]] structures. Once objects emerge, the GRID maintains stability through inertia and gravity. Inertia is a deformation of the GRID; gravity is its static imprint. Orbits are equilibria between these deformations. The GRID preserves the Order of emergence — the Arrow of Emergence — acting as the engine of the cosmic sequence without timekeeping. It bridges [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#UG|UG]] and [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]] by translating non‑geometric properties into geometric ones. Thus the GRID is: * the physical substrate (primary energy), * the mediator between [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#UG|UG]] and [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#NUG|NUG]] (filter, bridge), * the guarantor of cosmic Order ([[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model#the Arrow of Emergence|Arrow of Emergence]]). It resolves the paradoxes of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/ΛCDM|Big Bang paradigm]] while preserving a non‑anthropocentric reading of the universe. = Prediction — Constancy of c = If a space‑based interferometric mission (at 1 AU from the Sun) were to measure no systematic deviation in the speed of light compared with the terrestrial value, after correcting for known relativistic effects, then the idea of a local dependence of c on the GRID potential would be refuted. == References == {{reflist}} 49lvbwab1jgxuyld031q1gqknexwyst User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity 2 332607 2842038 2026-10-22T04:52:13Z Wb525 3112992 text setting 2842038 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gravity''' In the ΛCDM, this force would supposedly arise from the curvature of a non‑existent spacetime. The Big Bang paradigm provides no physical substrate to curve. Spacetime is an abstract mathematical object, without minimal presence (unlike Faraday or UG.NUG). A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure, which constitutes a major fundamental contradiction. In the UG.NUG reading, gravity is the static reaction of the GRID in the presence of geometric objects. It is not a fundamental force, has no quantum carrier, and cannot be reduced to a quantum field theory. It is therefore not quantifiable in the physical sense — not because it is immeasurable, but because it does not belong to the quantum regime. It is measurable only on Earth, through its effect on a physical reference (e.g., one liter of water). And the only real measurement of gravity is simply the pressure it exerts on an everyday object. Take one liter of water. Whatever its container — a thin bottle, a wide one, or a balloon — it will always weigh one kilogram. Well, without any grandiloquent formula, Newtonian or Einsteinian, I can tell you that gravity at Earth’s surface is 1 kilogram‑force (1 kgf). Assuming our water balloon would float in weightlessness and weighs the equivalent of one liter of water on Earth, the result is beyond doubt. In the Big Bang Paradigm, gravity at Earth’s surface is computed in several steps. For non‑specialists, understanding the equations is irrelevant. It only serves to demonstrate an unnecessary complexity to reach the same result than without equations: We assume Earth has a mass M. # This mass is not measured directly: it is inferred from other models (orbits, constants, etc.). # We assume gravity follows Newton’s law: <math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}</math> where * F is gravitational force, * G the gravitational constant, * M Earth’s mass, * m the object’s mass, * and R Earth’s radius. # We define gravitational acceleration For an object of mass m, we write Take a 1‑kg object. By definition, in this reading, one liter of water has a mass of 1 kg. # The force exerted by gravity on this object is then We introduce a practical unit: the kilogram‑force (kgf). # By convention, we define : Thus, the force exerted by gravity on 1 kg (ou 1 liter of water) Earth’s : Result : For the ΛCDM, gravity on earth, applied to 1 liter of water, corresponds to 1 kgf. QED Gravity is therefore the expression of the GRID’s pressure on Earth’s surface — or on any spatial object. The denser an object is in matter, the more it deforms the GRID. It works like a slingshot: when the elastic is stretched, it thins and loses efficiency in supporting spatial objects approaching Earth. This is why such objects are attracted and, having progressively lost the support the GRID offered them, end up crashing onto its surface. The GRID thus logically resolves many anomalies that trouble the ΛCDM. The problem is that this paradigm is not satisfied with gravity at large scales; it wants gravity at the scale of the infinitely small. The first serious and structured proposal for quantum gravity came from Matvei Bronstein in 1935. He suggested that gravity should also be expressed and calculated in the quantum regime, on the grounds that the gravitational field becomes unobservable below a certain scale. During his lifetime, it would have been useful to reply to him that if gravity disappears at a certain point, it may simply be because it is no longer there. Apparently, he did not care, and his obsession was enough to drag the ΛCDM into a long, hopeless quest that, strangely, is still being pursued. For yes, gravity remains the stone in the shoe of the ΛCDM. It is hard to understand why one refuses to accept that a tension effect cannot act on invisible, non‑geometric objects — which, for non‑specialists, is like being surprised that one cannot pat a ghost on the shoulder. So it seems useless to comment further on this waste of time and resources in such a pursuit. Just for the record, gravity is not the only property that exists only at the macroscopic level: temperature, friction, and pressure belong to the same category and interact only with geometric, perceptible objects. It is also strange to imagine that a force — any force — could act at both levels. Just because you can tap someone on the shoulder does not mean you can high‑five a particle. A force that acts on structured, geometric objects cannot reasonably act on entities devoid of geometry. The only coherent solution is therefore a purely geometric gravity — all the more so since it has resisted for a century every attempt to force it into a quantum reality. = Prediction = If a free‑fall experiment (such as MICROSCOPE) were to measure a deviation in acceleration depending on the composition of the objects, beyond instrumental uncertainties, then the hypothesis of gravity as a tension of the GRID — blind to matter — would be contradicted. iljmt44p0s3j6z84pmweolztia3jwd8 2842042 2842038 2026-10-22T06:08:54Z Wb525 3112992 2842042 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/Gravity}} In the ΛCDM, this force would supposedly arise from the curvature of a non‑existent spacetime. The Big Bang paradigm provides no physical substrate to curve. Spacetime is an abstract mathematical object, without minimal presence (unlike Faraday or UG.NUG). A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure, which constitutes a major fundamental contradiction. In the UG.NUG reading, gravity is the static reaction of the GRID in the presence of geometric objects. It is not a fundamental force, has no quantum carrier, and cannot be reduced to a quantum field theory. It is therefore not quantifiable in the physical sense — not because it is immeasurable, but because it does not belong to the quantum regime. It is measurable only on Earth, through its effect on a physical reference (e.g., one liter of water). And the only real measurement of gravity is simply the pressure it exerts on an everyday object. Take one liter of water. Whatever its container — a thin bottle, a wide one, or a balloon — it will always weigh one kilogram. Well, without any grandiloquent formula, Newtonian or Einsteinian, I can tell you that gravity at Earth’s surface is 1 kilogram‑force (1 kgf). Assuming our water balloon would float in weightlessness and weighs the equivalent of one liter of water on Earth, the result is beyond doubt. In the Big Bang Paradigm, gravity at Earth’s surface is computed in several steps. For non‑specialists, understanding the equations is irrelevant. It only serves to demonstrate an unnecessary complexity to reach the same result than without equations: We assume Earth has a mass M. # This mass is not measured directly: it is inferred from other models (orbits, constants, etc.). # We assume gravity follows Newton’s law: <math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}</math> where * F is gravitational force, * G the gravitational constant, * M Earth’s mass, * m the object’s mass, * and R Earth’s radius. # We define gravitational acceleration For an object of mass m, we write Take a 1‑kg object. By definition, in this reading, one liter of water has a mass of 1 kg. # The force exerted by gravity on this object is then We introduce a practical unit: the kilogram‑force (kgf). # By convention, we define : Thus, the force exerted by gravity on 1 kg (ou 1 liter of water) Earth’s : Result : For the ΛCDM, gravity on earth, applied to 1 liter of water, corresponds to 1 kgf. QED Gravity is therefore the expression of the GRID’s pressure on Earth’s surface — or on any spatial object. The denser an object is in matter, the more it deforms the GRID. It works like a slingshot: when the elastic is stretched, it thins and loses efficiency in supporting spatial objects approaching Earth. This is why such objects are attracted and, having progressively lost the support the GRID offered them, end up crashing onto its surface. The GRID thus logically resolves many anomalies that trouble the ΛCDM. The problem is that this paradigm is not satisfied with gravity at large scales; it wants gravity at the scale of the infinitely small. The first serious and structured proposal for quantum gravity came from Matvei Bronstein in 1935. He suggested that gravity should also be expressed and calculated in the quantum regime, on the grounds that the gravitational field becomes unobservable below a certain scale. During his lifetime, it would have been useful to reply to him that if gravity disappears at a certain point, it may simply be because it is no longer there. Apparently, he did not care, and his obsession was enough to drag the ΛCDM into a long, hopeless quest that, strangely, is still being pursued. For yes, gravity remains the stone in the shoe of the ΛCDM. It is hard to understand why one refuses to accept that a tension effect cannot act on invisible, non‑geometric objects — which, for non‑specialists, is like being surprised that one cannot pat a ghost on the shoulder. So it seems useless to comment further on this waste of time and resources in such a pursuit. Just for the record, gravity is not the only property that exists only at the macroscopic level: temperature, friction, and pressure belong to the same category and interact only with geometric, perceptible objects. It is also strange to imagine that a force — any force — could act at both levels. Just because you can tap someone on the shoulder does not mean you can high‑five a particle. A force that acts on structured, geometric objects cannot reasonably act on entities devoid of geometry. The only coherent solution is therefore a purely geometric gravity — all the more so since it has resisted for a century every attempt to force it into a quantum reality. = Prediction = If a free‑fall experiment (such as MICROSCOPE) were to measure a deviation in acceleration depending on the composition of the objects, beyond instrumental uncertainties, then the hypothesis of gravity as a tension of the GRID — blind to matter — would be contradicted. {{DEFAULTSORT:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/Gravity}} gajf3y5dpgadame1cy38ptra9waoeev 2842052 2842042 2026-10-22T07:12:18Z Wb525 3112992 2842052 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG. In the ΛCDM, this force would supposedly arise from the curvature of a non‑existent spacetime. The Big Bang paradigm provides no physical substrate to curve. Spacetime is an abstract mathematical object, without minimal presence (unlike Faraday or UG.NUG). A physical deformation is therefore attributed to a non‑physical structure, which constitutes a major fundamental contradiction. In the UG.NUG reading, gravity is the static reaction of the GRID in the presence of geometric objects. It is not a fundamental force, has no quantum carrier, and cannot be reduced to a quantum field theory. It is therefore not quantifiable in the physical sense — not because it is immeasurable, but because it does not belong to the quantum regime. It is measurable only on Earth, through its effect on a physical reference (e.g., one liter of water). And the only real measurement of gravity is simply the pressure it exerts on an everyday object. Take one liter of water. Whatever its container — a thin bottle, a wide one, or a balloon — it will always weigh one kilogram. Well, without any grandiloquent formula, Newtonian or Einsteinian, I can tell you that gravity at Earth’s surface is 1 kilogram‑force (1 kgf). Assuming our water balloon would float in weightlessness and weighs the equivalent of one liter of water on Earth, the result is beyond doubt. In the Big Bang Paradigm, gravity at Earth’s surface is computed in several steps. For non‑specialists, understanding the equations is irrelevant. It only serves to demonstrate an unnecessary complexity to reach the same result than without equations: We assume Earth has a mass M. # This mass is not measured directly: it is inferred from other models (orbits, constants, etc.). # We assume gravity follows Newton’s law: <math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}</math> where * F is gravitational force, * G the gravitational constant, * M Earth’s mass, * m the object’s mass, * and R Earth’s radius. # We define gravitational acceleration For an object of mass m, we write Take a 1‑kg object. By definition, in this reading, one liter of water has a mass of 1 kg. # The force exerted by gravity on this object is then We introduce a practical unit: the kilogram‑force (kgf). # By convention, we define : Thus, the force exerted by gravity on 1 kg (ou 1 liter of water) Earth’s : Result : For the ΛCDM, gravity on earth, applied to 1 liter of water, corresponds to 1 kgf. QED Gravity is therefore the expression of the GRID’s pressure on Earth’s surface — or on any spatial object. The denser an object is in matter, the more it deforms the GRID. It works like a slingshot: when the elastic is stretched, it thins and loses efficiency in supporting spatial objects approaching Earth. This is why such objects are attracted and, having progressively lost the support the GRID offered them, end up crashing onto its surface. The GRID thus logically resolves many anomalies that trouble the ΛCDM. The problem is that this paradigm is not satisfied with gravity at large scales; it wants gravity at the scale of the infinitely small. The first serious and structured proposal for quantum gravity came from Matvei Bronstein in 1935. He suggested that gravity should also be expressed and calculated in the quantum regime, on the grounds that the gravitational field becomes unobservable below a certain scale. During his lifetime, it would have been useful to reply to him that if gravity disappears at a certain point, it may simply be because it is no longer there. Apparently, he did not care, and his obsession was enough to drag the ΛCDM into a long, hopeless quest that, strangely, is still being pursued. For yes, gravity remains the stone in the shoe of the ΛCDM. It is hard to understand why one refuses to accept that a tension effect cannot act on invisible, non‑geometric objects — which, for non‑specialists, is like being surprised that one cannot pat a ghost on the shoulder. So it seems useless to comment further on this waste of time and resources in such a pursuit. Just for the record, gravity is not the only property that exists only at the macroscopic level: temperature, friction, and pressure belong to the same category and interact only with geometric, perceptible objects. It is also strange to imagine that a force — any force — could act at both levels. Just because you can tap someone on the shoulder does not mean you can high‑five a particle. A force that acts on structured, geometric objects cannot reasonably act on entities devoid of geometry. The only coherent solution is therefore a purely geometric gravity — all the more so since it has resisted for a century every attempt to force it into a quantum reality. = Prediction = If a free‑fall experiment (such as MICROSCOPE) were to measure a deviation in acceleration depending on the composition of the objects, beyond instrumental uncertainties, then the hypothesis of gravity as a tension of the GRID — blind to matter — would be contradicted. aj5d7k89w6q1bbmgbseu4wc1fnb52zl User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/black holes 2 332608 2842045 2026-10-22T06:35:17Z Wb525 3112992 text setting 2842045 wikitext text/x-wiki It is striking that, from the sole observation of intense light and rapid motion at galactic centres, one has built the improbable image of a black, invisible object that swallows matter. This interpretive feat is a remarkable example of how the standard model turns observations into ideology. In the standard model, black holes are described as objects of extreme density, surrounded by an event horizon from which nothing can escape. They are said to be formed by the collapse of massive stars, and they are invoked to explain the intense luminosity and rapid motions observed at the centres of galaxies. But this description is a curious interpretation, not an observation. == What is actually observed: == At the centre of most large galaxies, there is a compact, luminous source. This source emits intense radiation across a wide range of wavelengths: X‑rays, infrared, radio. Around this source, stars move very fast, in tight orbits. Jets of matter and energy are sometimes ejected along a preferred axis. The source itself is extremely small compared to the galaxy that surrounds it. ''That is what we see. No hole. No singularity. No invisible object''. == Observing the CMB/GRID == The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] does not look like a flat, peaceful lake, but rather like a collection of intense zones. These regions are natural centres of emergence. And it is certainly why the universe's organisation is merely based on groups of objects like galaxies. Where the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] is dense enough, geometry emerges. This emergence is not a passive event: it is an active, energetic process. It produces heat, radiation, and motion. It concentrates energy in a small volume, creating a bright, compact region. This is what we observe at the centres of galaxies. * The light and radiation come from the emergence itself. * The rapid motion of stars is due to the pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on the emerging geometry. * The jets are the expulsion of energy along the axis of emergence. * There is no singularity, no infinite density, no absorption of matter. * There is no horizon — only a region where geometry is still forming, and which remains compact because the emergence is not yet fully deployed. This reading explains all the observations without invoking invisible objects, without postulating singularities, and without requiring the absorption of matter. It also eliminates the need for quantum gravity, which in any case, was, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|is and will always be unconditionally impossible]]. Black holes, therefore, do not exist. These very bright galaxy centres are birthplaces of geometry — centres where the universe emerges by groups of objects, actively, from its own substrate. == Galaxies' persistent activity == The spiral structure of galaxies is the visible trace of a continuous quantum activity due to a probable permanent process of emergence. The direction of rotation is not really understandable and could be just aleatory and depend on the spreading fluctuations of quantum effervescence. What actually happens is that galaxies are, poetically, living organisms with a beating heart that renews — through its quantum source, the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — its energetic capacity by continuously creating new stars, these energy-producing facilities. This cycle keeps the global equilibrium intact despite the end-of-life of existing stars. The universe is not dying. It is closer to what mankind has sought since the dawn of time: perpetual motion. In this case, at the centre, a quantum effervescence gives rise to multiple geometries at once — objects that do not appear in their final form immediately and obviously increase the mass of the centre so a powerful  gravity is exerted. The new objects first take on intermediate, lighter forms, orbiting close to the centre. As they mature, they grow in mass and gradually move outward, shifting to more distant orbits. This progressive migration, driven by the increasing maturity of the emerging objects, naturally produces a spiral pattern — without the need for dark matter or complex gravitational adjustments. == Black Hole Observations == {| class="wikitable" |'''Observation''' |'''Standard Interpretation''' |'''UG.NUG Interpretation''' |- |Gravitational waves (LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA) |Ripples in spacetime from black hole mergers. |Ripples in the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]], produced by the dynamics of emergent geometry. |- |Spin (ΩH) |Rotation of the black hole's horizon. |Not a rotation of a horizon. It is a dynamic feature of the emergence zone. |- |Surface gravity (Îș) |Gravity at the event horizon. |Not gravity at a horizon. It is the local pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on emerging geometry. |- |Ringdown |The black hole settling into its final state. |Not a black hole settling. It is the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] returning to equilibrium after an emergence event. |- |Event horizon |A "surface of no return." |Not a surface of no return. It is the boundary of a region where geometry is still forming. |- |Pair-instability mass gap |Gap in black hole masses due to stellar physics; filled by hierarchical mergers. |There is no mass gap. Mass is not a property of these regions. What is observed is the distribution of emergence intensity. |- |Spin populations |Low-spin (direct collapse) and high-spin (hierarchical mergers). |No low‑spin or high‑spin populations. Spin is a secondary effect of geometric emergence, not a product of mergers. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O reaction rate |Critical for nuclear astrophysics and stellar evolution. |Not relevant. These regions are not formed by stellar evolution. |- |Pair-instability gap (m₂ only) |Evidence for hierarchical mergers; primary components in the gap are merger products. |No gap. The observed distribution reflects different levels of emergence maturity. |- |High spins in gap binaries |Signatures of hierarchical mergers. |Not a signature of mergers. It is a signature of intense emergence. |- |Low black hole masses (10⁔–10⁷ M⊙) |The lowest mass black holes known at high redshift. |Not a measure of [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]]. It is a measure of the intensity of the emergence zone. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O S-factor constraint |Links gravitational-wave astronomy to nuclear astrophysics. |Not relevant. This region does not involve nuclear astrophysics. |- |Growth of light seed black holes at high redshift |Tiny black holes from Population III stars grow rapidly (~10⁎ M⊙) to become the seeds of supermassive black holes observed by JWST at z > 8. |No seeds, no growth. The observed objects are simply emergence zones at different levels of geometric maturity. Redshift is not cosmic time; it is a measure of geometric maturity. |} ofiblt0b13fxrlykckz50tgwfd2bwgi 2842046 2842045 2026-10-22T06:55:48Z Wb525 3112992 text setting 2842046 wikitext text/x-wiki It is striking that, from the sole observation of intense light and rapid motion at galactic centres, one has built the improbable image of a black, invisible object that swallows matter. This interpretive feat is a remarkable example of how the standard model turns observations into ideology. In the standard model, black holes are described as objects of extreme density, surrounded by an event horizon from which nothing can escape. They are said to be formed by the collapse of massive stars, and they are invoked to explain the intense luminosity and rapid motions observed at the centres of galaxies. But this description is a curious interpretation, not an observation. == What is actually observed: == At the centre of most large galaxies, there is a compact, luminous source <ref>{{Cite journal|last=The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration|last2=Akiyama|first2=Kazunori|last3=Alberdi|first3=Antxon|last4=Alef|first4=Walter|last5=Asada|first5=Keiichi|last6=Azulay|first6=Rebecca|last7=Baczko|first7=Anne-Kathrin|last8=Ball|first8=David|last9=Baloković|first9=Mislav|date=2019-04-10|title=First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters|volume=875|issue=1|pages=L1|doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7|issn=2041-8205}}</ref>. This source emits intense radiation across a wide range of wavelengths: X‑rays, infrared, radio. Around this source, stars move very fast, in tight orbits. Jets of matter and energy are sometimes ejected along a preferred axis. The source itself is extremely small compared to the galaxy that surrounds it. ''That is what we see. No hole. No singularity. No invisible object''. == Observing the CMB/GRID == The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] does not look like a flat, peaceful lake, but rather like a collection of intense zones. These regions are natural centres of emergence. And it is certainly why the universe's organisation is merely based on groups of objects like galaxies. Where the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] is dense enough, geometry emerges. This emergence is not a passive event: it is an active, energetic process. It produces heat, radiation, and motion. It concentrates energy in a small volume, creating a bright, compact region. This is what we observe at the centres of galaxies. * The light and radiation come from the emergence itself. * The rapid motion of stars is due to the pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on the emerging geometry. * The jets are the expulsion of energy along the axis of emergence. * There is no singularity, no infinite density, no absorption of matter. * There is no horizon — only a region where geometry is still forming, and which remains compact because the emergence is not yet fully deployed. This reading explains all the observations without invoking invisible objects, without postulating singularities, and without requiring the absorption of matter. It also eliminates the need for quantum gravity, which in any case, was, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|is and will always be unconditionally impossible]]. Black holes, therefore, do not exist. These very bright galaxy centres are birthplaces of geometry — centres where the universe emerges by groups of objects, actively, from its own substrate. == Galaxies' persistent activity == The spiral structure of galaxies is the visible trace of a continuous quantum activity due to a probable permanent process of emergence. The direction of rotation is not really understandable and could be just aleatory and depend on the spreading fluctuations of quantum effervescence. What actually happens is that galaxies are, poetically, living organisms with a beating heart that renews — through its quantum source, the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — its energetic capacity by continuously creating new stars, these energy-producing facilities. This cycle keeps the global equilibrium intact despite the end-of-life of existing stars. The universe is not dying. It is closer to what mankind has sought since the dawn of time: perpetual motion. In this case, at the centre, a quantum effervescence gives rise to multiple geometries at once — objects that do not appear in their final form immediately and obviously increase the mass of the centre so a powerful  gravity is exerted. The new objects first take on intermediate, lighter forms, orbiting close to the centre. As they mature, they grow in mass and gradually move outward, shifting to more distant orbits. This progressive migration, driven by the increasing maturity of the emerging objects, naturally produces a spiral pattern — without the need for dark matter or complex gravitational adjustments. == Black Hole Observations == {| class="wikitable" |'''Observation''' |'''Standard Interpretation''' |'''UG.NUG Interpretation''' |- |Gravitational waves (LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abbott|first=B. P.|last2=Abbott|first2=R.|last3=Abbott|first3=T. D.|last4=Abernathy|first4=M. R.|last5=Acernese|first5=F.|last6=Ackley|first6=K.|last7=Adams|first7=C.|last8=Adams|first8=T.|last9=Addesso|first9=P.|date=2016-02-11|title=Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102|journal=Physical Review Letters|language=en|volume=116|issue=6|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102|issn=0031-9007}}</ref>) |Ripples in spacetime from black hole mergers. |Ripples in the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]], produced by the dynamics of emergent geometry. |- |Spin (ΩH) |Rotation of the black hole's horizon. |Not a rotation of a horizon. It is a dynamic feature of the emergence zone. |- |Surface gravity (Îș) |Gravity at the event horizon. |Not gravity at a horizon. It is the local pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on emerging geometry. |- |Ringdown |The black hole settling into its final state. |Not a black hole settling. It is the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] returning to equilibrium after an emergence event. |- |Event horizon |A "surface of no return." |Not a surface of no return. It is the boundary of a region where geometry is still forming. |- |Pair-instability mass gap |Gap in black hole masses due to stellar physics; filled by hierarchical mergers. |There is no mass gap. Mass is not a property of these regions. What is observed is the distribution of emergence intensity. |- |Spin populations |Low-spin (direct collapse) and high-spin (hierarchical mergers). |No low‑spin or high‑spin populations. Spin is a secondary effect of geometric emergence, not a product of mergers. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O reaction rate |Critical for nuclear astrophysics and stellar evolution. |Not relevant. These regions are not formed by stellar evolution. |- |Pair-instability gap (m₂ only) |Evidence for hierarchical mergers; primary components in the gap are merger products. |No gap. The observed distribution reflects different levels of emergence maturity. |- |High spins in gap binaries |Signatures of hierarchical mergers. |Not a signature of mergers. It is a signature of intense emergence. |- |Low black hole masses (10⁔–10⁷ M⊙) |The lowest mass black holes known at high redshift. |Not a measure of [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]]. It is a measure of the intensity of the emergence zone. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O S-factor constraint |Links gravitational-wave astronomy to nuclear astrophysics. |Not relevant. This region does not involve nuclear astrophysics. |- |Growth of light seed black holes at high redshift |Tiny black holes from Population III stars grow rapidly (~10⁎ M⊙) to become the seeds of supermassive black holes observed by JWST <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeb|first=Abraham|date=2024-07-12|title=Little Red Dots from Low-spin Galaxies at High Redshifts|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad614c|journal=Research Notes of the AAS|volume=8|issue=7|pages=182|doi=10.3847/2515-5172/ad614c|issn=2515-5172}}</ref> at z > 8. |No seeds, no growth. The observed objects are simply emergence zones at different levels of geometric maturity. Redshift is not cosmic time; it is a measure of geometric maturity. |} == References == <references /> 3pevo0nioeo2myxhnhv1r16hy12fk6t 2842047 2842046 2026-10-22T07:05:33Z Wb525 3112992 2842047 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} ''This is an original research project by Willy Bohane.'' It is striking that, from the sole observation of intense light and rapid motion at galactic centres, one has built the improbable image of a black, invisible object that swallows matter. This interpretive feat is a remarkable example of how the standard model turns observations into ideology. In the standard model, black holes are described as objects of extreme density, surrounded by an event horizon from which nothing can escape. They are said to be formed by the collapse of massive stars, and they are invoked to explain the intense luminosity and rapid motions observed at the centres of galaxies. But this description is a curious interpretation, not an observation. == What is actually observed: == At the centre of most large galaxies, there is a compact, luminous source <ref>{{Cite journal|last=The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration|last2=Akiyama|first2=Kazunori|last3=Alberdi|first3=Antxon|last4=Alef|first4=Walter|last5=Asada|first5=Keiichi|last6=Azulay|first6=Rebecca|last7=Baczko|first7=Anne-Kathrin|last8=Ball|first8=David|last9=Baloković|first9=Mislav|date=2019-04-10|title=First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters|volume=875|issue=1|pages=L1|doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7|issn=2041-8205}}</ref>. This source emits intense radiation across a wide range of wavelengths: X‑rays, infrared, radio. Around this source, stars move very fast, in tight orbits. Jets of matter and energy are sometimes ejected along a preferred axis. The source itself is extremely small compared to the galaxy that surrounds it. ''That is what we see. No hole. No singularity. No invisible object''. == Observing the CMB/GRID == The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] does not look like a flat, peaceful lake, but rather like a collection of intense zones. These regions are natural centres of emergence. And it is certainly why the universe's organisation is merely based on groups of objects like galaxies. Where the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] is dense enough, geometry emerges. This emergence is not a passive event: it is an active, energetic process. It produces heat, radiation, and motion. It concentrates energy in a small volume, creating a bright, compact region. This is what we observe at the centres of galaxies. * The light and radiation come from the emergence itself. * The rapid motion of stars is due to the pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on the emerging geometry. * The jets are the expulsion of energy along the axis of emergence. * There is no singularity, no infinite density, no absorption of matter. * There is no horizon — only a region where geometry is still forming, and which remains compact because the emergence is not yet fully deployed. This reading explains all the observations without invoking invisible objects, without postulating singularities, and without requiring the absorption of matter. It also eliminates the need for quantum gravity, which in any case, was, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|is and will always be unconditionally impossible]]. Black holes, therefore, do not exist. These very bright galaxy centres are birthplaces of geometry — centres where the universe emerges by groups of objects, actively, from its own substrate. == Galaxies' persistent activity == The spiral structure of galaxies is the visible trace of a continuous quantum activity due to a probable permanent process of emergence. The direction of rotation is not really understandable and could be just aleatory and depend on the spreading fluctuations of quantum effervescence. What actually happens is that galaxies are, poetically, living organisms with a beating heart that renews — through its quantum source, the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — its energetic capacity by continuously creating new stars, these energy-producing facilities. This cycle keeps the global equilibrium intact despite the end-of-life of existing stars. The universe is not dying. It is closer to what mankind has sought since the dawn of time: perpetual motion. In this case, at the centre, a quantum effervescence gives rise to multiple geometries at once — objects that do not appear in their final form immediately and obviously increase the mass of the centre so a powerful  gravity is exerted. The new objects first take on intermediate, lighter forms, orbiting close to the centre. As they mature, they grow in mass and gradually move outward, shifting to more distant orbits. This progressive migration, driven by the increasing maturity of the emerging objects, naturally produces a spiral pattern — without the need for dark matter or complex gravitational adjustments. == Black Hole Observations == {| class="wikitable" |'''Observation''' |'''Standard Interpretation''' |'''UG.NUG Interpretation''' |- |Gravitational waves (LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abbott|first=B. P.|last2=Abbott|first2=R.|last3=Abbott|first3=T. D.|last4=Abernathy|first4=M. R.|last5=Acernese|first5=F.|last6=Ackley|first6=K.|last7=Adams|first7=C.|last8=Adams|first8=T.|last9=Addesso|first9=P.|date=2016-02-11|title=Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102|journal=Physical Review Letters|language=en|volume=116|issue=6|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102|issn=0031-9007}}</ref>) |Ripples in spacetime from black hole mergers. |Ripples in the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]], produced by the dynamics of emergent geometry. |- |Spin (ΩH) |Rotation of the black hole's horizon. |Not a rotation of a horizon. It is a dynamic feature of the emergence zone. |- |Surface gravity (Îș) |Gravity at the event horizon. |Not gravity at a horizon. It is the local pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on emerging geometry. |- |Ringdown |The black hole settling into its final state. |Not a black hole settling. It is the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] returning to equilibrium after an emergence event. |- |Event horizon |A "surface of no return." |Not a surface of no return. It is the boundary of a region where geometry is still forming. |- |Pair-instability mass gap |Gap in black hole masses due to stellar physics; filled by hierarchical mergers. |There is no mass gap. Mass is not a property of these regions. What is observed is the distribution of emergence intensity. |- |Spin populations |Low-spin (direct collapse) and high-spin (hierarchical mergers). |No low‑spin or high‑spin populations. Spin is a secondary effect of geometric emergence, not a product of mergers. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O reaction rate |Critical for nuclear astrophysics and stellar evolution. |Not relevant. These regions are not formed by stellar evolution. |- |Pair-instability gap (m₂ only) |Evidence for hierarchical mergers; primary components in the gap are merger products. |No gap. The observed distribution reflects different levels of emergence maturity. |- |High spins in gap binaries |Signatures of hierarchical mergers. |Not a signature of mergers. It is a signature of intense emergence. |- |Low black hole masses (10⁔–10⁷ M⊙) |The lowest mass black holes known at high redshift. |Not a measure of [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]]. It is a measure of the intensity of the emergence zone. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O S-factor constraint |Links gravitational-wave astronomy to nuclear astrophysics. |Not relevant. This region does not involve nuclear astrophysics. |- |Growth of light seed black holes at high redshift |Tiny black holes from Population III stars grow rapidly (~10⁎ M⊙) to become the seeds of supermassive black holes observed by JWST <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeb|first=Abraham|date=2024-07-12|title=Little Red Dots from Low-spin Galaxies at High Redshifts|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad614c|journal=Research Notes of the AAS|volume=8|issue=7|pages=182|doi=10.3847/2515-5172/ad614c|issn=2515-5172}}</ref> at z > 8. |No seeds, no growth. The observed objects are simply emergence zones at different levels of geometric maturity. Redshift is not cosmic time; it is a measure of geometric maturity. |} == References == <references /> ekgfkny3tel5xcnvsh4m3ogbdwtyal9 2842051 2842047 2026-10-22T07:11:31Z Wb525 3112992 2842051 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} Original research project by Willy Bohane — UG.NUG. It is striking that, from the sole observation of intense light and rapid motion at galactic centres, one has built the improbable image of a black, invisible object that swallows matter. This interpretive feat is a remarkable example of how the standard model turns observations into ideology. In the standard model, black holes are described as objects of extreme density, surrounded by an event horizon from which nothing can escape. They are said to be formed by the collapse of massive stars, and they are invoked to explain the intense luminosity and rapid motions observed at the centres of galaxies. But this description is a curious interpretation, not an observation. == What is actually observed: == At the centre of most large galaxies, there is a compact, luminous source <ref>{{Cite journal|last=The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration|last2=Akiyama|first2=Kazunori|last3=Alberdi|first3=Antxon|last4=Alef|first4=Walter|last5=Asada|first5=Keiichi|last6=Azulay|first6=Rebecca|last7=Baczko|first7=Anne-Kathrin|last8=Ball|first8=David|last9=Baloković|first9=Mislav|date=2019-04-10|title=First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7|journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters|volume=875|issue=1|pages=L1|doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7|issn=2041-8205}}</ref>. This source emits intense radiation across a wide range of wavelengths: X‑rays, infrared, radio. Around this source, stars move very fast, in tight orbits. Jets of matter and energy are sometimes ejected along a preferred axis. The source itself is extremely small compared to the galaxy that surrounds it. ''That is what we see. No hole. No singularity. No invisible object''. == Observing the CMB/GRID == The [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the CMB|CMB]] does not look like a flat, peaceful lake, but rather like a collection of intense zones. These regions are natural centres of emergence. And it is certainly why the universe's organisation is merely based on groups of objects like galaxies. Where the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] is dense enough, geometry emerges. This emergence is not a passive event: it is an active, energetic process. It produces heat, radiation, and motion. It concentrates energy in a small volume, creating a bright, compact region. This is what we observe at the centres of galaxies. * The light and radiation come from the emergence itself. * The rapid motion of stars is due to the pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on the emerging geometry. * The jets are the expulsion of energy along the axis of emergence. * There is no singularity, no infinite density, no absorption of matter. * There is no horizon — only a region where geometry is still forming, and which remains compact because the emergence is not yet fully deployed. This reading explains all the observations without invoking invisible objects, without postulating singularities, and without requiring the absorption of matter. It also eliminates the need for quantum gravity, which in any case, was, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|is and will always be unconditionally impossible]]. Black holes, therefore, do not exist. These very bright galaxy centres are birthplaces of geometry — centres where the universe emerges by groups of objects, actively, from its own substrate. == Galaxies' persistent activity == The spiral structure of galaxies is the visible trace of a continuous quantum activity due to a probable permanent process of emergence. The direction of rotation is not really understandable and could be just aleatory and depend on the spreading fluctuations of quantum effervescence. What actually happens is that galaxies are, poetically, living organisms with a beating heart that renews — through its quantum source, the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] — its energetic capacity by continuously creating new stars, these energy-producing facilities. This cycle keeps the global equilibrium intact despite the end-of-life of existing stars. The universe is not dying. It is closer to what mankind has sought since the dawn of time: perpetual motion. In this case, at the centre, a quantum effervescence gives rise to multiple geometries at once — objects that do not appear in their final form immediately and obviously increase the mass of the centre so a powerful  gravity is exerted. The new objects first take on intermediate, lighter forms, orbiting close to the centre. As they mature, they grow in mass and gradually move outward, shifting to more distant orbits. This progressive migration, driven by the increasing maturity of the emerging objects, naturally produces a spiral pattern — without the need for dark matter or complex gravitational adjustments. == Black Hole Observations == {| class="wikitable" |'''Observation''' |'''Standard Interpretation''' |'''UG.NUG Interpretation''' |- |Gravitational waves (LIGO/Virgo/KAGRA <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abbott|first=B. P.|last2=Abbott|first2=R.|last3=Abbott|first3=T. D.|last4=Abernathy|first4=M. R.|last5=Acernese|first5=F.|last6=Ackley|first6=K.|last7=Adams|first7=C.|last8=Adams|first8=T.|last9=Addesso|first9=P.|date=2016-02-11|title=Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger|url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102|journal=Physical Review Letters|language=en|volume=116|issue=6|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102|issn=0031-9007}}</ref>) |Ripples in spacetime from black hole mergers. |Ripples in the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]], produced by the dynamics of emergent geometry. |- |Spin (ΩH) |Rotation of the black hole's horizon. |Not a rotation of a horizon. It is a dynamic feature of the emergence zone. |- |Surface gravity (Îș) |Gravity at the event horizon. |Not gravity at a horizon. It is the local pressure of the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] on emerging geometry. |- |Ringdown |The black hole settling into its final state. |Not a black hole settling. It is the [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the GRID|GRID]] returning to equilibrium after an emergence event. |- |Event horizon |A "surface of no return." |Not a surface of no return. It is the boundary of a region where geometry is still forming. |- |Pair-instability mass gap |Gap in black hole masses due to stellar physics; filled by hierarchical mergers. |There is no mass gap. Mass is not a property of these regions. What is observed is the distribution of emergence intensity. |- |Spin populations |Low-spin (direct collapse) and high-spin (hierarchical mergers). |No low‑spin or high‑spin populations. Spin is a secondary effect of geometric emergence, not a product of mergers. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O reaction rate |Critical for nuclear astrophysics and stellar evolution. |Not relevant. These regions are not formed by stellar evolution. |- |Pair-instability gap (m₂ only) |Evidence for hierarchical mergers; primary components in the gap are merger products. |No gap. The observed distribution reflects different levels of emergence maturity. |- |High spins in gap binaries |Signatures of hierarchical mergers. |Not a signature of mergers. It is a signature of intense emergence. |- |Low black hole masses (10⁔–10⁷ M⊙) |The lowest mass black holes known at high redshift. |Not a measure of [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/the Mass Imbroglio|mass]]. It is a measure of the intensity of the emergence zone. |- |12C(α,Îł)16O S-factor constraint |Links gravitational-wave astronomy to nuclear astrophysics. |Not relevant. This region does not involve nuclear astrophysics. |- |Growth of light seed black holes at high redshift |Tiny black holes from Population III stars grow rapidly (~10⁎ M⊙) to become the seeds of supermassive black holes observed by JWST <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeb|first=Abraham|date=2024-07-12|title=Little Red Dots from Low-spin Galaxies at High Redshifts|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad614c|journal=Research Notes of the AAS|volume=8|issue=7|pages=182|doi=10.3847/2515-5172/ad614c|issn=2515-5172}}</ref> at z > 8. |No seeds, no growth. The observed objects are simply emergence zones at different levels of geometric maturity. Redshift is not cosmic time; it is a measure of geometric maturity. |} == References == <references /> 9lwfya2dkm96a5ykuldwwh7jzwao39l User:Wb525/the Mass Imbroglio 2 332609 2842073 2026-10-22T10:02:33Z Wb525 3112992 text setting 2842073 wikitext text/x-wiki = Abstract = This paper traces the historical failure to define mass as a fundamental physical concept. We show that Newton defines mass circularly <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.52126.39088015628399|title=Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica|last=Newton|first=Isaac|date=1687|publisher=Jussu Societatis Regiae ac Typis Josephi Streater. Prostat apud plures bibliopolas}}</ref> through force (m=F/a and F=Gm1m2/rÂČ), a critique initiated by Mach (1883) <ref>{{Cite journal|date=1885-03-06|title=A Recent Discussion of the Axioms of Mechanics: <i>Die mechanik in ihrer entwickelung historisch-kritisch dargestellt</i> . Von E. Mach, professor an der UniversitĂ€t zu Prag. Leipzig, Brockhaus, 1883. 10+483 p., illustr. 8°.|url=https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ns-5.109.201|journal=Science|volume=ns-5|issue=109|pages=201–202|doi=10.1126/science.ns-5.109.201|issn=0036-8075}}</ref>. We then show that Einstein's mass-energy equivalence (E=mcÂČ) operates an ontological substitution where mass becomes an emergent accounting of confined energy, as exemplified by the proton mass paradox (9 MeV vs 938 MeV). Unable to provide a non-referential definition for composite and quantum objects, we propose an operationalist alternative based on a single standard — one liter of pure water — deploying * a static terrestrial weight indicator for any body on Earth * a dynamic microgravity resistance indicator (<math>F_s </math>) — the flick method — for any body in space, * an isobaric volumetric comparison for gases where the flick is inoperative. We show that ''m'' is undefinable anywhere: weight is definable on Earth, <math>F_s </math> in microgravity, and even <math>F_s </math> fails in the quantum regime, for it is not geometric. Keywords: mass, circular definition, Einstein, Mach, matter-density, universal measure. = Introduction = The definition of mass presents a persistent logical difficulty. It is largely understandable because mass is not definable. Mass strangely occupies an unjustly crucial place in physics even though it is neither truly defined, nor truly existent, nor truly useful. Its history is fascinating, because we guess it must be rare, in the so‑called hard sciences, to encounter such an imbroglio. That said, nothing prevents us from trying to untangle it and understand the successive mistakes that led to this highly questionable notion of mass. = The Human Definition of Mass = First of all, we need to get rid of the dictionary definition, which describes the kilogram as a unit of mass rather than weight. A kilo of tomatoes is a weight for every human being. No one ever speaks of a ''mass of tomatoes''. So let us forget that definition and take the kilo as a unit of weight, as common usage does. It will make things simpler for everyone. Weight can be measured on Earth because, in 1795, it was decided that it would correspond to one liter of water at 4 degrees Celsius. Since then, the practical standards have changed for convenience, but the underlying reference has remained the same: 1 kg = the weight of one cubic decimeter of water at 4°C (maximum density), pure water, normal pressure. From there, we can imagine that a kilo of tomatoes drifting through space does not weigh the same as on Earth. So we can deduce that the kilogram expresses a weight produced by [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]]. * '''Space''': weight = 0 kg * '''Earth''': weight = 1 kg What, then, should mass be? In pure logic, it ought to represent the density of matter contained in that kilo of tomatoes. This density is an invariant geometric reality, which may — or may not — be influenced by [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]]. = Matter-Density = To illustrate this idea of matter-density, let us replace the tomatoes with a pack of water bottles. Whether they contain water or not, their geometry (their volume) remains the same. But if the bottles are empty, [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]] will make them weigh, let us say, 400 g. If they are full, they will weigh 9 kg. So [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]] acts, on the one hand, on geometry, and on the other hand, on matter-density (the amount of matter inside that volume). Both are crucial in evaluating the pressure that weight produces. It is obvious that if the pack is replaced by a cherry-sized ball made of the densest metal on Earth, its tiny geometry will never allow it to weigh as much as a full pack of water bottles. In the collective imagination, this definition of mass (as matter-density) is far healthier than anything offered by Newton's circular equations. = Mass in Space: Inertia Without Weight = In space, the pack of bottles will float the same way whether it is empty or full. Their weight is zero, but their inertia — that resistance to motion — remains different. Yet this inertia can only be defined relative to an acceleration (a = Δv/Δt), which itself depends on time and velocity. And these two quantities only make sense within a human reference frame. So even if mass (as matter-density) exists, it cannot be defined without a terrestrial reference. Mass, like acceleration, time, or velocity, is a human construction — a necessary illusion to describe our experience, but without any absolute foundation in the universe. The lack of terrestrial references is not the sole reason. The other reason is the mixture of matters. While a shopping bag with potatoes, tomatoes, and fish is still weighable despite the variety of products, mass can absolutely not be described nor calculated. We now have a logical and coherent proof that mass is undefinable without a pure single composition — which is not possible — and, in any case, in an environment without reference. It follows, therefore, that mass is undefinable anywhere. Weight remains definable on Earth because it is a pressure on a support. In space, only the resistance to a flick (<math>F_s </math>) is definable. In the quantum regime, even <math>F_s </math> is inoperative, for one cannot push a ghost. There is no geometry to push against, and no handle to flick. The quantum regime requires other, non-mechanical probes — deflection in a field, cyclotron frequency, atomic recoil — none of which constitute a definition of mass in itself, only measurements of its effects. = The Circular Definition of Newton = Before Newton, people weighed things with stones. Merchants simply compared reactions between two objects. A potato was worth three stones, a piece of metal balanced a sack of grain, and all of this was nothing more than a game of equivalences between pressures — a silent dialogue between objects and their responses. No one spoke of "amount of matter"; no one imagined that an object possessed, within itself, a unit that indicated its weight. Newton was the first to try to define mass — but he did so using
 mass itself, creating a definitional loop that no one noticed. Here is his reasoning: To know mass, you must know force. So he writes: m = F / a. Then, to know force (F), he writes: F = G·m₁·m₂ / rÂČ. It is clear that Newton uses m to define m. He also uses: * G, a universal gravitational constant with the value 6.674×10⁻ÂčÂč  whose numerical value depends on the unit system chosen, and which is not derived from any deeper principle. It is a measured constant, not a deduced one. * r (distance between bodies), impossible to calculate at the time, yet made dependent on [[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG a coherent model/gravity|gravity]], adding another loop. To this day, this interdependence has remained largely unexamined — even though, despite its circular structure, it remains useful for calibrating every scale in the world. = The Quantum Mistake = Three centuries later, mass bursts into quantum physics with a plethora of inventors and a succession of patch-ups: * Einstein made it ambiguous (E = mcÂČ) <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Einstein|first=A.|date=1905-01|title=Ist die TrĂ€gheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhĂ€ngig?|url=https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.19053231314|journal=Annalen der Physik|volume=323|issue=13|pages=639–641|doi=10.1002/andp.19053231314|issn=0003-3804}}</ref>. * Dirac introduced it as a free parameter in his equation <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dirac|first=Paul Adrien Maurice|date=1928-02-01|title=The quantum theory of the electron|url=https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1928.0023|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character|volume=117|issue=778|pages=610–624|doi=10.1098/rspa.1928.0023|issn=0950-1207}}</ref>. * Higgs displaced its origin onto another field. Many physicists — Dirac, Englert <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Englert|first=F.|last2=Brout|first2=R.|date=1964-08-31|title=Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons|url=https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.13.321|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=13|issue=9|pages=321–323|doi=10.1103/physrevlett.13.321|issn=0031-9007}}</ref>, Brout, Guralnik <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guralnik|first=G. S.|last2=Hagen|first2=C. R.|last3=Kibble|first3=T. W. B.|date=1964-11-16|title=Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles|url=https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.13.585|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=13|issue=20|pages=585–587|doi=10.1103/physrevlett.13.585|issn=0031-9007}}</ref>, Hagen, Kibble — contributed to its rise. But none ever defined it independently. In the 20th century, Peter Higgs <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Higgs|first=Peter W.|date=1964-10-19|title=Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons|url=https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.13.508|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=13|issue=16|pages=508–509|doi=10.1103/physrevlett.13.508|issn=0031-9007}}</ref> and a few others took over, but here, the problems grew with more patches to the model. = Einstein's Effacement = It turns out that the total mass of a stone is far greater than the sum of the masses of the elementary particles that compose it. Nuclear physics and special relativity explain this through Einstein's mass-energy equivalence: E = mcÂČ (or m = E/cÂČ). In this framework, the mass of an object is the sum of its total internal energies divided by cÂČ. That is why ordinary matter has a mass far greater than what the tiny masses of quarks would suggest. A striking example: if one adds up the rest masses of the quarks in a proton, one gets about 9 MeV/cÂČ. Yet the measured mass of the proton is about 938 MeV/cÂČ â€” the difference exceeds 99%. Modern physics resolved this paradox by redefining mass not as a sum of tiny bricks of matter, but as an emergent property of internal energy. In doing so, Einstein built a world where the m in his equation has very little to do with the mass humans intuitively expect. Above all, this m is undefinable everywhere. Einstein himself would acknowledge the problem in 1948. In a letter to Lincoln Barnett, he writes <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Einstein|first=Albert|date=1948-12|title=A Letter from Albert Einstein|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00963402.1948.11460269|journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|volume=4|issue=12|pages=354–354|doi=10.1080/00963402.1948.11460269|issn=0096-3402}}</ref>: ''"It is not good to introduce the concept of the mass'' <math>M = \frac{m}{\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}}</math> ''of a moving body, for which no clear definition can be given. It is better to introduce no other mass concept than the rest mass mm."'' The symbol had already circulated worldwide. It was never recalled. He could have written E = b·cÂČ, where b simply represents the amount of "boom" (compressed energy) contained in a system. That would have been clearer and less misleading than using m, a symbol burdened with a false identity inherited from classical mechanics. = Consequences = Thus, mass is widely used by the model, but since it is undefinable in reality, outside that model it exists only under false identities  — often as a mathematical parameter with no direct connection to the tangible world. Physics should have renamed it to avoid this mess. This mass enigma is also one of the reasons for the justified divorce between applied physics and conceptual physics. Without ever being stated explicitly, the inherited conceptual frameworks are insufficient to interpret the universe and send rockets into space. = Toward a Universal Measure = The analysis of the historical trajectory of mass reveals a dead end: theoretical physics has trapped itself in a Newtonian circularity and an Einsteinian ontological substitution to mask its inability to calculate the microscopic essence of a composite object. To escape this mathematical fiction, there is no need to invent new parameters. The universe offers a direct, universal, and pragmatic reading of physical reality through a mirror of measurements based on a single standard material: one liter of pure water. This system deploys two observable and non-anthropocentric realities: '''On Earth''' (The Static Indicator) The only way to apprehend a complex mix of matters is the direct measurement of its pressure on a support. This weight is simply qualified in parts or multiples of the terrestrial standard liter of water. '''In Space''' (The Dynamic Indicator) In weightlessness, this same liter of water does not change its nature, but its weight vanishes. It then reveals a standard resistance force ( F_s ): the exact minimum energy of the flick needed to initiate its motion. From then on, the measurement of any body in the universe frees itself from the abstract concept of mass. The resistance of an object in weightlessness is qualified in strict multiples of this standard flick force ( F_s ), creating a perfect mirror with the terrestrial kilogram-force. '''For Gases''' For gases, measurement is made by pressure compared within a standard volume — for example, by injecting a volume of gas into a liter of water and observing the resulting bubble. In space, a flexible container holding the gas is compared to the same container holding a liter of standard water. The isobaric volumetric comparison serves as the indicator, without any calculation of force. = Final Statement = The universe does not calculate mass — it responds to an interaction. On Earth it responds with weight. In space it responds with resistance to a flick (F_s). In the quantum, it does not even respond to a push. This method of universal measurement restores physics to its primary function: to write what it observes, without projecting its own geometric illusions onto it. = References = <references /> owra1kzv3iungk1gmio3tmuuh2zkaxl Talk:David Ricardo/An Essay on Profits 1 332610 2842080 2026-10-22T10:41:16Z Dick Bos 24466 /* Referring Principles */ new section 2842080 wikitext text/x-wiki == Referring Principles == When referring to the ''Principles'' we will use the Sraffa ed. (for now; as long as the [[:en:s:On the Principles of Political Economy, and Taxation|Wikisource-ed. (1817)]] is not yet ready). --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] ‱ [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 10:41, 22 October 2026 (UTC) 4valiu4f1ezzdlcsuraechdghw1m84t