विकिपीडिया gomwiki https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8 MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.16 first-letter माध्यम विशेश चर्चा वापरपी वापरपी चर्चा विकिपीडिया विकिपीडिया चर्चा फायल फायल चर्चा मिडियाविकी मिडियाविकी चर्चा सांचो सांचो चर्चा आदार आदार चर्चा वर्ग वर्ग चर्चा TimedText TimedText talk एकक एकक चर्चा Event Event talk विशय 0 1804 217173 215468 2026-08-19T19:33:46Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217173 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lipi|.|Aston Villa Football Club}} {{धाक्टें पान}} {{Infobox football club | clubname = एस्टन विला | image = | fullname = एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब | nickname = {{nowrap|''विला'', ''विलान्'', ''लायंस'', ''क्लैरट और ब्लू''}} | short name = विला | founded = मार्च १८७४<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/aston_villa/default.stm |title=Aston Villa Football Club information |publisher=BBC Sport |accessdate=26 जून 2007 |date=1 जनवरी 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622084515/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/aston_villa/default.stm |archivedate=2007-06-22 |deadurl=no |url-status=live }}</ref> | ground = [[विला पार्क]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.avfc.co.uk/page/GettingToVillaPark |title=Getting to Villa Park |publisher=Aston Villa F.C |accessdate=19 मार्च 2012}}</ref><br/>[[बर्मिंघम]] | capacity = ४२,७८८<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.skysports.com/football/match_report/0,19764,11065_3150960,00.html |title=Villa held by 10-man United |first=James |last=Riach |accessdate=19 मार्च 2012 |date=10 फ़रवरी 2010 |publisher=Sky Sports}}<br>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng_prem/8501875.stm |title=Aston Villa 1–1 Man Utd |first=Phil |last=McNulty |publisher=BBC Sport |date=11 फ़रवरी 2010 |accessdate=19 मार्च 2012}}</ref> | owner = रिफॉर्म अधिग्रहण एलएलसी | chairman = रन्द्य लेर्नेर् | manager = [[टिम शेरवुड]] | league = [[प्रीमियर लीग]] | season = | position = | current = | website = http://www.avfc.co.uk/ | pattern_la1 = _astonvilla2425h | pattern_b1 = _astonvilla2425h | pattern_ra1 = _astonvilla2425h | pattern_sh1 = | pattern_so1 = _astonvilla2425hl | leftarm1 = BBD5F2 | body1 = 69091C | rightarm1 = BBD5F2 | shorts1 = FFFFFF | socks1 = BBD5F2 | pattern_la2 = _astonvilla2425a | pattern_b2 = _astonvilla2425a | pattern_ra2 = _astonvilla2425a | pattern_sh2 = | pattern_so2 = _astonvilla2425al | leftarm2 = FFFFFF | body2 = FFFFFF | rightarm2 = FFFFFF | shorts2 = BBD5F2 | socks2 = FFFFFF | pattern_la3 = _astonvilla2425t | pattern_b3 = _astonvilla2425t | pattern_ra3 = _astonvilla2425t | pattern_sh3 = _astonvilla2425t | pattern_so3 = _astonvilla2425tl | leftarm3 = 0c1f3e | body3 = 0c1f3e | rightarm3 = 0c1f3e | shorts3 = 0c1f3e | socks3 = 000000 }} '''मैनचेस्टर युनायटेड फुटबॉल क्लब''', एक फामाद इंग्लीश फुटबॉल क्लब आसा,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.birminghammail.net/news/top-stories/2007/11/26/cup-presented-to-aston-villa-founder-member-jack-hughes-is-back-with-his-family-97319-20162107/ |title=Cup presented to Aston Villa founder member Jack Hughes is back with his family |first=Nick |last=McCarthy |date=26 November 2007 |newspaper=Birmingham Mail |accessdate=21 July 2009 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819132833/http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/local-news/cup-presented-to-aston-villa-founder-47077 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Ward, Adam; Griffin, Jeremy; p. 161.</ref> जो [[इंग्लंड|इंग्लंडा]]तल्या [[बर्मिंघम]] शारान आशिल्ले आसा।<ref name=Derby>{{cite book |last=Matthews |first=Tony |title=The Encyclopedia of Birmingham City Football Club 1875–2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofb0000matt |chapter=Aston Villa |year=2000|publisher=Britespot |location=Cradley Heath |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofb0000matt/page/17 17] |isbn=978-0-9539288-0-4}}</ref> [[विला पार्क]] हें हांचे थळावें मैदान, ते सद्याक प्रिमीयर लीग खेळटात।<ref name=.premierleague>{{cite web|title=.premierleague|url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs.html|website=.premierleague|access-date=2015-07-01|archive-date=2016-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704123840/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{-}} == संदर्भ == {{reflist|2}} == भायले दुवे == {{कॉमन्स|Aston Villa FC|एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब}} *[http://www.avfc.co.uk एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब च्या अधिकृत साइट] *[http://www.facebook.com/avfcofficial एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब] फेसबुक वर *[http://twitter.com/#!/avfcofficial एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब] ट्विटर वर *[http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/astonvilla एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब] स्काई स्पोर्ट्स वर *[http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/teams/aston-villa एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब] बीबीसी वर *[http://www.statto.com/football/teams/aston-villa एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब] statto.com वर [[वर्ग:देवनागरी पानां]] [[वर्ग:इंग्लंड च्या फुटबॉल क्लब]] [[वर्ग:फुटबॉल क्लब/Football Club]] 2n4rb2n5nkeri4p7youc3ww1y1kxlvu 0 1815 217180 214220 2026-08-19T20:02:46Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217180 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lipi|एस्टन विला फुटबॉल क्लब|.}} {{Dhaktem pan}} {{Infobox football club latin | clubname = Aston Villa | image = | fullname = Aston Villa Football Club | nickname = The Villa, The Villans, The Lions,<br> Claret and Blues | short name = Villa, AVFC | founded = November 1874<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/aston_villa/default.stm |title=Aston Villa Football Club information |publisher=BBC Sport |accessdate=26 June 2007 |date=1 January 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622084515/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/aston_villa/default.stm |archivedate=22 June 2007 |deadurl=no |url-status=live }}</ref> | ground = [[Villa Park]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.avfc.co.uk/page/GettingToVillaPark |title=Getting to Villa Park |publisher=Aston Villa F.C |accessdate=19 March 2012}}</ref> <br>[[Birmingham]] | capacity = 42,682<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |title=Premier League Handbook Season 2013/14 |format=PDF |accessdate=17 August 2013 |work=[[Premier League]] |archive-date=31 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131132636/http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> | chairman = [[Tony Xia]] | manager = [[Roberto Di Matteo]] | league = [[Championship]] | website = http://www.avfc.co.uk/ | pattern_la1= _avfc1415h | pattern_b1= _avfc1415h | pattern_ra1= _avfc1415h | pattern_so1 = _astonvilla1415h | pattern_sh1 = _avfc1415h | leftarm1= 80bfff | body1= 84092e | rightarm1= 80bfff | shorts1= ffffff | socks1= 80bfff | pattern_la2= _avfc1415a | pattern_b2= _avfc1415a | pattern_ra2= _avfc1415a | pattern_so2 = _avfc1415a | pattern_sh2 = _avfc1415a | leftarm2= ffffff | body2= ffffff | rightarm2= ffffff | shorts2= 84092e | socks2= ffffff }} '''Aston Villa Football Club''', ek famad Inglez [[futbol]] club asa,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.birminghammail.net/news/top-stories/2007/11/26/cup-presented-to-aston-villa-founder-member-jack-hughes-is-back-with-his-family-97319-20162107/ |title=Cup presented to Aston Villa founder member Jack Hughes is back with his family |first=Nick |last=McCarthy |date=26 November 2007 |newspaper=Birmingham Mail |accessdate=21 July 2009 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819132833/http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/local-news/cup-presented-to-aston-villa-founder-47077 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Ward, Adam; Griffin, Jeremy; p. 161.</ref> zo [[Ingland]]atlea [[Birmingham]] sharan aslelem asa.<ref name=Derby>{{cite book |last=Matthews |first=Tony |title=The Encyclopedia of Birmingham City Football Club 1875–2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofb0000matt |chapter=Aston Villa |year=2000|publisher=Britespot |location=Cradley Heath |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofb0000matt/page/17 17] |isbn=978-0-9539288-0-4}}</ref> [[Villa Park]] hem hanchem thollavem moidan, te sodheak [[Premier League]] kelltat.<ref name=.premierleague>{{cite web|title=.premierleague|url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs.html|website=.premierleague|access-date=2015-07-01|archive-date=2016-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704123840/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{-}} == Sandarbh == {{reflist|2}} == Bhailim Zodni == {{commons|Aston Villa FC}} *[http://www.avfc.co.uk Aston Villa Football Club che adhikr̥ta site] *[http://www.facebook.com/avfcofficial Aston Villa Football Club] facebook var *[http://twitter.com/#!/avfcofficial Aston Villa Football Club] twitter var *[http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/astonvilla Aston Villa Football Club] skysports var *[http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/teams/aston-villa Aston Villa Football Club] bbc var *[http://www.statto.com/football/teams/aston-villa Aston Villa Football Club] statto.com var [[वर्ग:Inglandche futbol club]] [[वर्ग:फुटबॉल क्लब/Football Club]] [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] qmol5svjns6hp9e8pop242av1m12yze 0 1989 217179 215469 2026-08-19T20:02:19Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217179 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lipi|.|Arsenal Football Club}} {{धाक्टें पान}} {{infobox football club | clubname = आर्सेनल | current = | image = [[file:Arsenal FC.png|180px]] | fullname = आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब | nickname = गनर्स | founded = १९९६ '' डायल स्क्वायर'' जसे<ref name="soartyler23">{{cite book |first1=Phil |last1=Soar |first2=Martin |last2=Tyler |title=The Official Illustrated History of Arsenal |url=https://archive.org/details/officialillustra0000soar_i5c4 | publisher=Hamlyn | year=2005 | page=[https://archive.org/details/officialillustra0000soar_i5c4/page/23 23] | isbn=978-0-600-61344-2 |lastauthoramp=&}}</ref> | ground = [[अमीरात स्टेडियम]],<br>[[लंडन]] | capacity = ६०,३६१<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/StatDoc/competitions/UCL/01/67/63/78/1676378_DOWNLOAD.pdf|title=UEFA Champions League Press Release (2011–12) |format=PDF |accessdate=27 फ़रवरी 2012 |work=[[Union of European Football Associations]]}}</ref> | owner = आर्सेनल होल्डिंग्स पीएलसी | chairman = चिप्स केस्विच्क् | manager = [[Unai Emery]] | league = [[प्रीमियर लीग]] | season = | position = | pattern_la1 = _arsenal2425h | pattern_b1 = _arsenal2425h | pattern_ra1 = _arsenal2425h | pattern_sh1 = _arsenal2425h | pattern_so1 = | leftarm1 = FFFFFF | body1 = F00000 | rightarm1 = FFFFFF | shorts1 = FFFFFF | socks1 = F00000 | pattern_la2 = _arsenal2425a | pattern_b2 = _arsenal2425a | pattern_ra2 = _arsenal2425a | pattern_sh2 = _arsenal2425a | pattern_so2 = | leftarm2 = 000000 | body2 = 000000 | rightarm2 = 000000 | shorts2 = 000000 | socks2 = 000000 | pattern_la3 = _arsenal2425T | pattern_b3 = _arsenal2425T | pattern_ra3 = _arsenal2425T | pattern_sh3 = _arsenal2425t | pattern_so3 = _arsenal2425tl | leftarm3 = 9adee9 | body3 = 9adee9 | rightarm3 = 9adee9 | shorts3 = 000040 | socks3 = 000040 | website =http://www.arsenal.com/ }} '''आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब''', एक फामाद इंग्लीश फुटबॉल क्लब आसा,<ref>{{cite web|title=English Premier League : Full All Time Table|url=http://www.statto.com/football/stats/england/premier-league/all-time-table/full|website=statto.com|accessdate=25 June 2014|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110074328/http://www.statto.com/football/stats/england/premier-league/all-time-table/full|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="The Independent: Hodgson">{{cite news|title=Football: How consistency and caution made Arsenal England's greatest team of the 20th century|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-how-consistency-and-caution-made-arsenal-englands-greatest-team-of-the-20th-century-1133020.html|work=The Independent|accessdate=27 April 2012|location=London|first=Guy|last=Hodgson|date=17 December 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Football Money League|url=http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/deloitte-football-money-league/|website=deloitte.com|publisher=Deloitte|accessdate=25 June 2014|date=January 2014|archive-date=20 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220013031/http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/deloitte-football-money-league/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=O'Connor|first1=Ashling|title=Liverpool lag in fight for global fan supremacy as TV row grows|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/sport/football/premierleague/article3192868.ece|accessdate=25 June 2014|publisher=The Times|date=October 13, 2011}}</ref> जो [[इंग्लंड|इंग्लंडा]]तल्या [[लंडन]] शारान आशिल्ले आसा। [[अमीरात स्टेडियम]] हें हांचे थळावें मैदान,<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1011234.stm</ref> ते सद्याक प्रिमीयर लीग खेळटात। {{-}} == संदर्भ == {{reflist|2}} == भायले दुवे == {{कॉमन्स|Arsenal F.C.|आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब}} * [http://www.arsenal.com/ आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब च्या अधिकृत साइट] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141102040907/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs/profile.overview.html/arsenal आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब] प्रीमियर लीग वेबसाइट वर * [http://www.uefa.com/teamsandplayers/teams/club=52280/profile/index.html आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब] यूईएफए की वेबसाइट वर * [http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/arsenal आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब] स्काई स्पोर्ट्स वर * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/teams/arsenal आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब] बीबीसी वर [[वर्ग:देवनागरी पानां]] [[वर्ग:इंग्लंड च्या फुटबॉल क्लब]] [[वर्ग:फुटबॉल क्लब/Football Club]] df68xxhc7rpcy7dg570eco33ko0eofk 0 1993 217183 214219 2026-08-19T20:06:02Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lipi|आर्सेनल फुटबॉल क्लब|.}} {{Dhaktem pan}} {{infobox football club latin | clubname = Arsenal | image = [[File:Arsenal FC.png|200px]] | fullname = Arsenal Football Club | nickname = The Gunners | founded = 1886 ''Dial Square'' jse <ref name="soartyler23">{{cite book |first1=Phil |last1=Soar |first2=Martin |last2=Tyler |title=The Official Illustrated History of Arsenal |url=https://archive.org/details/officialillustra0000soar_i5c4 | publisher=Hamlyn | year=2005 | page=[https://archive.org/details/officialillustra0000soar_i5c4/page/23 23] | isbn=978-0-600-61344-2 |lastauthoramp=&}}</ref> | ground = [[Emirates Stadium]]<br/>[[London]] | capacity = 60,338<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |title=Premier League Handbook Season 2013/14 |format=PDF |accessdate=17 August 2013 |work=[[Premier League]] |archive-date=31 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131132636/http://www.premierleague.com/content/dam/premierleague/site-content/News/publications/handbooks/premier-league-handbook-2013-14.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> | owner = Arsenal Holdings plc | chairman = Sir Chips Keswick | manager = [[Arsène Wenger]] | league = [[Premier League]] | pattern_la1 =_arsenal1415h | pattern_b1 =_arsenal1415home | pattern_ra1 =_arsenal1415h | pattern_sh1 =_arsenal1415h | pattern_so1 =_arsenal1415h | leftarm1 = FFFFFF | body1 = FF0000 | rightarm1 = FFFFFF | shorts1 = FFFFFF | socks1 = FFFFFF | pattern_la2 =_arsenal1415a | pattern_b2 =_arsenal1415away | pattern_ra2 =_arsenal1415a | pattern_sh2 =_arsenal1415a | pattern_so2 =_arsenal1415a | leftarm2 = 000040 | body2 = FFCE00 | rightarm2 = 000040 | shorts2 = 000040 | socks2 = FFCE00 | pattern_la3 =_arsenal1415t | pattern_b3 =_arsenal1415third | pattern_ra3 =_arsenal1415t | pattern_sh3 =_arsenal1415t | pattern_so3 =_arsenal1415t | leftarm3 = 000040 | body3 = 000040 | rightarm3 = 000040 | shorts3 = 000040 | socks3 = 000040 <!-- Do not add kits that display logos or crests as this is against Wikipedia 's copyright policies. A discussion is happening at Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Football/Archive_71#Logos_on_kits --> | website = http://www.arsenal.com/ }} '''Arsenal Football Club''', ek famad Inglez [[futbol]] club asa,<ref>{{cite web|title=English Premier League : Full All Time Table|url=http://www.statto.com/football/stats/england/premier-league/all-time-table/full|website=statto.com|accessdate=25 June 2014|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110074328/http://www.statto.com/football/stats/england/premier-league/all-time-table/full|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="The Independent: Hodgson">{{cite news|title=Football: How consistency and caution made Arsenal England's greatest team of the 20th century|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-how-consistency-and-caution-made-arsenal-englands-greatest-team-of-the-20th-century-1133020.html|work=The Independent|accessdate=27 April 2012|location=London|first=Guy|last=Hodgson|date=17 December 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Football Money League|url=http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/deloitte-football-money-league/|website=deloitte.com|publisher=Deloitte|accessdate=25 June 2014|date=January 2014|archive-date=20 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220013031/http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_GB/uk/industries/sportsbusinessgroup/sports/football/deloitte-football-money-league/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=O'Connor|first1=Ashling|title=Liverpool lag in fight for global fan supremacy as TV row grows|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/sport/football/premierleague/article3192868.ece|accessdate=25 June 2014|publisher=The Times|date=October 13, 2011}}</ref> zo [[Ingland]]atlea [[London]] sharan aslelem asa. [[Emirates Stadium]] hem hanchem thollavem moidan,<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1011234.stm</ref> te sodheak [[Premier League]] kelltat. {{-}} == Sandarbh == {{reflist|2}} == Bhailim Zodni == {{commons|Arsenal F.C.}} * [http://www.arsenal.com/ Arsenal Football Clubche adhikrta site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141102040907/http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/clubs/profile.overview.html/arsenal Arsenal Football Club] premier league che website var * [http://www.uefa.com/teamsandplayers/teams/club=52280/profile/index.html Arsenal Football Club] UEFA che website var * [http://www.skysports.com/football/teams/arsenal Arsenal Football Club] skysports var * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/teams/arsenal Arsenal Football Club] BBC var [[वर्ग:Inglandche futbol club]] [[वर्ग:फुटबॉल क्लब/Football Club]] [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] nsiaqhk0or3996qe6uq0s6hy033490l 0 9346 217175 216509 2026-08-19T19:58:03Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 75 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217175 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:World population growth (lin-log scale).png|thumb|[[World population]] from 10,000 BCE to 2000 (the vertical (population) scale is logarithmic)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/worldpop/table_history.php|title=Historical Estimates of World Population|last=|first=|date=August 2016|website=|publisher=U. S. Census Bureau|accessdate=November 15, 2016}}</ref>]] {{Human history}} The '''history of the world''' (or '''world history''') describes the '''history of humanity''' (or '''human history''') as determined by the study of [[Archaeology|archaeological]] and [[Recorded history|written records]], beginning with the [[Inventions of writing|invention of writing]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana|last=Diringer|first=David|publisher=|year=|isbn=|edition=1986|volume=29|location=|pages=558|chapter=Writing|quote=Writing gives permanence to men's knowledge and enables them to communicate over great distances.... The complex society of a higher civilization would be impossible without the art of writing.|via=}}</ref><ref name="WebsterWH">{{cite book|last1=Webster|first1=Hutton|title=World History|date=1921|publisher=D. C. Heath|location=Boston|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR5&pg=PA27}}</ref> The [[Cradle of civilization|roots of civilization]] reach back to the earliest introduction of primitive technology and culture, while [[Prehistory]] begins in the [[Paleolithic|Palaeolithic Era]], or "Early Stone Age", which is followed by the [[Neolithic|Neolithic Era]], or "New Stone Age", and the [[Neolithic Revolution|Agricultural Revolution]] (between 8000 and 5000 [[BCE]]) in the [[Fertile Crescent]]. The latter period marked a change in human history, as humans began the systematic [[Agriculture|husbandry]] of plants and animals.<ref name="Tudge">{{cite book | last = Tudge | first = Colin | authorlink = Colin Tudge f| title = [[Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers|Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers: How Agriculture Really Began]] | date = 1998 | publisher = Weidenfeld & Nicolson | location = London | isbn = 0-297-84258-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bellwood|first1=Peter|title=First Farmers: the origins of agricultural societies|url=https://archive.org/details/firstfarmersorig0000bell|date=2005|publisher=Blackwell|location=Malden, MA|isbn=0-631-20566-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Mark Nathan|title=The food crisis in prehistory overpopulation and the origins of agriculture|url=https://archive.org/details/foodcrisisinpreh0000cohe_n8y2|date=1977|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-02016-3}}</ref> Agriculture advanced, and most humans transitioned from a [[nomad]]ic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in [[civilization|permanent settlements]]. Nomadism continued in some locations, especially in isolated regions with few domesticable plant species,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Diamond|first1=Jared|authorlink1=Jared Diamond|title=[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]: the fates of human societies|date=1997|publisher=Cape|location=London|isbn=0224038095}}</ref> but the relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed human communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in [[history of transport|transportation]]. As farming developed, [[Cereal|grain agriculture]] became more sophisticated and prompted a [[division of labour]] to store food between growing seasons. Labour divisions then led to the rise of a leisured [[upper class]] and the development of [[City|cities]]. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of [[writing]] and [[accounting]].<ref name="DSB-AO">{{cite journal| author=Schmandt-Besserat, Denise| authorlink=Denise Schmandt-Besserat| title=Signs of Life| journal=Archaeology Odyssey| date=January–February 2002| url=https://webspace.utexas.edu/dsbay/Docs/SignsofLife.pdf| pages=6–7, 63| access-date=2017-04-14| archive-date=2012-05-21| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521204321/https://webspace.utexas.edu/dsbay/Docs/SignsofLife.pdf| url-status=dead}}</ref> Many cities developed on the [[Bank (geography)|banks]] of lakes and rivers as early as 3000 BCE, when some of the first prominent, well-developed settlements had arisen in [[Mesopotamia]] ("the Land between the Rivers"),<ref name="McNeill-Sumer">{{cite book | last = McNeill | first = William H. | authorlink = William H. McNeill (historian) | title = A World History | url = https://archive.org/details/worldhistory0000mcne_e1t4 | origyear = 1967 | edition = 4th | date = 1999 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = New York | isbn = 0-19-511615-1 | page = [https://archive.org/details/worldhistory0000mcne_e1t4/page/15 15] | chapter = In The Beginning}}</ref> on the banks of [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]]'s [[Nile|Nile River]],<ref>{{cite book|author1=[[John Baines (Egyptologist)|Baines, John]] |author2=Jaromir Malek|title=The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt|edition=revised|publisher=Facts on File|date=2000|isbn=0-8160-4036-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Bard | first = KA | title = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415185899 | publisher = Routledge | location = NY, NY | date = 1999|isbn=0-415-18589-0}}</ref><ref name="grimal1992">{{cite book|first=Nicolas|last=Grimal|title=A History of Ancient Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000grim_o8d3|publisher=Blackwell Books|date=1992|isbn=0-631-19396-0}}</ref> in the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus River valley]]<ref>{{cite book |editor=Allchin, Raymond |editor-link=Raymond Allchin |date=1995 |title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofear0000allc |location=New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=D. K. |last=Chakrabarti |date=2004 |title=Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries |url=https://archive.org/details/induscivilizatio0000unse |publisher=Marg Publications |location=Mumbai |isbn=81-85026-63-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-link=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor-last=Dani |editor-first=Ahmad Hasan |editor2-last=Mohen |editor2-first=J-P. |date=1996 |title=History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC |location=New York/Paris |publisher=Routledge/UNESCO |isbn=0-415-09306-6}}</ref> and along the [[Yellow River|major rivers]] of [[China]].<ref name="National Gallery of Art">{{cite web|url=http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/exhibitions/1999/chinese_archaeology.html|title=The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology: Celebrated Discoveries from The People's Republic of China|last=|first=|date=|publisher=National Gallery of Art|location=|work=|accessdate=November 16, 2016}}{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/ancient1.html|title=The Ancient Dynasties|publisher=University of Maryland|accessdate=12 January 2008}}</ref><ref name="Lee">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Yun Kuen|title=Building the Chronology of Early Chinese History|journal=Asian Perspectives|date=2002|volume=41|issue=1|pages=15–42|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10125/17161|issn=1535-8283|doi=10.1353/asi.2002.0006}}</ref> The history of the [[Old World]] (particularly Europe and the Mediterranean) is commonly divided into [[ancient history]] (or "Antiquity"), up to 476 CE; [[post-classical history]] (or "the [[Middle Ages]]"),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/|title=Internet Medieval Sourcebook Project|last=Halsall|first=Paul|date=January 26, 1996|website=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|publisher=Fordham University|accessdate=November 16, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.the-orb.net/ |title=The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher=ORB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414091545/http://www.the-orb.net/ |archive-date=14 April 2009 |dead-url=yes |accessdate=18 April 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> from the 5th through 15th centuries, including the rise of Christianity, the [[Islamic Golden Age]] (c. 750 CE&nbsp;– c. 1258 CE) and the early Italian [[Renaissance]] (beginning around 1300 CE);<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burckhardt|first1=Jacob|authorlink=Jacob Burckhardt|translator-first=S. G. C.|translator-last=Middlemore|title=The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy|date=1878|publisher=George Allen & Unwin|location=London|url=http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921145058/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/burckhardt.html|archivedate=21 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Adolphus W.|editor-last=Ward|url=http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html |title=The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance|date=1902|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> the [[early modern period]],<ref name="rice1970">{{cite book|last=Rice|first=Eugene, F., Jr.|title=The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460–1559|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0393054209|date=1970|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|authorlink=Eugene F. Rice, Jr.}}</ref> from the 15th century to the late 18th, including the [[Age of Enlightenment]]; and the [[Modern history#Western transformations|late modern period]], from the [[Industrial Revolution]] to the present, including [[contemporary history]]. In the mid-15th century, the invention of modern [[printing]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.open2.net/historyandthearts/discover_science/gberg_synopsis.html |title=What Did Gutenberg Invent? |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506073655/http://www.open2.net/historyandthearts/discover_science/gberg_synopsis.html |archive-date=6 May 2008 |dead-url=yes |accessdate=20 May 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> employing [[movable type]], revolutionized [[communication]], helping end the Middle Ages and ushering in the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant|first1=Edward|title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional, and intellectual contexts|url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofmod0000gran|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521567626}}</ref> By the 18th century, the accumulation of [[knowledge]] and [[technology]], especially in Europe, had reached a [[Critical mass (sociodynamics)|critical mass]] that brought about the Industrial Revolution.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Understanding the Industrial Revolution|last=More|first=Charles|publisher=|year=2000|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=|via=Questia}}</ref> Outside the Old World, including [[ancient China]] and [[History of India|ancient India]], historical timelines unfolded differently. However, by the 18th century, due to extensive [[International trade|world trade]] and [[colonization]], the histories of most civilizations had become substantially intertwined (see [[Globalization]]). In the last quarter-millennium, the rates of growth of population, knowledge, technology, communications, commerce, weapons destructiveness and environmental degradation have greatly accelerated, creating opportunities and perils that now confront the planet's human communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Biba|first1=Erin|title=Meet the Co-Founder of an Apocalypse Think Tank|journal=Scientific American|date=1 June 2015|volume=312|issue=6|page=26|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/meet-the-co-founder-of-an-apocalypse-think-tank/|quote=Throughout history our ancestors have confronted risks: pestilence, storms, earthquakes and human-induced disasters. But this century is different. It's the first when one species, ours, can determine the planet's future, threaten our civilization and jeopardize the existence of future generations.|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0615-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nordhaus|first1=William D.|authorlink1=William Nordhaus|title=A New Solution: the Climate Club|journal=The New York Review of Books|date=4 June 2015|volume=LXII|issue=10|pages=36–39|quote=Climate change has become the premier environmental problem facing the globe.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781107507180 |date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781107507180/page/1 1]–13|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Prehistory== {{Main article|Prehistory|Human evolution}} ===Early humans=== [[File:Lascaux 04.jpg|thumb|Cave painting, [[Lascaux|Lascaux, France]]]] [[Molecular clock|Genetic]] measurements indicate that the ape lineage which would lead to ''Homo sapiens'' diverged from the lineage that would lead to chimpanzees (the closest living relative of modern humans) around six million years ago.<ref name=ChenLi>{{cite journal |last1=Chen|first1=F.C.|last2=Li|first2=W.H. | date = 2001 | title = Genomic divergences between humans and other hominoids and the effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees | journal = Am J Hum Genet | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 444–456 | doi = 10.1086/318206 | pmid = 11170892 | pmc = 1235277}}</ref> It is thought that the [[Australopithecine]] genus, which were likely the first apes to walk upright, eventually gave rise to genus ''Homo''. [[Anatomically modern human]]s arose in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and reached [[behavioral modernity|behavioural modernity]] about 50,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm |title=Human Ancestors Hall: Homo Sapiens |work=Human Origins Initiative |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |accessdate=30 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015030431/http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm |archivedate=15 October 2007 }}</ref> Modern humans [[Recent African origin of modern humans|spread]] rapidly from [[Africa]] into the frost-free zones of [[Europe]] and [[Asia]] around 60,000 years ago.<ref name="Stringer2012">{{Cite journal | last1 = Stringer | first1 = C. | title = AOP | doi = 10.1038/485033a | journal = Nature | volume = 485 | issue = 7396 | pages = 33–35 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22552077 | pmc = }}</ref> The rapid expansion of humankind to [[North America]] and [[Oceania]] took place at the climax of the [[Last glacial period|most recent]] [[ice age]], when temperate regions of today were extremely inhospitable. Yet, humans had colonized nearly all the ice-free parts of the globe by the end of the Ice Age, some 12,000 years ago. Other [[Hominidae|hominids]] such as ''[[Homo erectus]]'' had been using simple wood and stone tools for [[Millennium|millennia]], but as time progressed, tools became far more refined and complex. At some point, humans [[Control of fire by early humans|began using fire]] for [[heat]] and [[cooking]]. They also [[Origin of language|developed language]] in the [[Paleolithic|Palaeolithic]] period and a conceptual repertoire that included systematic burial of the dead and adornment of the living. Early artistic expression can be found in the form of [[cave painting]]s and [[sculpture]]s made from wood and bone, showing a spirituality generally interpreted as [[animism]], or even [[shamanism]]. During this period, all humans lived as [[hunter-gatherer]]s, and were generally [[nomad]]ic.<ref>{{cite news|first=Hillary|last=Mayell|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0220_030220_humanorigins2_2.html|title=When Did "Modern" Behavior Emerge in Humans?|date=20 February 2003|work=National Geographic}}</ref> Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high [[primary productivity]] while avoiding dense forest cover.<ref name=Gavashelishvili23>{{cite journal |last1=Gavashelishvili|first1=A.|last2=Tarkhnishvili|first2=D. |year=2016 |title= Biomes and human distribution during the last ice age |journal= Global Ecology and Biogeography |doi=10.1111/geb.12437 |volume=25 |issue=5|pages=563–574}}</ref> ===Rise of civilization=== [[File:Sumerian 26th c Adab.jpg|thumb|[[Cuneiform script|Cuneiform]], the earliest known writing system]] The [[Neolithic Revolution]], beginning about 8,000 BCE, saw the development of agriculture, which drastically changed the human lifestyle. [[Mesopotamia]] is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the [[wheel]], the planting of the first cereal [[crop]]s and the development of [[cursive]] script, [[Mathematics]], [[Astronomy]] and [[Agriculture]]."<ref name="historyandpolicy">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-13.html|title=Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate?|last=Milton-Edwards|first=Beverley|date=May 2003|work=History & Policy|accessdate=9 December 2010|archive-date=8 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208112958/http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-13.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Farming permitted far denser populations, which in time organized into [[State (polity)|states]]. Agriculture also created [[food]] surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production. The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first [[city|cities]]. These were centres of [[trade]], [[manufacturing]] and [[political power]] with nearly no agricultural production of their own. Cities established a [[symbiosis]] with their surrounding [[Rural area|countryside]]s, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varying degrees of military control and protection.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Stearns | first1 = Peter N. | authorlink1 = Peter Stearns |first2=William L. | last2= Langer | title = [[Encyclopedia of World History|The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged]] | publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin Company]] | date = 24 September 2001 | isbn = 0-395-65237-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chandler|first1=Tertius|title=Four thousand years of urban growth: an historical census|url=https://archive.org/details/fourthousandyear0000chan|date=1987|publisher=St. David's University Press|location=Lewiston, NY|isbn=9780889462076}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Modelski|first1=George|authorlink1=George Modelski|title=World cities: -3000 to 2000|date=2003|publisher=Faros 2000|location=Washington, DC|isbn=9780967623016}}</ref> The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of [[civilization]].<ref>The very word "[[civilization]]" comes from the [[Latin]] ''civilis'', meaning "civil," related to ''civis'', meaning "citizen," and ''civitas'', meaning "city" or "city-state."</ref> [[Cradle of civilization|Early civilizations]] arose first in Lower Mesopotamia (3500 BCE),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ascalone|first1=Enrico|title=Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1)|url=https://archive.org/details/mesopotamia0000asca|date=2007|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0520252667}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lloyd|first1=Seton|title=The archaeology of Mesopotamia : from the Old Stone Age to the Persian conquest|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofmes0000lloy_m7c7|date=1984|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=New York|isbn=0500790094}}</ref> followed by [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian civilization]] along the [[Nile]] (3000 BCE),<ref name="grimal1992"/> the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Harappan civilization]] in the [[Indus River|Indus Valley]] (in present-day [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]; 2500 BCE)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allchin|first1=Bridget|authorlink1=Bridget Allchin|last2=Allchin|first2=Raymond|authorlink2=Raymond Allchin|title=Origins of a civilization: the prehistory and early archaeology of South Asia|date=1997|publisher=Viking|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-0670877133}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Allchin|first1=Raymond|title=The archaeology of early historic South Asia : the emergence of cities and states|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofear0000allc|date=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521376952}}</ref> and [[Ancient China|Chinese civilization]] in the [[Yellow River]] and [[Yangtze|Yangtze river]] (2200 BCE).<ref name="National Gallery of Art"/><ref name="Lee"/> These societies developed a number of unifying characteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, sophisticated language and writing systems, and distinct cultures and religions. [[Writing]] was another pivotal development in human history, as it made the administration of cities and expression of ideas far easier. As complex civilizations arose, so did complex [[religion]]s, and the first of their kind apparently originated during this period.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zhu|first1=Tianshu|editor1-last=Compareti|editor1-first=Matteo|editor2-last=Raffetta|editor2-first=Paola|editor3-last=Scarcia|editor3-first=Gianroberto|title=Ērān ud Anērān: studies presented to Boris Ilich Maršak on the occasion of his 70th birthday|date=2006|publisher=Cafoscarina|location=Venice|isbn=8875431051|chapter=The Sun God and the Wind Deity at Kizil|chapterurl=http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/tianshu.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gimbutas|first1=Marija|authorlink1=Marija Gimbutas|title=The language of the goddess: unearthing the hidden symbols of western civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/languageofgoddes00gimb|date=1989|publisher=Harper & Row|location=San Francisco|isbn=0-06-250356-1}}</ref> Entities such as the Sun, Moon, Earth, sky, and sea were often deified.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Patricia|last2=Coulter|first2=Charles Russell|title=Dictionary of ancient deities|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofanci0000turn|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780195145045}}</ref> [[Shrine]]s developed, which evolved into [[temple]] establishments, complete with a complex hierarchy of [[Priest|priests and priestesses]] and other functionaries. Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] [[Deity|deities]]. Among the earliest surviving written religious scriptures are the Egyptian ''[[Pyramid Texts]]'', the oldest of which date to between 2400 and 2300 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6VBJeCoDdTUC&pg=PA1&dq=2353+-+2323+%22pyramid+texts%22|last=Allen|first=James|isbn=1-58983-182-9|title=The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts |date=2007 |publisher=Scholars Press |location=Atlanta, Ga.}}</ref> Some archaeologists suggest, based on ongoing excavations of a temple complex at [[Göbekli Tepe]] ("Potbelly Hill") in southern Turkey, dating from c. 11,500 years ago, that religion predated the [[Neolithic Revolution|Agricultural Revolution]] rather than following in its wake, as had generally been assumed.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Symmes|first1=Patrick|title=Turkey: Archeological Dig Reshaping Human History|url=http://europe.newsweek.com/turkey-archeological-dig-reshaping-human-history-75101|work=Newsweek|date=19 February 2010}}</ref> ==Ancient history== {{Main article|Ancient history}} {{ancient history}} ===Timeline=== :''Dates are approximate. Consult particular article for details.'' <timeline> ImageSize = width:575 height:355 PlotArea = width:475 height:334 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) # id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) # id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) # id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) # id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar id:black value:black Period = from:-3000 till:1000 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-3000 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:500 start:-3000 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Age color:period from: -3000 till: -1200 text:[[Bronze Age]] from: -1200 till: 400 text:[[Iron Age]] from: 400 till: 1000 text:[[Post-classical era|Middle Ages]] bar:Mideast color:era from: -3000 till: -550 text:[[Mesopotamia]] from: -550 till: -322 shift:(0,-10) text:[[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] from: -322 till: -247 shift:(0,0) text:[[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] from: -247 till: 224 shift:(0,-10) text:[[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] from: 224 till: 651 text:[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] from: 651 till: 1000 text:[[Caliphate]]s bar:Africa color:age from: -3000 till: -800 text:[[Ancient Egypt]] from: -800 till: 350 text:[[Kingdom of Kush]] from: 350 till: 1000 text:[[Kingdom of Axum|Axumite Empire]] bar:Med/Europe color:era from: -3000 till: -1200 text:[[Aegean civilizations| Aegean]] from: -1200 till: -650 text:[[Phoenicia]] from: -650 till: -146 text:[[Ancient Greece]] from: -146 till: 500 text:[[Ancient Rome]] from:500 till: 1000 text:[[Middle Ages]] bar:India color:age from: -3000 till: -1300 text:[[Indus Valley Civilisation]] from: -1300 till: -150 text:[[Vedic period]] from: -150 till: 1000 text:[[Middle kingdoms of India|Middle kingdoms]] bar:China color:era from: -3000 till: -1600 text:[[List of Neolithic cultures of China|Neolithic]] from: -1600 till: -1046 text:[[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] from: -1046 till: -476 text:[[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] from: -476 till: -221 text:[[Warring States period|Warring]] from: -221 till: 1000 text:[[Imperial China]] bar:Japan color:era from: -3000 till: -300 text:[[Jōmon period|Jōmon]] from: -300 till: 250 text:[[Yayoi period|Yayoi]] from: 250 till: 710 text:[[Yamato period|Yamato]] from: 710 till: 794 shift:(0,8) text:[[Nara period|Nara]] from: 794 till: 1000 text: bar:N.America color:age from: -3000 till: -1500 text:[[Archaic period in North America|Archaic]] from: -1500 till: 1000 text:Post-Archaic bar:Mesoamerica color:era from: -3000 till: -1800 text:[[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic]] from: -1800 till: 250 text:Formative from: 250 till: 900 text:Classic from: 900 till: 1000 text:Post- bar:Andes color:age from: -3000 till: -1800 text:[[Andean preceramic|Preceramic]] from: -1800 till: -900 text: Initial from: -900 till: -250 text: [[Chavín culture|Chavín]] from: -250 till: 600 text:Early Intermediate from: 600 till: 1000 text:[[Middle Horizon|M. Horizon]] </timeline> : <small>Regions not included in the timeline include: Southern [[History of Sub-Saharan Africa|Africa]], the [[History of the Caribbean#Before European Contact|Caribbean]], [[History of Central Asia#Ancient era|Central Asia]], Northern [[Bronze Age Europe|Europe]],</small> :<small>[[History of Korea#Prehistory, Gojoseon, and the Jin State|Korea]], [[History of Oceania|Oceania]], [[Prehistoric Siberia|Siberia]], [[History of Southeast Asia#Mesolithic and early agricultural societies|Southeast Asia]], and [[History of Taiwan#prehistoric Settlement|Taiwan]].</small> ===Cradles of civilization=== [[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient Egypt]]ians built the [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids of Giza]].]] {{Main article|Cradle of civilization|Bronze Age|Iron Age}} The [[Bronze Age]] is part of the [[three-age system]] ([[Neolithic|Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]]) that for some parts of the world describes effectively the early history of [[civilization]]. During this era the most fertile areas of the world saw [[city-state]]s and the [[Cradle of civilization|first civilizations]] develop. These were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris and Euphrates]] in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Nile]] in [[Egypt]], the [[Indus River|Indus]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Yangtze]] and [[Yellow River]] in [[China]]. [[Sumer]], located in [[Mesopotamia]], is arguably the first known complex civilization,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Sumer and Akkad|last=King|first=Leonid W.|publisher=|year=2015|isbn=1522847308|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> developing the first [[city-state]]s in the 4th millennium BCE. It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, [[cuneiform script]], appeared c. 3000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon|url=https://archive.org/details/empiresofplainhe00adki|last=Adkins|first=Lesley|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=2003|isbn=0-312-33002-2|location=New York|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Cuneiform writing began as a system of [[pictography|pictographs]]. These pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract. Cuneiform texts were written on [[clay tablet]]s, on which [[symbol]]s were drawn with a blunt [[Phragmites|reed]] used as a [[stylus]]. Writing made the administration of a large state far easier. Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas. The [[Mediterranean Sea]], at the juncture of three continents, fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas, and inventions. This era also saw new land technologies, such as horse-based cavalry and chariots, that allowed armies to move faster. These developments led to the rise of [[empire]]s. Such extensive civilizations brought peace and stability over wider areas. The first empire, controlling a large territory and many cities, developed in Egypt with the unification of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]] c. 3100 BCE,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw|last=Shaw|first=Ian|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-280458-8|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/78 78]–80|quote=|via=}}</ref> while in [[Crete]] the [[Minoan civilization]] had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World of Ancient Times|url=https://archive.org/details/worldofancientti00carl|last=Roebuck|first=Carl|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=1966|isbn=|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldofancientti00carl/page/101 101]|quote=|via=}}</ref> Over the next millennia, other river valleys would see monarchical empires rise to power. In the 25th century and 24th century BCE, [[Assyria]] and the [[Akkadian Empire]], respectively, arose in [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wells|first1=H. G.|authorlink1=H. G. Wells|title=The Outline of History; Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind|date=1921|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|volume=1|page=137}}</ref> [[File:The Wrestler (Olmec) by DeLange.jpg|thumb|''[[The Wrestler (sculpture)|The Wrestler]]'', an [[Olmec]] era statuette, 1200&nbsp;– 800 BCE.]] Over the following millennia, civilizations would develop across the world. [[Trade]] would increasingly become a source of power as states with access to important resources or controlling important trade routes would rise to dominance. In c. 2500 BCE, the [[Kerma Culture]] developed in [[Sudan]], south of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hafsaas-Tsakos|first=Henriette|year=2009|title=The Kingdom of Kush: An African Centre on the Periphery of the Bronze Age World System|url=https://www.academia.edu/2380609/The_Kingdom_of_Kush_An_African_Centre_on_the_Periphery_of_the_Bronze_Age_World_System|journal=Norwegian Archaeological Review|volume=42|pages=50–70|via=|doi=10.1080/00293650902978590}}</ref> In modern Turkey the [[Hittites]] controlled a large empire and by 1600 BCE, [[Mycenaean Greece]] began to develop.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chadwick|first1=John|authorlink1=John Chadwick|title=The Mycenaean world|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-29037-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mylonas|first1=George E.|authorlink1=George E. Mylonas|title=Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age|url=https://archive.org/details/mycenaemycenaean0000mylo|date=1966|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-03523-7}}</ref> In India this era was the [[Vedic civilization|Vedic period]], which laid the foundations of [[Hinduism]] and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Historische Grammatik des Hindi: Die Genese seinse morphologischen Systems aus dem Mittel- und Altindischen|last=Oberlies|first=Thomas|publisher=|year=1998|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the [[Mahajanapada]]s were established across the subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|last=Singh|first=Upinder|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2008|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|location=Delhi|pages=260–4|quote=|via=}}</ref> As complex civilizations arose in the Eastern Hemisphere, most indigenous societies in the [[Americas]] remained relatively simple for some time, fragmented into diverse regional cultures. During the [[formative stage]] in [[Mesoamerica]], (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru. They include civilizations such as the [[Olmec]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]], [[Moche culture|Moche]], and [[Nazca culture|Nazca]]. They developed agriculture as well, growing maize and other crops unique to the Americas, and creating a distinct culture and religion. These ancient indigenous societies would be greatly affected by European contact during the early modern period.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Method and Theory in American Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/methodtheoryinam0000will_h3d0|last=Phillips|first=Philip|last2=Willey|first2=Gordon R.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1957|isbn=9780226898889|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> ===Axial Age=== {{Main article|Axial Age|History of philosophy|Timeline of religion|History of religions}} Beginning in the 8th century BCE, the "[[Axial Age]]" saw the development of a set of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, mostly independently, in many different places. Chinese [[Confucianism]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Confucianism |first1=Chai |last1=Ch'u |first2=Winberg|last2=Chai |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |date=1973 |isbn=978-0-7641-9138-1 |page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Primary Source Reader for World History: To 1500 |url=https://archive.org/details/primarysourcerea0000unse |first=Elsa A. |last=Nystrom |publisher=Thmpson, Wadsworth |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-495-00609-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/primarysourcerea0000unse/page/46 46]}}</ref> Indian [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[monotheism]] are all claimed by some scholars to have developed in the 6th century BCE. ([[Karl Jaspers]]' Axial-Age theory also includes [[Persia]]n [[Zoroastrianism]], but other scholars dispute his timeline for Zoroastrianism.) In the 5th century BCE, [[Socrates]] and [[Plato]] made substantial advances in the development of [[ancient Greek philosophy]]. In the East, three schools of thought would dominate [[China|Chinese]] thinking until the modern day. These were [[Taoism]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=James|title=Daoism: a short introduction|date=2003|publisher=Oneworld|location=Oxford|isbn=1-85168-315-1}}</ref> [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/China/China%20Legalism.htm |title=Chinese Legalism: Documentary Materials and Ancient Totalitarianism |work=World Future Fund |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> and [[Confucianism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interfaith.org/confucianism/|title=Confucianism|last=|first=|date=|publisher=Brite Media|work=Interfaith Online|accessdate=31 May 2016}}</ref> The Confucian tradition, which would become particularly dominant, looked for [[Politics|political]] [[morality]] not to the force of law but to the power and example of [[tradition]]. Confucianism would later spread to the [[Korean Peninsula]] and toward [[Japan]]. In the West, the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] philosophical tradition, represented by [[Socrates]],<ref name="enc1911">{{EB1911|noprescript=1|wstitle=Socrates}}</ref> [[Plato]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kraut|first1=Richard|title=Plato|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/|website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|date=1 January 2015}}</ref> [[Aristotle]],<ref>{{Catholic|no-icon=1|prescript=|wstitle=Aristotle|volume=1|first=William|last=Turner|authorlink=William Turner (bishop of Buffalo)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm|title=Aristotle (384—322 B.C.E.)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=University of Tennessee at Martin|work=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> and other philosophers, along with accumulated science, technology, and culture, diffused throughout [[Europe]], Egypt, the [[Middle East]], and Northwest India, starting in the 4th century BCE after the conquests of Alexander III of [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedon]] ([[Alexander the Great]]).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Heckel|first1=Waldemar|title=Bibliography of Alexander the Great|url=http://hum.ucalgary.ca/wheckel/bibl/alex-bibl.pdf|publisher=University of Calgary|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114193802/http://hum.ucalgary.ca/wheckel/bibl/alex-bibl.pdf|archivedate=14 January 2009|date=2 October 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Animation/alexander.html |title=The odyssey of Alexander the Great|publisher=Western Washington University|accessdate=18 April 2009 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080615021840/http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Animation/alexander.html |archivedate = 15 June 2008}}</ref> ===Regional empires=== {{Main article|Civilization|Empire}} The millennium from 500 BCE to 500 CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop. Well-trained professional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to rule over large domains whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects. The great [[empire]]s depended on [[military]] [[annexation]] of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morgan|first1=Lewis Henry|title=Ancient society; or, researches in the lines of human progress from savagery, through barbarism to civilization|date=1877|publisher=Henry Holt|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientsociety00morg}}</ref> The relative peace that the empires brought encouraged [[international trade]], most notably the massive trade routes in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], the maritime trade web in the Indian Ocean, and the [[Silk Road]]. In southern Europe, the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] (and later the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]), in an era known as "[[classical antiquity]]," established cultures whose practices, laws, and customs are considered the foundation of contemporary [[Western culture]]. Major regional empires of this period include: *The [[Medes|Median Empire]], from ''c.'' 700 BCE,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Iran|last=Diakonoff|first=I. M.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|isbn=0-521-20091-1|editor-last=Gershevitch|editor-first=Ilya|volume=2|location=Cambridge|pages=|chapter=Media|quote=|via=}}</ref>{{Rp|36–148}} centred in present-day [[Iran]],<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|140}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|last=|first=|publisher=|year=1997|isbn=|volume=30|location=|pages=|quote=...and the Medes (Iranians of what is now north-west Iran)...|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Media-ancient-region-Iran|title=Media {{!}} ancient region, Iran|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=Encyclopedia Brittanica|access-date=November 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians|last=Kuz'mina|first=Elena E.|publisher=BRILL|year=2007|isbn=978-90-04-16054-5|editor-last=Mallory|editor-first=J. P.|location=|pages=303|quote=Proto-Iranian split into Western (Median, and others) and Eastern (Scythian, Ossetic, Saka, Pamir and others)...|via=}}</ref> but extending west to present-day [[Turkey]] and east to present-day [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0013_0_13491.html|title=Medes and Media|last=|first=|date=2008|website=Encyclopedia Judaica|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library|access-date=November 18, 2016}}</ref> The Median Empire gave way to successive [[History of Iran|Iranian]] empires of the period,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Histories|last=Herodotus|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=93|quote=|via=}}</ref> including the world's first superpower [[Achaemenid Empire|The Achaemenid Empire]] (550-330 BCE) up to the [[Sasanian Empire]] (224-651 CE).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Ancient Persia|last=Wiesehöfer|first=Josef|publisher=I. B. Traus|year=1996|isbn=|location=New York|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cultureofiran.com/b_history.php |title=A Brief History |last=Price |first=Massoume |date=2001 |website=Culture of Iran |publisher= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011121030510/http://www.cultureofiran.com/b_history.php |archive-date=21 November 2001 |dead-url=yes |access-date=November 18, 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[File:Parthenon from west.jpg|thumb|The [[Parthenon]] epitomizes the sophisticated culture of [[Ancient Greece]].]] *The [[Delian League]] (from 477 BCE)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenic Times|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecefro00mart_1|last=Martin|first=Thomas|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-300-08493-1|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> and the succeeding Athenian Empire (454-404 BCE),<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Peloponnesian War|last=Thucydides|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=I, 96|nopp=y|quote=|via=}}</ref> centred in present-day [[Greece]]. *[[Alexander the Great]] (356-323 BCE), of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]], founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day India.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|last=Blair|first=Sheila S.|last2=Bloom|first2=Jonathan M.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=|volume=3|location=|pages=385|quote=[Khojand, Tajikistan]; as the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE.|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Central Asia in World History|url=https://archive.org/details/centralasiainwor0000gold|last=Golden|first=Peter B.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/centralasiainwor0000gold/page/25 25]|quote=(...) his campaigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a number of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate ("Outernmost Alexandria," near modern Khojent in Tajikistan).|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/alexander_the_great.shtml|title=Alexander the Great|last=|first=|date=|website=Historic Figures|publisher=BBC|access-date=November 18, 2016}}</ref> The empire divided shortly after his death, but the influence of his [[Hellenization|Hellenistic]] successors made for an extended [[Hellenistic period]] (323 – 30 BCE)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm|title=Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition|last=Hemingway|first=Collette|last2=Hemingway|first2=Seán|date=April 2007|website=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=November 18, 2016}}</ref> throughout the region. *The [[Maurya Empire]] (322 – 185 BCE)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesFarEast/India_IronAge_Mauryas01.htm|title=The Mauryas: Chandragupta|last=Rajadhyaksha|first=Abhijit|date=August 2, 2009|website=The History Files|publisher=Kessler Associates|access-date=November 18, 2016}}</ref> in present-day [[History of India|India]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of India|last=Kulke|first=Hermann|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=0-415-32920-5|edition=4th|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of India|last=Thapar|first=Romila|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1990|isbn=0-14-013835-8|volume=1|location=|pages=384|quote=|via=}}</ref> In the 3rd century BCE, most of [[South Asia]] was united into the Maurya Empire by [[Chandragupta Maurya]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc|last=Mukherjee|first=B. N.|last2=Raychaudhuri|first2=H. C.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref>{{Rp|594}} and flourished under [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|204–209, 270–271}} From the 3rd century CE,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |title=Gupta Dynasty |last=Heitzman |first=James |date= |website=Encarta Online |publisher=Microsoft |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwqOxl5F?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |archive-date=1 November 2009 |dead-url=yes |access-date=November 18, 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasty]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of India|last=Jayapalan|first=N.|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|year=2001|isbn=|volume=1|location=|pages=130|quote=|via=}}</ref> From the 4th to 6th centuries, northern [[India]] was ruled by the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Raghu Vamsa|last=|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=v. 4.60–75|nopp=y|quote=|via=}}</ref> In southern India, three prominent [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] kingdoms emerged: [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Evolution of Education Thought in India|last=Lal Dwivedi|first=Bhanwar|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=1994|isbn=978-81-7211-059-8|location=|pages=164|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of South India|last=Nilakanta Sastri|first=K. A.|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=157|quote=|via=}}</ref> and [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|last=Nath Sen|first=Sailendra|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of [[Hindu]] culture in the 4th and 5th centuries. *The [[History of the Roman Empire|Roman Empire]], centred in present-day [[Italy]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Social Development|last=Morris|first=Ian|publisher=Stanford University|year=2010|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Why the West Rules--For Now|url=https://archive.org/details/whywestrulesforn00morr_1|last=Morris|first=Ian|publisher=Farrar, Strous, and Giroux|year=2010|isbn=978-0-374-29002-3|location=New York|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Beginning in the 3rd century BCE, the [[Roman Republic]] began expanding its territory through conquest and colonization.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireverys0000kell|last=Kelly|first=Christopher|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=|location=|pages=4ff|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/spacegeographypo00nico|last=Nicolet|first=Claude|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1991|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spacegeographypo00nico/page/1 1], 15|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Praetorship in the Roman Republic|url=https://archive.org/details/praetorshipinrom0002bren|last=Brennan|first=T. Corey|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/praetorshipinrom0002bren/page/605 605] et passim|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World|last=Ando|first=Clifford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=39–40|chapter=From Republic to Empire|quote=|via=}}</ref> By the time of [[Augustus]] (63 BCE - 14 CE), who would become the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean. The empire would continue to grow, controlling much of the land from [[England]] to [[Mesopotamia]], reaching its greatest extent under the emperor [[Trajan]] (d. 117 CE).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|year=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 BC to 600 AD|jstor=1170959|journal=Social Science History|volume=3|pages=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Jonathan M.|last2=Hall|first2=Thomas D.|last3=Turchin|first3=Peter|year=2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|pages=|via=|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-date=2016-05-17|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517210851/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the 3rd century CE, the empire would split into western and eastern regions, with (sometimes) separate emperors. The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under [[Odoacer]]. The eastern empire, now known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], with its capital at [[Constantinople]], would continue for another thousand years, until overthrown by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453 CE. *The [[Qin dynasty]] (221 – 206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty of China, followed by the [[Han dynasty|Han Empire]] (206 BCE – 220 CE). The Han Dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road. While the Romans constructed a vast military of unprecedented power, Han China was developing advanced cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. The East invented blast furnaces and were capable of creating finely tuned copper instruments. As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Remaking China's Public Philosophy for the Twenty-First Century|url=https://archive.org/details/remakingchinaspu0000zhou|last=Zhou|first=Jinghao|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=0-275-97882-6|location=Westport|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> *The [[Kingdom of Aksum]], centred in present-day Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Archaeology|last=Phillipson|first=David|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=|editor-last=Silberman|editor-first=Neil Asher|edition=2nd|location=|pages=48|quote=|via=}}</ref> By the 1st century CE the Kingdom of Aksum had established itself as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbours in South [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]], and controlling the [[Red Sea]] trade. They minted their own currency, and carved enormous monolithic [[stele]]s such as the [[Obelisk of Axum]] to mark their Emperors' graves. *Successful regional empires were also established in the [[Americas]], arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientnorthamer0003faga|last=Fagan|first=Brian M.|publisher=Thames & Hudson Inc.|year=2005|isbn=0-500-28148-3|edition=4th|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientnorthamer0003faga/page/390 390], 396|quote=|via=}}</ref> In [[History of Mesoamerica|Mesoamerica]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Central America |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574502/Central_America.html |website=MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwKFvtVa?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574502/Central_America.html |archivedate=31 October 2009 |date=2006 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> vast pre-Columbian societies were built, the most notable being the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec Empire]] (700 BCE – 1521 CE),<ref>Zapotec civilization has its beginnings in 700 BCE: see {{Cite book|title=Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley|url=https://archive.org/details/zapoteccivilizat0000marc|last=Flannery|first=Kent V.|last2=Marcus|first2=Joyce|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=1996|isbn=0-500-05078-3|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/zapoteccivilizat0000marc/page/146 146]|quote=|via=}} Zapotec civilization ended in 1521 according to the five archaeological stages presented in {{Cite book|title=The Zapotecs: Princes, Preists, and Peasants|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780806113746|last=Whitecotton|first=Joseph W.|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1977|isbn=|location=Norman|pages=p. 26, LI.1–3|nopp=y|quote=|via=}} </ref> and the [[Maya civilization]], which reached its highest state of development during the Mesoamerican Classic period (c. 250 – 900 CE),<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Maya|url=https://archive.org/details/maya0000coem_h0k7|last=Coe|first=Michael D.|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=1999|isbn=0-500-28066-5|edition=6th|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/maya0000coem_h0k7/page/81 81]|quote=|via=}}</ref> but continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century CE. Maya civilization arose as the [[Olmec]] [[mother culture]] gradually declined.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Olmecs: America's First Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh|last=Diehl|first=Richard|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2004|isbn=0-500-02119-8|location=London|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands|url=https://archive.org/details/olmectoaztecsett0000unse|last=Arnold|first=Philip J. III|last2=Stark|first2=Barbara L.|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=1977|isbn=0-8165-1689-8|location=Tucson|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The great Mayan [[city-state]]s slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the [[Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán]] and surrounding areas. The later empire of the [[Aztec]]s was built on neighbouring cultures and was influenced by conquered peoples such as the [[Toltec]]s. [[File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg|thumb|[[Ptolemy's world map|Claudius Ptolemy's world map]], c. 150 CE]] Some areas experienced slow but steady technological advances, with important developments such as the [[stirrup]] and [[moldboard plow|moldboard plough]] arriving every few centuries. There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress. Most important, perhaps, was the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] area during the [[Hellenistic period]], when hundreds of technologies were invented.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Camp|first1=John McK.|last2=Dinsmoor|first2=William B.|title=Ancient Athenian building methods|date=1984|publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens|series=Excavations of the Athenian Agora|volume=21|location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=9780876616260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Drachmann|first=A. G.|year=1963|title=The mechanical technology of Greek and Roman antiquity, a study of the literary sources|location=Copenhagen|publisher=Munksgaard}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Oleson|first1=John Peter|authorlink1=John Peter Oleson|title=Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices : the history of a technology|date=1984|publisher=Reidel|location=Dordrecht|isbn=9027716935}}</ref> Such periods were followed by periods of technological decay, as during the [[Roman Empire]]'s decline and [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall]] and the ensuing [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] period. ===Declines, falls and resurgence=== The empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy. These costs fell most heavily on the [[peasant]]ry, while land-owning [[magnate]]s increasingly evaded centralized control and its costs. [[Barbarian]] pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution. [[China]]'s [[Han dynasty]] fell into [[civil war]] in 220 CE, beginning the [[Three Kingdoms]] period, while its [[Roman Empire|Roman]] counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]. The great empires of Eurasia were all located on temperate and subtropical coastal plains. From the [[Central Asia]]n steppes, horse-based nomads (mainly Mongols and Turks) dominated a large part of the continent. The development of the [[stirrup]] and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations. The gradual break-up of the [[Roman Empire]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=1910|url=https://archive.org/details/declinefallofrom0002gibb|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=|chapter=General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West|quote=|via=Internet Medieval Sourcebook}} Brief excerpts of Gibbon's theories.</ref> spanning several centuries after the 2nd century CE, coincided with the spread of [[Christianity]] westward from the Middle East. The Western Roman Empire fell under the domination of [[Germanic tribes]] in the 5th century, and these [[Polity|polities]] gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the [[Catholic Church]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|year=1906|isbn=|editor-last=Bury|editor-first=J. B.|volume=Volumes II, III, and IX|location=New York|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, would henceforth be the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bury|first=John Bagnall|authorlink=J. B. Bury|date=1923|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/home.html|title=History of the Later Roman Empire|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to [[western Europe]] through the establishment in 962 of the [[Holy Roman Empire]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Bryce|first=J. B.|year=1907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jNI4vCO7d8C|title=The Holy Roman empire|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> comprising a number of states in what is now [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Belgium]], [[Italy]], and parts of [[France]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Holy Roman Empire|last=Bryce|first=James|publisher=The MacMillan Company|year=1913|isbn=|location=|pages=183|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Germany and the Holy Roman Empire|last=Whaley|first=Joachim|publisher=|year=2012|isbn=|volume=1|location=|pages=17–20|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716|last=Johnson|first=Lonnie R.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/23 23]|quote=|via=}}</ref> In China, [[Dynasty|dynasties]] would rise and fall, but, by sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, dynastic unity would be restored. After the fall of the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/early_imperial_china/han.html |title=Dynasties of Early Imperial China: Han Dynasty|publisher=Minnesota State University |accessdate=18 April 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710041505/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/early_imperial_china/han.html |archivedate=10 July 2009 }}</ref> and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, [[nomad]]ic tribes from the north began to invade in the 4th century, eventually conquering areas of northern China and setting up many small kingdoms. In 581 the [[Sui Dynasty]] successfully reunified the whole of China<ref>{{cite book|title=The Dynasties of China: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofdy0000gasc|last=Gascoigne|first=Bamber|date=2003|publisher=Carroll & Graf|isbn=1-84119-791-2|location=New York|authorlink=Bamber Gascoigne}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A history of Chinese civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese0000gern|last=Gernet|first=Jacques|date=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-24130-8|authorlink=Jacques Gernet}}</ref> and laid the foundations for the Chinese golden age under the [[Tang dynasty]] (618-907).<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/chinascosmopolit0000lewi|last=Lewis|first=Mark Edward|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-674-03306-1|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinascosmopolit0000lewi/page/1 1]|quote=|via=}}</ref> Over the course of history, [[Polity|polities]] have tended to develop by accretion or takeover, variously amicable or hostile, and have often disintegrated. The histories even of now small countries often show earlier periods of [[Imperialism|imperialist]] expansion. The [[Roman Empire]] is merely one of the more memorable and paradigmatic examples of political expansion and contraction.<ref>{{cite book|first=G.W.|last=Trompf|title=The Idea of [[Historic recurrence|Historical Recurrence]] in Western Thought, from Antiquity to the Reformation|isbn=9780520034792|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Kennedy|authorlink=Paul Kennedy|title=[[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers]]: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000|location=New York|publisher=Random House|year=1987|isbn=0-394-54674-1}}</ref> The [[Chinese Empire]], on the other hand, is an example of long-term political expansion and persistence—of an empire which recovered from all its declines and falls, and which challenges the paradigm of inevitable permanent imperial fall.<ref>{{cite book|first=Yuri|last=Pines|authorlink=Yuri Pines|title=Envisioning Eternal Empire: Chinese Political Thought of the Warring States Era|url=https://archive.org/details/envisioningetern0000pine|location=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=2009|isbn=9780824832759}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Yuri|last=Pines|title=The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy|url=https://archive.org/details/everlastingempir0000pine|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780691134956}}</ref> A champion of [[world history]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee|Arnold Toynbee]], concludes that the history of the world is not just a cycle of expansions and contractions. The cycle proceeds on a ''spatially'' growing scale. Formerly expansive countries become small relative to greater countries that arise on the periphery. In any historical system, "it had been common form for the states at the centre to be pigmies by comparison with the relatively gigantic size of the states on the periphery, and for the central area ... to be the arena into which the surrounding giants descend to meet and do battle with one another." The "abrupt changes of scale" have brought into existence new constellations of states. The "pigmies of today were apt to be the giants of yesterday." Examples are from the [[Axial Age|Axial]] Mediterranean and China, and early modern Italy. These "examples of ''peripeteia''—the reversal of roles—in the play of the balance of power conform to a uniform pattern; and in Western history, by the time of writing [1954], this pattern of events had repeated itself."<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Study of History|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1954|isbn=|volume=9|location=London|pages=486–487|quote=|via=}}</ref> ==Post-classical history== {{Main article|Post-classical history}} The Postclassical Era is named for the more Eurocentric era of "[[Classical antiquity]]," but "the Postclassical Era" refers to a more global outline. The era is commonly dated from the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century. The Western Roman Empire fragmented into numerous separate kingdoms, many of which would be later confederated under the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Eastern Roman, or [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], Empire survived until late in the Middle Ages. The Postclassical period also corresponds to the [[Early Muslim conquests]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Fred|last=Donner|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/donner.html|title=The Early Islamic Conquests|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1981|isbn=1597402001|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-date=2013-12-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224030724/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/donner.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> the subsequent [[Islamic Golden Age]],<ref>{{cite web|first=Gaston|last=Wiet|url=http://trboard.org/modules/makale/makale.php?id=57|title=Golden age of Arab and Islamic Culture|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222025752/http://trboard.org/modules/makale/makale.php?id=57|archivedate=22 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theislamproject.org/education/B04_SpreadofIslam.htm |title=Overview of Muslim History |publisher=The Islam Project |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> and the commencement and expansion of the [[Arab slave trade]], followed by the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasions]] in the Middle East and Central Asia, and the founding (1299)<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|last=Shaw|first=Stanford|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1976|isbn=|volume=1|location=Cambridge|pages=13|quote=|via=}}</ref> of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. [[South Asia]] saw a series of [[middle kingdoms of India]], followed by the establishment of [[Islamic empires in India]]. In western Africa, the [[Mali Empire]] and the [[Songhai Empire]] developed. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where [[gold]], [[Spice trade|spices]], and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the [[Southeast Asia]] trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the [[Swahili culture]]. The [[Mid-Imperial China|Chinese Empire]] experienced the successive [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], [[Song dynasty|Song]], [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]], and the beginning of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] Dynasty. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the [[Silk Road]] through the Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations. During this same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the [[Inca]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], and [[Aztec]], reached their height. All would be seriously compromised by contact with [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] at the beginning of the [[Modern history|Modern period]]. ===Western Asia and North Africa=== {{Main article|History of the Middle East#The medieval Near East|Islamic Golden Age}} Prior to the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East was dominated by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire|title=Byzantine Empire|last=Nicol|first=Donald MacGillivray|last2=Teall|first2=John L.|date=December 23, 2015|website=|publisher=Encyclopaedia Brittanica|access-date=November 22, 2016}}</ref> and the Persian [[Sasanian Empire]],<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> which constantly fought each other for control of disputed regions such as [[Armenia]]. This was also a cultural battle, with the Byzantine Hellenistic and Christian culture competing against the Persian Iranian traditions and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian religion]]. The formation of the [[History of Islam|Islamic religion]] created a new contender that quickly surpassed both of these empires. Islam overall greatly impacted the [[political history|political]], [[economic history|economic]], and [[military history]] of the [[Old World]], especially the [[Middle East]]. [[File:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan, vue d'ensemble.jpg|thumb|[[Great Mosque of Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]], founded 670&nbsp;— oldest [[mosque]] in Muslim West]] From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Postclassical Era. By 750 CE, they came to conquer most of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|year=1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|jstor=2600793|journal=International Studies Quarterly|volume=41|pages=475–504|via=|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053}}</ref> ushering in an era of learning, science, and invention known as the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. The knowledge and skills of the ancient Middle East, of Greece, and of Persia were preserved in the Postclassical Era by Muslims, who also added new and important innovations from outside, such as the manufacture of paper from China and decimal positional numbering from India. Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence the city of Mecca had served as a centre of trade in Arabia, and the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] himself was a merchant. With the new Islamic tradition of the ''[[Hajj]]'', the pilgrimage to Mecca, the city became even more a centre for exchanging goods and ideas. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to the Europeans, Indians, and Chinese who based their societies on an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to [[Islam in China|China]], [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent|India]], [[Islam in Southeast Asia|southeast Asia]], and the kingdoms of western [[Islam in Africa|Africa]], and returned with new discoveries and inventions. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of [[Crusades]] to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the [[Holy Land]]. The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful, and served more to weaken the [[Byzantine Empire]] especially with the [[Sack of Constantinople (1204)|sack of Constantinople]] in 1204, which began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuq Turks]], migrating south from the Turkic homelands in [[Central Asia]]. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the [[Mongols|Mongol]] armies of the [[Mongol Empire]], swept through the region, but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks and the founding of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1299.<ref name=":4" /> ===Europe=== {{main article|Middle Ages}} [[File:Alcazar05 5-4-04.JPG|thumb|[[Castle]]s like [[Alcázar of Segovia|Segovia Castle]], [[Spain]], were common in [[High Middle Ages]] Europe.]] Europe during the [[Early Middle Ages]] was characterized by depopulation, deurbanization, and [[barbarian]] invasion, all of which had begun in [[Late Antiquity]]. The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. In the 7th century, [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], once part of the eastern empire, became part of the [[Caliphate]] after conquest by [[Muhammad]]'s successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break was not as extreme as once put forth by historians, with most of the new kingdoms incorporating as many of the existing Roman institutions as they could. Christianity expanded in western Europe and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries the [[Franks]], under the [[Carolingian dynasty]], established an empire covering much of western Europe;<ref>{{Cite book|title=Byzantium: A World Civilization|last=Laiou|first=Angeliki|last2=Maguire|first2=Henry P.|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=1992|isbn=978-0-88402-200-8|location=|pages=62|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Earth and Its Peoples|url=https://archive.org/details/earthitspeoplesg0000bull_n4v9|last=Bulliett|first=Richard W. et alii|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2011|isbn=978-0-495-91310-8|location=|pages=333|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Frankist World|url=https://archive.org/details/frankishworld7500000nels|last=Nelson|first=Janet L.|publisher=Continuum International|year=2003|isbn=978-1-85285-105-7|location=|pages=xii|quote=|via=}}</ref> it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders&nbsp;– the [[Vikings]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Viking-people|title=Viking|last=|first=|date=February 8, 2015|website=|publisher=Encyclopaedia Brittanica|access-date=November 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Vikings|url=https://archive.org/details/vikingsreviseded00else|last=Roesdahl|first=Else|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1998|isbn=978-0140252828|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> [[Hungarians#Entering the Carpathian Basin .28c. 895.29|Magyars]], and [[Saracen]]s. During the [[High Middle Ages]], which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as new technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase. [[Manorialism]]&nbsp;– the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labour service to nobles&nbsp;– and [[feudalism]]&nbsp;– a political structure whereby [[knight]]s and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and [[manor]]s&nbsp;– were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages. Kingdoms became more centralized after the decentralizing effects of the breakup of the [[Carolingian Empire]]. The [[Crusades]], which were first preached in 1095, were an attempt by western Christians to regain control of the [[Holy Land]] from the [[Muslim]]s, and succeeded long enough to establish some Christian states in the Near East. Intellectual life was marked by [[scholasticism]] and the founding of universities, while the building of [[Gothic cathedrals]] was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age. [[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|right|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[Vitruvian Man]]'' epitomizes [[Renaissance]] artistic and scientific advances.]] The [[Late Middle Ages]] were marked by difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague and war devastated the population of western Europe. The [[Black Death]] alone killed approximately 75 to 200 million people between 1347 and 1350.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm|title=Black death 'discriminated' between victims|last=Dunham|first=Will|date=January 29, 2008|work=ABC Science|access-date=November 24, 2016|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1576875.stm|title=De-coding the Black Death|last=|first=|date=October 3, 2001|work=BBC|access-date=November 24, 2016|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2001/10/black-deaths-gene-code-cracked/|title=Black Death's Gene Code Cracked|last=Philipkoski|first=Kristen|date=October 3, 2001|work=WIRED|access-date=November 24, 2016|via=}}</ref> It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in [[Asia]], the disease reached Mediterranean and western [[Europe]] during the late 1340s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/plague-article.html|title=Plague: The Black Death|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=3 November 2008|archive-date=28 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128194106/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/plague-article.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a third and a half of the population.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cohn|first1=S. K.|last2=Weaver|first2=L. T.|title=The Black Death and AIDS: CCR5-Δ32 in genetics and history|journal=QJM|date=1 August 2006|volume=99|issue=8|pages=497–503|doi=10.1093/qjmed/hcl076|pmid=16880184}}</ref> The Middle Ages<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Strayer|editor1-first=Joseph R.|title=Dictionary of the Middle Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmidd0001unse_g7l4|date=1982|publisher=Scribner|location=New York|isbn=0-684-19073-7}}</ref> witnessed the first sustained [[urbanization]] of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Law|first1=Edward|title=Rudimentary chronology of civil and ecclesiastical history, art, literature and civilisation, from the earliest period to 1856|date=1857|publisher=John Weale|location=London|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r2gBAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> The Middle Ages lasted until the beginning of the [[Early modern period]]<ref name="rice1970"/> in the 16th century, marked by the rise of [[nation state]]s, the division of Western [[Christianity]] in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]],<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=McManners|editor1-first=John|title=The Oxford history of Christianity|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780192803368}}</ref> the rise of [[humanism]] in the [[Italian Renaissance]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pater|first1=Walter|authorlink=Walter Pater|title=Studies in the History of the Renaissance|date=1873|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aS4CAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the [[Columbian Exchange]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Middle-Ages|title=History of Europe: The Middle Ages|last=Aubin|first=Hermann|last2=Champion|first2=Timothy C.|date=November 12, 2015|website=|publisher=Encyclopaedia Brittanica|access-date=November 24, 2016|last3=Parker|first3=N. Geoffrey|last4=Salmon|first4=John Hearsey McMillan|last5=Treasure|first5=Geoffrey Russell Richards|last6=Weinstein|first6=Donald}}</ref> ===Sub-Saharan Africa=== [[File:Ife Kings Head.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] [[bronze]] head, [[Ife]], 11th–14th century]] {{Main article|History of Africa}} Medieval [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] was home to many different civilizations. The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] declined in the 7th century as Islam cut it off from its Christian allies and its people moved further into the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] for protection. They eventually gave way to the [[Zagwe dynasty]] who are famed for their rock cut architecture at [[Lalibela]]. The Zagwe would then fall to the [[Solomonic dynasty]] who claimed descent from the Aksumite emperors{{Citation needed|date=November 2016}} and would rule the country well into the 20th century. In the [[West Africa]]n [[Sahel]] region, many Islamic empires rose, such as the [[Ghana Empire]], the [[Mali Empire]], the [[Songhai Empire]], and the [[Kanem Empire]]. They controlled the [[trans-Saharan trade]] in gold, ivory, salt and slaves. South of the Sahel civilizations rose in the coastal forests where horses and camels could not survive. These include the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] city of [[Ife]] (noted for its naturalistic art<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blier|first=Suzanne Preston|year=2012|title=Art in Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/blier/files/blier.pdf|journal=African Arts|volume=45|pages=70–85|via=|doi=10.1162/afar_a_00029}}</ref>) and the [[Oyo Empire]], the [[Benin Empire]] of the [[Edo people]] centred in [[Benin City]], the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] [[Kingdom of Nri]] which produced advanced bronze art at [[Igbo-Ukwu]], and the [[Akan people|Akan]] who are noted for their intricate architecture.{{Citation needed|date=November 2016}} In what is now modern [[Zimbabwe]] various kingdoms evolved from the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] in modern [[South Africa]]. They flourished through trade with the [[Swahili people]] on the [[East Africa]]n coast. They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as [[Great Zimbabwe]], capital of the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]], [[Khami]], capital of [[Kingdom of Butua]], and [[Danangombe]] (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the [[Rozwi Empire]]. The [[Swahili people]] themselves were the inhabitants of the East African coast from Kenya to Mozambique who traded extensively with Asians and Arabs, who introduced them to Islam. They built many port cities such as [[Mombasa]], [[Zanzibar]], and [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]], which were known to Chinese sailors under [[Zheng He]] and Islamic geographers. ===South Asia=== In northern [[History of India|India]], after the fall (550 CE<ref name=":5" />) of the [[Gupta Empire]], the region divided into a complex and fluid network of smaller kingly states.<ref>{{cite book |first=Virbhadra |last=Singhji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYK7ZSpPzkUC&pg=PR6 |title=The Rajputs of Saurashtra |publisher=Popular Prakashan |date=1994 |isbn=978-81-7154-546-9 |page=vi}}</ref> Early Muslim incursions began in the west in 712 CE, when the Arab [[Umayyad Caliphate]] annexed much of present-day [[Pakistan]]. Arab military advance was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. Post-classical dynasties in Southern India included those of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]], the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]], the [[Hoysala dynasty|Hoysalas]], the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], the Islamic [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], the Marathas and the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysores]]. [[Science]], [[engineering]], [[art]], [[literature]], [[astronomy]], and [[philosophy]] flourished under the patronage of these kings.{{Citation needed|date=November 2016}} ===East Asia=== After a period of relative disunity, the [[Sui dynasty]] reunified China in 581, and under the succeeding [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) China entered a second [[Golden Age]].<ref name=":6" /> The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|half a century of turmoil]] the [[Northern Song Dynasty|Song Dynasty]] reunified China, making it the richest, most skilled, and most populous country on Earth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society Since A.D. 1000|url=https://archive.org/details/pursuitofpower00will|last=McNeill|first=William H.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1982|isbn=0226561577|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pursuitofpower00will/page/50 50]|quote=|via=}}</ref> Pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. By 1142, [[North China]] had been lost to the [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]] in the [[Jin–Song Wars]], and the [[Mongol Empire]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Paul D.|title=Historical dictionary of the Mongol world empire|date=2003|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham (Maryland)|isbn=0-8108-4571-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Howorth|first=Henry H.|title=History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part I: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmuks|location=New York|publisher=Burt Frankin|date=1965|orig-year=reprint of London edition, 1876}}</ref> [[Mongol invasion of China|conquered all of China]] in 1279, along with almost half of [[Eurasia]]'s landmass. After about a century of Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]] rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368). In [[History of Japan|Japan]], the imperial lineage had been established by this time, and during the [[Asuka period]] (538 to 710) the [[Yamato Province]] developed into a clearly centralized state.<ref name="HOJ">{{cite book|title=A History of Japan|last2=Caiger|first2=J.G.|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|year=|isbn=9781462900978|edition=Revised|location=New York|pages=|quote=|via=|last1=Mason|first1=R.H.P.}}</ref> [[Buddhism]] was introduced,<ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Nihon Shoki]]|last=[[Prince Toneri]]|first=|last2=[[Ō no Yasumaro]]|publisher=|year=720|isbn=|volume=19|location=|pages=|chapter=Story of Kinmei|quote=|via=}}</ref> and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and [[Confucianism]]. The [[Nara period]] of the 8th century<ref>{{Cite book|title=Japan: A Country Study|last=|first=|publisher=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|year=1994|isbn=|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Ronald E.|location=|pages=|chapter=Nara and Heian Periods, A.D. 710–1185|quote=|editor-last2=Worden|editor-first2=Robert L.|via=}}</ref> marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age.{{Citation needed|date=November 2016}} During this period, the imperial government undertook great public works, including government offices, temples, roads, and irrigation systems. The [[Heian period]] (794 to 1185<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Heian-period|title=Heian period|last=|first=|date=December 16, 2010|website=|publisher=Encyclopaedia Brittanica|access-date=November 24, 2016}}</ref>) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans, and the beginning of [[Medieval Japan|Japanese feudalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sansom|first1=George Bailey|authorlink=George Bailey Sansom|title=A history of Japan to 1334|date=1958|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=9780804705233|pages=210–211|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t2c4t4yw21gC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA210}}</ref> The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional families ([[daimyō]]) and the military rule of warlords ([[shogun]]), stretched from 1185 to 1868. The emperor remained, but mostly as a figurehead, and the power of merchants was weak. Postclassical [[History of Korea|Korea]] saw the end of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] era, the three kingdoms being [[Goguryeo]], [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]]. Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Three Kingdoms, Korea|editor1-last=Ackerman|editor1-first=Marsha E.|editor2-last=Schroeder|editor2-first=Michael J.|editor3-last=Terry|editor3-first=Janice J.|editor4-last=Upshur|editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo|editor5-last=Whitters|editor5-first=Mark F.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of world history|date=2008|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4|page=464|display-editors=1}}</ref> marking the beginning of the ''[[North–South States Period]]'' (남북국시대), with [[Later Silla|Unified Silla]] in the south and [[Balhae]], a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1075074&cid=40942&categoryId=33373|title=남북국시대 (North-South States Period)|last=|first=|date=|website=Encyclopedia|publisher=Naver|access-date=November 24, 2016}}</ref> In 892 CE, this arrangement reverted to the [[Later Three Kingdoms]], with Goguryeo (then called [[Taebong]] and eventually named [[Goryeo]]) emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936.<ref name="kta p113">{{cite book|author=The Association of Korean History Teachers|title=Korea through the ages; Volume One: Ancient|date=2005|publisher=The Center for Information on Korean Culture, The Academy of Korean Studies|location=Seongnam-si|isbn=978-8971055458|page=113}}</ref> The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the [[Joseon Dynasty]], which ruled for approximately 500 years. ===Central Asia=== Starting with the [[Sui Dynasty]] (581-618), the Chinese began expansion into eastern Central Asia, and had to deal with [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia.<ref name="ebrey 2006 113">{{Harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=113}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Xue|1992|pp=149–152, 257–264}}</ref> Originally the relationship was largely cooperative, but in 630 the [[Tang dynasty]] began an offensive against the Turks,<ref>{{Harvnb|Xue|1992|pp=226–227}}</ref> capturing areas of the Mongolian Ordos Desert. The Tang Empire competed with the [[Tibetan Empire]] for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia.<ref name="whitfield 2004 193">{{Harvnb|Whitfield|2004|p=193}}</ref> In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} The desert nomads of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] could militarily match the nomads of the steppe, and the early [[Caliphate|Arab Empire]] gained control over parts of Central Asia. The [[Hephthalite Empire|Hephthalites]] were the most powerful of the nomad groups in the 6th and 7th centuries, and controlled much of the region.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations, AD 250 to 750|last=|first=|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|year=1996|isbn=9231028464|location=|pages=135–163|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpe0000west|last=West|first=Barbara A.|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=1438119135|location=|pages=274–277|quote=|via=}}</ref> In the 9th through 13th centuries the region was divided between several powerful states including the [[Samanid Empire|Samanid dynasty]],<ref name=":7" /> the [[Seljuq dynasty]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Empire of the Steppes|last=Grousset|first=Rene|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=1991|isbn=|location=|pages=161, 164|quote=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jami' al-Tawarikh: An Ilkahnid Adaptation of the [[Saljuq-nama]] of Zahir al-Din Nishapuri|last=Nishapuri|first=Zahir al-Din|publisher=C. E. Bosworth|year=2001|isbn=|editor-last=Luther|editor-first=K. A.|location=Richmond, UK|pages=9|quote=[T]he Turks were illiterate and uncultivated when they arrived in Khurasan and had to depend on Iranian scribes, poets, jurists and theologians to man the institution of the Empire.|via=}}</ref> and the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarezmid Empire]]. The most spectacular power to rise out of Central Asia developed when [[Genghis Khan]] united the tribes of Mongolia. The [[Mongol Empire]] spread to comprise all of Central Asia and China as well as large parts of Russia, and the Middle East. After Genghis Khan died in 1227,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy|url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanhisli0000paul|last=Ratchnevsky|first=Paul|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1991|isbn=0-631-16785-4|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanhisli0000paul/page/142 142]|quote=It is possible, however, to say with certainty that Genghis Khan died in August 1227; only in specifying the actual day of his death do our sources disagree.|via=}}</ref> most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by the successor [[Chagatai Khanate]]. In 1369, [[Timur]], a Turkic leader in the Mongol military tradition, conquered most of the region. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, however. The region then became divided among a series of smaller Khanates, including the [[Khanate of Khiva]], the [[Khanate of Bukhara]], the [[Khanate of Kokand]], and the [[Khanate of Kashgar]]. [[File:Angkor wat temple.jpg|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]] [[temple]], [[Cambodia]], early 12th century]] ===Southeast Asia=== The beginning of the Middle Ages in [[Southeast Asia]] saw the fall (550 CE) of the [[Funan (Southeast Asia)|Kingdom of Funan]] to the [[Chenla|Chenla Empire]], which was then replaced by the [[Khmer Empire]] (802 CE). The Khmer's capital city [[Angkor]] was the largest city in the world prior to the industrial age and contained over a thousand temples, the most famous being [[Angkor Wat]]. The [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] (1238 CE) and [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] (1351 CE) kingdoms were major powers of the [[Thai people]], who were influenced by the Khmer. Starting in the 9th century, the [[Pagan Kingdom]] rose to prominence in modern [[Myanmar]]. Other notable kingdoms of the period include the [[Srivijaya|Srivijayan Empire]] and the [[Lavo Kingdom]] (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), the [[Champa]] and the [[Hariphunchai]] (both about 750), the [[Dai Viet]] (968), [[Lan Na]] (13th century), [[Majapahit]] (1293), [[Lan Xang]] (1354), and the [[Kingdom of Ava]] (1364). It was also during this period that [[Islam]] spread to present-day [[Indonesia]] (beginning in the 13th century), and the [[Malay states]] began to emerge. ===Oceania=== The [[Tuʻi Tonga Empire]] was founded in the 10th century CE and expanded between 1200 and 1500. Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout Eastern Melanesia, Micronesia and Central Polynesia during this period,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sand|editor1-last=Addison|editor1-first=David J|editor2-last=Sand|editor2-first=Christophe|title=Recent advances in the archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia region|date=2008|publisher=Dept. of Anthropology, Gender and Sociology, University of Otago|location=Dunedin, N.Z.|isbn=978-0-473-14586-6|url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/Alumni/addison/publications/Sand_Addison_2008.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918031030/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/Alumni/addison/publications/Sand_Addison_2008.pdf|archivedate=18 September 2009|series=University of Otago Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology|volume=21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kirch|first1=Patrick Vinton|last2=Green|first2=Roger C.|title=Hawaiki, ancestral Polynesia: an essay in historical anthropology|date=2001|publisher=Cambridge University press|isbn=9780521788793|page=87|url=https://books.google.com/?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC&lpg=PA87&pg=PA87}}</ref> influencing East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, as well as specific islands / parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei, miscellaneous outliers), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia (specifically, the [[Loyalty Islands]], with the main island being predominantly populated by the Melanesian [[Kanak people]] and their cultures).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Geraghty|first1=Paul|chapter=Linguistic evidence for the Tongan empire|editor1-last=Dutton|editor1-first=Tom|title=Language contact and change in the Austronesian world|date=1994|publisher=Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=9783110127867|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xOlI8czLshIC&pg=PA233|series=Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs|volume=77|pages=236–39}}</ref> At around the same time, a powerful [[thalassocracy]] appeared in Eastern Polynesia centred around the [[Society Islands]], specifically on the sacred [[Taputapuatea marae]], which drew in Eastern Polynesian colonists from places as far away as Hawai'i, New Zealand ([[Aotearoa]]), and the Tuamotu Islands for political, spiritual and economic reasons, until the unexplained collapse of regular long-distance voyaging in the Eastern Pacific a few centuries before Europeans began exploring the area. Indigenous written records from this period are virtually non-existent, as it seems that all Pacific Islanders, with the possible exception of the enigmatic [[Rapa Nui people|Rapa Nui]] and their currently undecipherable [[Rongorongo]] script, had no writing systems of any kind until after their introduction by European colonists; however, some indigenous prehistories can be estimated and academically reconstructed through careful, judicious analysis of native oral traditions, colonial ethnography, archaeology, physical anthropology and linguistics research. [[File:80 - Machu Picchu - Juin 2009 - edit.jpg|thumbnail|[[Machu Picchu]]—leading icon of [[Inca]] [[civilization]]]] ===The Americas=== In North America, this period saw the rise of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the modern [[United States]] c. 800 CE, marked by the extensive 12th-century urban complex at [[Cahokia]]. The [[Ancestral Puebloans]] and their predecessors (9th - 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.<ref name="Strutin_1994_6">{{harvnb|Strutin|1994|p=6}}</ref><ref name="Fagan_2005_35">{{harvnb|Fagan|2005|p=35}}</ref> In [[Mesoamerica]], the [[Teotihuacan]] civilization fell and the [[Classic Maya collapse]] occurred. The [[Aztec]] came to dominate much of [[Mesoamerica]] in the 14th and 15th centuries. In [[South America]], the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the [[Inca]]. The [[Inca Empire]] of Tawantinsuyu, with its capital at [[Cusco]], spanned the entire [[Andes]] [[Mountain range|Mountain Range]], making it the most extensive Pre-Columbian civilization.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Clayton|first1=Dave|title=A History of the Inca Empire|url=http://trailingincas.info/|website=Trailing Incas|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827052828/http://trailingincas.info/|archivedate=27 August 2008}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103759/http://www.timespacemap.com/search/eventsearch.htm?_what=%22inca+empire%22&_maptype=1 Map and Timeline] of Inca events</ref> The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent [[Inca road system|road system]] and unrivaled [[masonry]]. ==Modern history== {{main article|Modern history}} [[Modern history]] (the "modern period," the "modern era," "modern times") is history of the period following the Middle Ages. "[[Contemporary history]]" is history that only covers events from c. 1900 to the present day. ===Early modern period=== {{Main article|Early modern period}} "[[Early modern period]]"<ref>"Early Modern," historically speaking, refers to [[Western Europe]]an history from 1501 (after the widely accepted end of the [[Late Middle Ages]]; the transition period was the 15th century) to either 1750 or c. 1790–1800, by which ever [[Epoch (reference date)|epoch]] is favored by a school of scholars defining the period—which, in many cases of [[periodization]], differs as well within a discipline such as art, philosophy or history.</ref> is a term used by historians to refer to the period between the [[Middle Ages]] ([[Post-classical history]]) and the [[Industrial Revolution]]&nbsp;– roughly 1500 to 1800. The Early Modern period is characterized by the rise of [[science]], and by increasingly rapid [[History of technology|technological progress]], [[Secularization|secular]]ized civic [[politics]], and the [[nation state]]. [[capitalist economy|Capitalist economies]] began their rise, initially in northern [[Italy|Italian]] [[republic]]s such as [[Genoa]]. The Early Modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the [[mercantilism|mercantilist]] economic theory. As such, the Early Modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of [[feudalism]], serfdom and the power of the [[Catholic Church]]. The period includes the [[Protestant Reformation]], the disastrous [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[Age of Discovery]], European [[Colonialism|colonial expansion]], the peak of European [[witch-hunt]]ing, the [[Scientific revolution]],<ref name="Sedgwick1917">{{cite book|last1=Sedgwick|first1=W. T.|last2=Tyler|first2=H. W.|date=1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdsEAAAAYAAJ|title=A short history of science|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> and the [[Age of Enlightenment]].<ref>The Age of Enlightenment has also been referred to as the [[Age of Reason]]. Historians also include the late 17th century, which is typically known as the Age of Reason or [[Age of Rationalism]], as part of the Enlightenment; however, contemporary historians have considered the Age of Reason distinct to the ideas developed in the Enlightenment. The use of the term here includes both Ages under a single all-inclusive time-frame.</ref> ====Renaissance==== {{main article|Renaissance}} [[Europe]]'s [[Renaissance]], beginning in the 14th century,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Americana: A Universal Reference Library|url=https://archive.org/details/americanaaunive03rinegoog|date=1911|editor1-last=Beach|editor1-first=Frederick Converse|editor2-last=Rimes|editor2-first=George Edwin|location=New York|publisher=Scientific American Compiling Department|page=539|quote=The European Renaissance which flourished from the 14th to the 16th century}}</ref> consisted of the rediscovery of the [[classical antiquity|classical]] world's scientific contributions, and of the [[Economy|economic]] and social rise of Europe. The Renaissance also engendered a culture of [[curiosity|inquisitiveness]] which ultimately led to [[Humanism]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Briffault|first=R.|date=1919|title=The making of humanity|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924029765819|location=London|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|quote=[...] humanism of the Renaissance [...]}}</ref> and the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>The freethinker. (1881). London: G.W. Foote. Page 394 (cf. [...] scientific revolution began with the Italian Renaissance about 1500 [...])</ref> Although it saw social and political upheaval and revolutions in many [[intellectual]] pursuits, the Renaissance is perhaps known best for its [[art]]istic developments and the contributions of such [[polymath]]s as [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo]], who inspired the term "[[Polymath|Renaissance man]]."<ref>{{cite web|title=Leonardo da Vinci|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/|website=BBC Science & Nature}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Michelangelo|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/michelangelo.shtml|website=BBC History}}</ref> ====European expansion==== {{Further information|History of Europe|Age of Discovery|Colonialism|16th century|17th century}} [[File:OrteliusWorldMap.jpeg|thumb|World map by [[Abraham Ortelius]], 1570, incorporating new discoveries by Europeans]] [[File:Gutenburg bible.jpg|thumb|[[movable type|Movable-type]] [[printing press]] arose in mid-15th century. 50 years later, nine million books were in print.]] During this period, European powers came to dominate most of the world. Although the most developed regions of European classical civilization were more urbanized than any other region of the world, European civilization had undergone a lengthy period of gradual decline and collapse. During the Early Modern Period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes. This success of Europe in this period stands in contrast to that of other regions. For example, one of the most advanced civilizations of the Middle Ages was China. It had developed an advanced [[monetary economy]] by 1,000 CE. China had a free [[peasant]]ry who were no longer subsistence farmers, and could sell their produce and actively participate in the market. According to [[Adam Smith]], writing in the 18th century, China had long been one of the richest, most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, most urbanized, and most prosperous countries in the world.<ref name = "Adam">"[[The Wealth of Nations]]", [[Adam Smith]], 1776</ref> It enjoyed a technological advantage and had a monopoly in [[cast iron]] production, piston bellows, [[suspension bridge]] construction, [[printing]], and the [[compass]]. However, it seemed to have long since stopped progressing. Marco Polo, who visited China in the 13th century, describes its cultivation, industry, and populousness, almost in the same terms as travellers in the 18th century describe them.<ref name = "Adam"/> One theory of Europe's rise holds that Europe's [[geography]] played an important role in its success. The [[Middle East]], [[India]] and [[China]] are all ringed by [[mountain]]s and [[ocean]]s but, once past these outer barriers, are nearly flat. By contrast, the [[Pyrenees]], [[Alps]], [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]], [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] and other mountain ranges run through Europe, and the continent is also divided by several [[sea]]s. This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of [[Central Asia]]n invaders. Before the era of firearms, these nomads were militarily superior to the agricultural states on the periphery of the [[Eurasia]]n continent and, as they broke out into the plains of northern India or the valleys of China, were all but unstoppable. These invasions were often devastating. The [[Islamic Golden Age|Golden Age of Islam]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kraemer|first1=Joel L.|title=Humanism in the renaissance of Islam: the cultural revival during the Buyid Age|date=1986|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=90-04-07259-4|pages=1 & 148}}</ref> was ended by the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol]] [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] in 1258. India and China were subject to periodic [[invasion]]s, and [[Russia]] spent a couple of centuries under the [[Tatar invasions|Mongol-Tatar]] yoke. [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[western Europe]], logistically more distant from the [[Central Asia]]n heartland, proved less vulnerable to these threats. Geography contributed to important [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] differences. For most of their histories, China, India, and the Middle East were each unified under a single dominant power that expanded until it reached the surrounding mountains and deserts. In 1600 the [[Ottoman Empire]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Imber|first1=Colin|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: the structure of power|url=https://archive.org/details/ottomanempire1300000imbe|date=2002|publisher=Palgrave|location=New York|isbn=0-333-61386-4}}</ref> controlled almost all the Middle East, the [[Ming dynasty]] ruled China,<ref name="ebrey 2006">{{Harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|title=The Cambridge illustrated history of China|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00ebre_0|date=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-66991-X}}</ref> and the [[Mughal Empire]] held sway over India. By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states. Pan-European empires, with the notable exception of the [[Roman Empire]], tended to collapse soon after they arose. Another doubtless important geographic factor in the rise of Europe was the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which, for millennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering the exchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions. Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their [[Natural environment|environments]]. Productivity remained low, and [[Climate|climatic]] changes easily instigated [[boom-and-bust]] [[Business cycle|cycles]] that brought about civilizations' rise and fall. By about 1500, however, there was a qualitative change in world history. [[Technology|Technological]] advance and the [[wealth]] generated by [[trade]] gradually brought about a widening of possibilities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grant|first=A. J.|date=1913|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJBCAAAAIAAJ|title=A history of Europe|location=London|publisher=Longmans, Green and Co.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lavisse|first=E. |date=1891 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHk4AAAAMAAJ |title=General view of the political history of Europe |location=New York |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Miller|editor1-first=Edward|editor2-last=Postan|editor2-first=Cynthia|editor3-last=Postan|editor3-first=M. M.|title=The Cambridge economic history of Europe: Volume 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages|date=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521087094|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Breasted |first1=J. H. |last2=Robinson |first2=J. H. |date=1920 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFsAAAAAYAAJ |title=History of Europe, ancient and medieval: Earliest man, the Orient, Greece and Rome |location=Boston |publisher=Ginn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Thatcher |first1=O. J |last2=Schwill |first2=F. |last3=Hassall |first3=A. |date=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORAMAAAAYAAJ |title=A general history of Europe, 350–1900 |location=London |publisher=Murray}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nida| first=W. L. |date=1913 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLcXAAAAIAAJ |title=The dawn of American history in Europe |location=New York |publisher=Macmillian}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Robinson |first1=J. H. |last2=Breasted |first2=J. H. |last3=Smith |first3=E. P. |date=1921 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wl0AAAAAYAAJ |title=A general history of Europe, from the origins of civilization to the present time| location=Boston |publisher=Ginn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Goodrich |first=S. G. |date=1840 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETMFAAAAYAAJ |title=The second book of history, combined with geography; containing the modern history of Europe, Asia, and Africa| location=Boston |publisher=Hickling, Swan and Brewer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Turner |first=E. R. |date=1921 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNoLAAAAYAAJ |title=Europe since 1870|location=Garden City, N.Y.|publisher=Doubleday}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Weir |first=A. |date=1886 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tLkfAAAAMAAJ |title=The historical basis of modern Europe (1760–1815): an introductory study to the general history of Europe in the nineteenth century| location=London |publisher=S. Sonnenschein, Lowrey}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Hallam |first=H. |date=1837 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ixjAAAAMAAJ |title=View of the state of Europe during the middle ages|location=London|publisher=J. Murray}}</ref> Many have also argued that Europe's institutions allowed it to expand,<ref>{{cite book|last=Russell |first=William | date=1810| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5a28RAi25AC | title=The history of modern Europe, particularly France, England, and Scotland with a view of the progress of society, from the rise of those kingdoms, to the late revolutions on the continent| location=Hanover, N.H.| publisher=Charles and Wm. S. Spear}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ogg |first1=F. A. |last2=Sharp |first2=W. R. |date=1926 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=McA9AAAAIAAJ |title=Economic development of modern Europe |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> that [[property right]]s and [[free market|free-market]] economics were stronger than elsewhere due to an ideal of [[Political freedom|freedom]] peculiar to Europe. In recent years, however, scholars such as [[Kenneth Pomeranz]] have challenged this view. Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly&nbsp;— given the continent's geography&nbsp;— was largely the work of its Atlantic states: [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[England]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]]. Initially the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire]]s were the predominant conquerors and sources of influence, and their union resulted in the [[Iberian Union]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hart|first1=Jonathan|title=Empires and colonies|date=2008|publisher=Polity|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780745626130|page=54|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LnevC1FYdnEC&pg=PA54}}</ref> the first [[global empire]] on which the "[[The empire on which the sun never sets|sun never set]]". Soon the more northern [[England|English]], [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] began to dominate the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]. In a series of wars fought in the 17th and 18th centuries, culminating with the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Britain emerged as the new world power. ====Regional developments==== [[Persia]] came under the rule of the [[Safavid Empire]] in 1501, succeeded by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afsharid Empire]] in 1736, and the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Empire]] in 1796. Areas to the north and east were held by [[Uzbeks]] and [[Pashtuns]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]], after taking [[Constantinople]] in 1453, quickly gained control of the [[Middle East]], the [[Balkans]], and most of [[North Africa]]. In [[History of Africa|Africa]], this period saw a decline in many civilizations and an advancement in others. The [[History of Africa#Swahili Coast|Swahili Coast]] declined after coming under Portuguese (and later [[History of Oman|Omani]]) control. In west Africa, the [[Songhai Empire]] fell to the Moroccans in 1591 when they invaded with guns. The South African [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] gave way to smaller kingdoms such as [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Mutapa]], [[Kingdom of Butua|Butua]], and [[Rozwi Empire|Rozwi]]. [[Ethiopia]] suffered from the 1531 invasion from neighbouring Muslim [[Adal Sultanate]], and in 1769 entered the [[Zemene Mesafint]] (Age of Princes) during which the Emperor became a figurehead and the country was ruled by warlords, though the royal line later would recover under Emperor [[Tewodros II]]. The [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran Empire]], in the [[Horn of Africa]], began to decline in the 17th century, succeeded by the [[Sultanate of the Geledi|Geledi Sultanate]]. Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period. The [[Oyo Empire]] experienced its golden age, as did the [[Benin Empire]]. The [[Ashanti Empire]] rose to power in what is modern day [[Ghana]] in 1670. The [[Kingdom of Kongo]] also thrived during this period. European [[exploration of Africa]] reached its zenith at this time. In the Far East, the [[History of China|Chinese]] [[Ming Dynasty]] gave way (1644) to the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]], the last Chinese imperial dynasty, which would rule until 1912. [[History of Japan|Japan]] experienced its [[Azuchi–Momoyama period]] (1568 – 1603), followed by the [[Edo period]] (1603-1868). The [[History of Korea|Korean]] [[Joseon Dynasty]] (1392-1910) ruled throughout this period, successfully repelling 16th- and 17th-century invasions from Japan and China. Japan and China were significantly affected during this period by expanded maritime trade with Europe, particularly the Portuguese in Japan. During the Edo period, Japan would pursue isolationist policies, to eliminate foreign influences. On the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the [[Deccan sultanates]] would give way, beginning in the 16th century, to the [[Mughal Empire]]. Starting in the northwest, the Mughal Empire would by the late 17th century come to rule the entire subcontinent,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lal|first1=Vinay|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html|title=The Mughal Empire|work=Manas: India and its Neighbors|publisher=University of California, Los Angeles|date=2001|accessdate=12 April 2015}}</ref> except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which would remain independent. Against the Muslim Mughal Empire, the Hindu [[Maratha Empire]] was founded on the west coast in 1674, gradually gaining territory – a majority of present-day India—from the Mughals over several decades, particularly in the [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]] (1681-1701). The Maratha Empire would fall to the British in 1818, under the control of the British [[East India Company]], with all former Maratha and Mughal authority devolving to the [[British Raj]] in 1858. In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the [[Malacca Sultanate]] in present-day [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]n [[Sumatra]]. The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641. The [[Johor Sultanate]], centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region. [[Western imperialism in Asia|European colonization]] would affect the whole of Southeast Asia – the British in [[History of Myanmar|Myanmar]] and [[History of Malaysia|Malaysia]], the French in [[Indochina]], the Dutch in the [[Dutch East Indies|Netherlands East Indies]], and the Spanish in the [[History of the Philippines|Philippines]]. Only [[History of Thailand|Thailand]] would successfully resist colonization. The Pacific islands of [[History of Oceania|Oceania]] would also be affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigational voyage of [[Ferdinand Magellan]], who landed on the [[Mariana Islands|Marianas]] and other islands in 1521. Also notable were the voyages (1642–44) of [[Abel Tasman]] to present-day [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and nearby islands, and the voyages (1768-1779) of Captain [[James Cook]], who made the first recorded European contact with [[History of Hawaii|Hawaii]]. Britain would found its first colony on Australia in 1788. In the [[History of the Americas|Americas]], the [[European colonization of the Americas|western European powers]] vigorously colonized the newly discovered continents, largely displacing the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous populations]], and destroying the advanced civilizations of the [[Aztec]]s and the [[Inca]]. Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, including the importation of large numbers of African [[Slavery in the Americas|slaves]]. Portugal claimed [[History of Brazil|Brazil]]. Spain claimed the rest of [[History of South America|South America]], [[Mesoamerica]], and southern [[History of North America|North America]]. Britain colonized the east coast of North America, and France colonized the central region of North America. Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day [[History of Alaska|Alaska]] in 1784,<ref name="Black2004,p.102">{{harvnb|Black|2004|p=102}}</ref> and the outpost of [[Fort Ross, California|Fort Ross]] in present-day [[History of California|California]] in 1812.<ref name="Black2004,p.181">{{harvnb|Black|2004|p=181}}</ref> In 1762, in the midst of the [[Seven Years' War]], France secretly ceded most of its North American claims to Spain in the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)|Treaty of Fontainebleau]]. Thirteen of the British colonies declared independence as the [[History of the United States|United States of America]] in 1776, ratified by the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, ending the [[American Revolutionary War]]. [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]] won France’s claims back from Spain in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in 1800, but sold them to the United States in 1803 as the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. In [[History of Russia|Russia]], [[Ivan the Terrible]] was crowned (1547) the first [[Tsar]] of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic Khanates in the east, transformed Russia into a regional power. The countries of western Europe, while expanding prodigiously through technological advancement and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically and militarily in a state of almost constant [[List of wars 1500–1799|war]]. Often the wars had a [[European wars of religion|religious dimension]], either Catholic versus Protestant, or (primarily in eastern Europe) Christian versus Muslim. Wars of particular note include the [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], the [[Seven Years' War]], and the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]. Napoleon came to power in France in 1799, an event foreshadowing the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century. ===Late Modern period=== ====1750–1914==== {{Main article|18th century|19th century|Long nineteenth century}} {{further information|Age of Imperialism|Age of Revolution|Diplomatic Revolution|Industrial Revolution}} [[File:Declaration of Independence (1819), by John Trumbull.jpg|thumb|alt=Founding Fathers listen to the draft of the Declaration of Independence|[[John Trumbull]]'s ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'', showing the [[Committee of Five]] presenting its work to Congress.]] The [[Scientific Revolution]] changed humanity's understanding of the world and led to the [[Industrial Revolution]], a major transformation of the world's economies.<ref name="Sedgwick1917" /><ref name="beard1902">{{cite book|last=Beard |first=C. |date=1902 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnJMAAAAIAAJ |title=The industrial revolution|publisher=S. Sonnenschein}}</ref> The [[Scientific Revolution]] in the 17th century had made little immediate impact on industrial [[technology]]; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances begin to be applied significantly to practical [[invention]]. The Industrial Revolution began in [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]] and used new modes of production&nbsp;— the [[factory]], [[mass production]], and [[mechanization]]&nbsp;— to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously. The Age of Enlightenment also led to the beginnings of modern [[democracy]] in the late-18th century [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s. [[Democracy]] and [[republicanism]] would grow to have a profound effect on world events and on [[quality of life]]. After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, the [[Imperialism|imperial]] activities turned to the lands of the Asia and Oceania.<ref>{{cite book| last=Grosvenor |first=E. A. |date=1899 |title=Contemporary history of the world, Partition of Africa, Asia, and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DVQPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA141|location=New York and Boston|publisher=T.Y. Crowell}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Imperialism|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook34.html|website=Internet Modern History Sourcebook|publisher=Fordham University|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-date=2010-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109120927/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook34.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the 19th century the European states had social and technological advantage over Eastern lands.<ref name="Robinson1914" /> Britain gained control of the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Egypt]] and the [[Peninsular Malaysia|Malay Peninsula]];<ref name="McIntyre1977">{{cite book|last1=McIntyre|first1=W. David|title=The Commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971|url=https://archive.org/details/commonwealthofna0000mcin|date=1977|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0816607921}}</ref> the [[Cochinchina Campaign|French took Indochina]]; while the Dutch cemented their control over the [[Dutch East Indies]]. The British also colonized [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.<ref name="McIntyre1977" /> Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia.<ref>Russia., Crawford, J. M., & World's Columbian Exposition. (1893). [https://books.google.com/books?id=eulxAAAAIAAJ Siberia and the Great Siberian Railway: With a general map]. Industries of Russia, v. 5. St. Petersburg: The Department</ref><ref>Korff, S. A. (1921). Russia in the Far East. Washington: The Endowment.</ref> In the late 19th century, the European powers [[Scramble for Africa|divided the remaining areas of Africa]]. Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of [[nation state]]s, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive [[nation]]s with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy. This [[nationalism]] would become important to peoples across the world in the 20th century.[[File:WorldEmpires.png|thumb|World empires, 1900]] During the Second Industrial Revolution, the world economy became reliant on [[coal]] as a fuel, as new methods of [[transport]], such as [[railways]] and [[steamship]]s, effectively shrank the world.<ref name="beard1902" /> Meanwhile, industrial [[pollution]] and [[Natural environment|environmental]] damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically. The advantages that Europe had developed by the mid-18th century were two: an [[Entrepreneurship|entrepreneurial]] culture,<ref name="Robinson1914">{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=J. H. |last2=Breasted |first2=J. H. |last3=Beard |first3=C. A. |date=1914 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0AiAAAAMAAJ |title=Outlines of European history |location=Boston |publisher=Ginn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Neal|title=John Locke and agrarian capitalism|date=1984|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520050464|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2KIpqQ9QHBkC&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> and the wealth generated by the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] trade<ref name="Robinson1914"/> (including the [[African slave trade]]). By the late 16th century, [[silver]] from the Americas accounted for the Spanish empire's wealth.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walton|first1=Timothy R.|title=The Spanish treasure fleets|url=https://archive.org/details/spanishtreasuref0000walt|date=1994|publisher=Pineapple Press|location=Sarasota, Fla.|isbn=9781561640492}}</ref> The profits of the [[slave trade]] and of [[West Indies|West Indian]] plantations amounted to 5% of the [[Economic history of the United Kingdom|British economy]] at the time of the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mintz |first1=S. |last2=McNeil |first2=S. |title=Was slavery the engine of economic growth? |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=104 |website=Digital History |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226000000/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm |archivedate=26 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> While some historians conclude that, in 1750, [[Workforce productivity|labour productivity]] in the most developed regions of China was still on a par with that of Europe's Atlantic economy (see the NBER Publications by Carol H. Shiue and Wolfgang Keller<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060528213159/http://www.nber.org/cgi-bin/author_papers.pl?author=carol_shiue Wolfgang Keller and Carol Shiue], nber.org.</ref>), other historians like [[Angus Maddison]] hold that the per-capita productivity of [[western Europe]] had by the late [[Middle Ages]] surpassed that of all other regions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/ |title=Homepage of Angus Maddison |publisher=Ggdc.net |accessdate=18 April 2009 |archive-date=28 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728181613/http://www.ggdc.net/Maddison/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ====1914–1945==== {{Main article|20th century}} {{further information|Interwar period|Roaring Twenties|Great Depression}} [[File:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg|thumb|[[World War I]] static [[trench warfare]], western Europe]] [[File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|thumb|History's only use of [[nuclear weapon]]s in war—[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], 1945]] The 20th century<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.20th-century.net |title=The 20th Century Research Project |publisher=20th-century.net |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/Slouch_Old.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206080625/http://econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/Slouch_Old.html|archivedate=6 February 2012 |title=Slouching Towards Utopia: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century |publisher=Econ161.berkeley.edu |date=1 March 2000 |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> opened with [[Europe]] at an apex of wealth and power, and with much of the world under its direct [[Colonialism|colonial]] control or its indirect domination.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Etemad|first1=Bouda|title=Possessing the world: taking the measurements of colonisation from the eighteenth to the twentieth century|url=https://archive.org/details/possessingworldt0006etem|date=2007|publisher=Berghahn Books|location=New York|isbn=9781845453381|translator-first=Andrene |translator-last=Everson}}</ref> Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the [[United States]] and [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wells |first=H. G. |authorlink=H. G. Wells |date=1922 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGgMAAAAIAAJ |title=The Outline of History: Being A Plain History of Life and Mankind |location=New York |publisher=The Review of Reviews |page=1200}}</ref> As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, and ultimately seemed to yield to a more fluid structure of independent nations organized on Western models. This transformation was [[catalysis|catalysed]] by [[war]]s of unparalleled scope and devastation. [[World War I]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Herrmann|first1=David G.|title=The arming of Europe and the making of the First World War|url=https://archive.org/details/armingofeuropema0000herr|date=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691033749}}</ref> destroyed many of Europe's empires and monarchies, and weakened [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and [[France]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/ |title=A multimedia history of World War I |publisher=Firstworldwar.com |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> In its aftermath, powerful ideologies arose. The [[Russian Revolution]]<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bunyan |editor1-first=James |editor2-first=Harold Henry |editor2-last=Fisher |title=The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1918: Documents and Materials |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dTGsAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover | publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1961 |isbn=9780804703444 |orig-year=first published 1934}}</ref><ref>[[John Reed (journalist)|Reed, John]]. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/reed/1919/10days/10days/index.htm Ten Days that Shook the World]. 1919, 1st Edition, published by BONI & Liveright, Inc. for International Publishers. Transcribed and marked by David Walters for [http://www.marxists.org/archive/reed/works/index.htm John Reed Internet Archive]. Penguin Books; 1st edition. 1 June 1980. ISBN 0-14-018293-4. Retrieved 14 May 2005. {{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/reed/1919/10days/10days/index.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-02-09 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516062956/http://www.marxists.org/archive/reed/1919/10days/10days/index.htm |archivedate=16 May 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky, Leon]]. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1930-hrr/index.htm The History of the Russian Revolution]. Translated by Max Eastman, 1932. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 8083994. ISBN 0-913460-83-4. Transcribed for the World Wide Web by John Gowland (Australia), Alphanos Pangas (Greece) and David Walters (United States). Pathfinder Press edition. 1 June 1980. ISBN 0-87348-829-6. Retrieved 14 May 2005. {{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1930-hrr/index.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-02-09 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205021833/http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1930-hrr/index.htm |archivedate=5 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> of 1917 created the first [[communism|communist]] state, while the 1920s and 1930s saw [[militarism|militaristic]] [[fascism|fascist]] dictatorships gain control in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]] and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=W. S. |last2=Anderson |first2=W. |last3=Tyler |first3=M. W. |date=1918 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOtGAAAAIAAJ |title=The roots of the war; a non-technical history of Europe, 1870–1914, AD |location=New York |publisher=Century}}</ref> Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the [[Great Depression]], helped precipitate [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web|first=C. Peter |last=Chen |url=http://www.ww2db.com/ |title=World War II Database |publisher=Ww2db.com |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=226140 |title=World War II Encyclopedia by the History Channel |publisher=History.com |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref> The [[Militarism|militaristic]] [[dictatorship]]s of [[Europe]] and [[Japan]] pursued an ultimately doomed course of [[Imperialism|imperialist]] [[expansionism]]. Their defeat opened the way for the advance of [[Socialism]] and Communism into [[Central Europe]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Albania]], [[China]], [[North Vietnam]] and [[North Korea]]. ====1945–2000==== {{Main article|20th century}} {{further information|Cold War|Green Revolution|Space exploration|Digital Revolution}} After [[World War II]] ended in 1945, the [[United Nations]] was founded in the hope of allaying conflicts among nations and preventing future wars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fasulo|first1=Linda|title=An insider's guide to the UN|date=2004|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Conn.|isbn=0-300-10155-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meisler|first1=Stanley|title=United Nations: the first fifty years|url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_z7w4|date=1995|publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Press|location=New York|isbn=0-87113-656-2}}</ref> The [[Soviet Union]], the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Republic of China (1912–49)|China]] were recognized as the Allied "[[Four Policemen|Big Four]]" during the war and considered as the primary victors of World War II.<ref name = Justus>{{cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |accessdate=7 September 2009 |isbn=0-8476-9416-X }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Walter L.|last=Hixson|title=The American Experience in World War II: American diplomacy in the Second World War|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2003|isbn=9780415940368|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8pRqUV1ue4IC&pg=PA204|ref=refHixson|accessdate=12 February 2016}}</ref> With the addition of France, these five countries became the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent seats]] in the [[United Nations Security Council]]. The war had, however, left two nations, the [[United States]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Avery|first1=Samuel|title=The globalist papers|url=https://archive.org/details/globalistpapers0000samu|date=2004|publisher=Compari|location=Louisville, Ky.|isbn=0974197610}}</ref> and the [[Soviet Union]], with principal power to guide international affairs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|title=A People's History of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/?id=9-FtlblxbLgC&printsec=frontcover|date=2003|edition=5th|place=New York|publisher=HarperPerennial Modern Classics [2005 reprint]|isbn=0-06-083865-5}}</ref> Each was suspicious of the other and feared a global spread of the other's political-economic model. This led to the [[Cold War]], a forty-five-year stand-off between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies. With the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s<ref>{{cite web|title=Race for the Super Bomb|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/|website=American Experience|publisher=PBS}}</ref> and the subsequent [[arms race]], all of humanity were put at risk of [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] between the two superpowers.<ref>As irrefutably demonstrated by a number of incidents, most prominently the October 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]].</ref> Such war [[Global catastrophic risk|being viewed as impractical]], [[proxy war]]s were instead waged, at the expense of non-nuclear-armed [[Third World]] countries. The Cold War lasted to the 1990s, when the Soviet Union's communist system began to collapse, unable to compete economically with the United States and western Europe; the Soviets' [[Central Europe]]an "[[satellite state|satellites]]" reasserted their national sovereignty, and in 1991 the Soviet Union itself [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|disintegrated]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Archie|title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521231695}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gilbert|first1=Martin|title=The Routledge atlas of Russian history|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0415281199|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldman|first1=Minton F.|title=The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietuniongloba0000mint|date=1986|publisher=Dushkin|location=Guilford, Conn.|isbn=9780879675615}}</ref> The United States for the time being was left as the "sole remaining superpower".<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Shultz|editor1-first=Richard H.|editor2-last=Pfaltzgraff|editor2-first=Robert L.|editor3-last=Stock|editor3-first=W. Bradley|title=Special operations forces: roles and missions in the aftermath of the cold war|date=1996|publisher=Diane Pub Co|isbn=0788171402|page=59}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Caraley|editor1-first=Demetrios James|title=American hegemony: preventive war, Iraq, and imposing democracy|url=https://archive.org/details/americanhegemony00cara|date=2004|publisher=Academy of Political Science|location=New York|isbn=1884853048|page=viii}}</ref> After the 1970s, the United States' superpower status came into question as that country's economic supremacy began to show signs of slippage.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McCormick|first1=Thomas J.|title=America's half-century: United States foreign policy in the cold war and after|url=https://archive.org/details/americashalfcent0000mcco_m1h2|date=1995|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=0801850118|page=[https://archive.org/details/americashalfcent0000mcco_m1h2/page/155 155]}}</ref> In the early postwar decades, the [[Africa]]n and [[Asia]]n colonies of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French and other west European empires won their formal independence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chamberlain|first1=Muriel Evelyn|title=Decolonization : the fall of the European empires|url=https://archive.org/details/decolonizationfa0000cham|date=1999|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=9780631216025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Abernethy|first1=David B.|title=The dynamics of global dominance : European overseas empires, 1415-1980|url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicsofglobal0000aber|date=2000|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=9780300093148}}</ref> These nations faced challenges in the form of [[neocolonialism]], poverty, illiteracy and [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] [[tropical disease]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stern|first1=Nicholas|last2=Rogers|first2=F. Halsey|last3=Dethier|first3=Jean-Jacques|title=Growth and Empowerment: Making Development Happen|url=https://archive.org/details/growthempowermen00ster|date=2006|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Mass|series=Munich lectures in economics|isbn=9780262264747}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Weiss|first1=Thomas G.|title=UN voices: the struggle for development and social justice|date=2005|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=9780253217882|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5cxA4LwpKVoC&pg=PA3|series=United Nations intellectual history project|volume=6}}</ref> Many [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Central Europe]]an nations gradually formed a political and economic community, the [[European Union]], which expanded eastward to include former Soviet satellites.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dinan|first1=Desmond|title=Europe recast: a history of European Union|date=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-0-333-98734-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=McCormick|first=John|authorlink=John McCormick (political scientist)|title=Understanding the European Union: a concise introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingeu000mcco|date=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Houndmills|isbn=978-1-4039-4451-1|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Peterson|editor1-first=John|editor2-last=Shackleton|editor2-first=Michael|title=The institutions of the European Union|url=https://archive.org/details/institutionsofeu0000pete|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199574988|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rifkin|first1=Jeremy|title=The European dream: how Europe's vision of the future is quietly eclipsing the American dream|date=2004|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58542-345-3}}</ref> [[File:Apollo 17 Cernan on moon.jpg|thumb|Last [[Moon]] landing&nbsp;– [[Apollo 17]] (1972)]] The 20th century saw explosive progress in [[science]] and [[technology]], and increased [[life expectancy]] and [[standard of living]] for much of humanity. As the developed world shifted from a [[coal]]-based to a [[petroleum]]-based economy, new transport technologies, along with the dawn of the [[Information Age]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lallana |first1=Emmanuel C. |first2=Margaret N. |last2=Uy |title=[[b:The Information Age|The Information Age]]|publisher=UNDP-APDIP|date=2003}}</ref> led to increased [[globalization]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=von Braun |editor-first1=Joachim |editor-first2=Eugenio|editor-last2=Diaz-Bonilla |title=Globalization of Food and Agriculture and the Poor |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2007 |url=https://www.ifpri.org/publication/globalization-food-and-agriculture-and-poor |isbn=978-0-19-569528-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Friedman | first = Thomas L. | authorlink = Thomas Friedman | title = [[The World Is Flat]] | publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux | date = 2005 | location = New York | isbn = 0-374-29288-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Murray | first = Warwick E. | title = Geographies of Globalization | url = https://archive.org/details/geographiesofglo0000murr | publisher = Routledge/Taylor and Francis | date = 2006 | location = New York | isbn = 0-415-31799-1 }}</ref> [[Space exploration]] reached throughout the [[Solar System]]. The structure of [[DNA]], the template of [[life]], was discovered,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Clayton|editor1-first=Julie|editor2-last=Dennis|editor2-first=Carina|title=50 years of DNA|url=https://archive.org/details/50yearsofdna00clay|date=2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4039-1479-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Watson|first1=James D.|author1-link=James Watson |editor1-last=Stent|editor1-first=Gunther S.|title-link=The Double Helix|title=The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA|date=1980|publisher=W. W. Norton|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-95075-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Calladine|first1=Chris R.|last2=Drew|first2=Horace R.|last3=Luisi|first3=Ben F.|last4=Travers|first4=Andrew A.|title=Understanding DNA the molecule & how it works|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingdna0000call_h6a9|date=2008|publisher=Elsevier Academic Press|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-12-155089-9}}</ref> and the [[human genome]] was sequenced, a major milestone in the understanding of [[human biology]] and the treatment of [[disease]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genome.gov/ |title=The National Human Genome Research Institute |publisher=Genome.gov |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ensembl.org/ Ensembl] The [[Ensembl]] Genome Browser Project</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mapview |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/map_search.cgi?taxid=9606 |title=National Library of Medicine human genome viewer |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date=26 March 2008 |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://genome.ucsc.edu/ |title=UCSC Genome Browser |publisher=Genome.ucsc.edu |accessdate=18 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtml |title=Human Genome Project |publisher=Ornl.gov |date=26 March 2008 |accessdate=18 April 2009 |archive-date=2 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102065343/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Global [[literacy]] rates continued to rise, and the percentage of the world's [[Labour economics|labour]] pool needed to produce [[humankind]]'s [[food]] supply continued to drop. The technologies of sound recordings, motion pictures, and radio and television broadcasting produced a means for rapid dissemination of information and entertainment. In the last decade of the twentieth century, a rapid increase took place in the use of computers, including [[personal computer]]s. A global communication network emerged in the [[Internet]]. The century saw several global threats emerge or become more serious or more widely recognized, including [[nuclear proliferation]], [[global climate change]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mun|first1=Yuri|title=Earth Radiation Budget|url=http://marine.rutgers.edu/cool/education/class/yuri/erb.html|website=marine.rutgers.edu|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-date=2016-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603005248/http://marine.rutgers.edu/cool/education/class/yuri/erb.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wood |first=R.W. |date=1909 |title=Note on the Theory of the Greenhouse| journal=Philosophical Magazine| volume=17| pages=319–320| url=http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/wood_rw.1909.html | doi=10.1080/14786440208636602}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url =http://www.vox.com/2015/12/12/9894234/climate-change-explained |title = Why climate change is so important, in one chart |first1=Joss |last1=Fong |first2=Estelle |last2=Caswell |publisher =Vox.com |date = April 22, 2016 |accessdate = 28 April 2016}}</ref> [[deforestation]], [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]], deadly [[epidemic]]s of diseases such as [[Ebola virus]], [[Near-Earth object|near-Earth asteroids and comets]],<ref name = "BROWN02">{{cite news|url =https://www.sciencenews.org/archive/call-catastrophes?mode=magazine&context=4378&tgt=nr|title = The Call of Catastrophes|first = Richard | last = Monastersky|work = Science News Online|date = 1 March 1997|subscription=y|accessdate = 23 October 2007}}</ref> [[supervolcano]] eruptions, and the dwindling of global [[natural resource]]s (particularly [[fossil fuel]]s).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edwards|first1=Andres R.|title=The sustainability revolution: portrait of a paradigm shift|url=https://archive.org/details/sustainabilityre00edwa_0|date=2005|publisher=New Society Publishers|location=Gabriola, B.C.|isbn=1550923250|page=[https://archive.org/details/sustainabilityre00edwa_0/page/53 52]}}</ref> ===Contemporary history=== {{Main article|Contemporary history}} ====21st century==== [[File:Internet map 1024.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the [[Internet]], a source of [[information]] and [[communication]]]] {{Main article|21st century}} A man-made hazard to world survival that dominated concerns in the second half of the 20th century, continues into the 21st. Countries ambitious to develop and deploy [[nuclear weapons]] are discouraged from doing so by countries that already possess them. At the same time, nuclear-armed countries have shown little urgency about honoring their 20th-century pledge to eventually eliminate all nuclear weapons. Such weapons continue to be equally hazardous to their owners as to their potential targets.<ref>[[Eric Schlosser]], ''[[Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety]]'', [[Penguin Press]], 2013, ISBN 1594202273.</ref> The 21st century has been marked by growing [[economic globalization]] and integration, with consequent increased risk to interlinked economies, and by the expansion of communications with [[mobile phone]]s and the [[Internet]]. The rise of the [[personal computer]] and the the [[Worldwide Web]] has caused fundamental changes in multiple aspects of human society, in both business and personal spheres. The early 21st century saw escalating intra- and international strife in the [[Middle East]] and [[Afghanistan]], stimulated by vast economic disparities, by dissatisfaction with governments dominated by Western interests, by inter-ethnic and inter-sectarian feuds, and by the longest war in the history of the [[United States]], the proximate cause for which was [[Osama bin Laden]]'s provocative 2001 destruction of [[New York City]]'s [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]. U.S. military involvements in the Middle East and Afghanistan drained U.S. economic resources at a time when the U.S. and other Western countries were experiencing mounting socioeconomic dislocations aggravated by the [[robotization]] of work and the exportation of industries to cheaper-workforce countries. Worldwide [[demand]] and [[competition]] for [[Natural resource|resources]] has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China and [[Brazil]] (see [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita]]). This increased demand is causing increased levels of environmental degradation and a growing threat of [[global warming]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Energy and power: a Scientific American book|url=https://archive.org/details/energypower0000unse_a6n2|date=1971|publisher=W H Freeman|location=San Francisco|isbn=9780716709398|pages=vii–viii|chapter=Foreword}}</ref> That, and a need for reliable energy supplies independent of politically volatile regions, has spurred the development of alternate, [[renewable energy|renewable]] sources of [[energy]] (notably [[solar energy]] and [[Wind power|wind energy]]), proposals for cleaner [[fossil fuel|fossil-fuel]] technologies<ref>Critiqued in {{cite journal |first=David |last=Biello |title=The Carbon Capture Fallacy |journal=Scientific American |volume=314 |issue=1 |date=January 2016 |pages=58–65|pmid=26887197 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0116-58}}.</ref> and for expanded use of [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]] (somewhat dampened by [[Nuclear accidents#Nuclear power plant accidents|nuclear-plant accidents]]),<ref>{{cite book |first=M. King |last=Hubbert |authorlink=M. King Hubbert |chapter=The Energy Resources of the Earth |title=Energy and power: a Scientific American book|date=1971|publisher=W H Freeman|location=San Francisco|isbn=9780716709398|pages=31–40}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Global Trends In Sustainable Energy Investment 2008| url=http://sefi.unep.org/english/globaltrends |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221140323/http://sefi.unep.org/english/globaltrends|archive-date=21 December 2008| website=Sustainable Energy Finance Initiative|publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Home Page|url=http://www.nrel.gov/|website=National Renewable Energy Laboratory}}</ref> and, conversely, calls to eschew the indiscriminate large-scale employment of the "fissile-fossil complex" of fissile- (nuclear) and fossil-fuel (coal, petroleum, natural-gas) energy generation.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Christopher |last=Kasparek |title=A Futurological Note: [[Bolesław Prus|Prus]] on [[H. G. Wells]] and the Year 2000 |journal=[[The Polish Review]] |volume=XLVIII |issue=1 |date=2003 |pages=98–99|jstor=25779372}}</ref> ==See also== {{Human history and prehistory}} ===History topics=== {{div col|2}} * [[Economic history of the world]] * [[Civilization]] * [[Historical powers]] * [[Medieval demography]] * [[Historic recurrence]] * [[History of science]] * [[History of technology]] * [[Technological singularity]] * [[Historiography]] * [[Development criticism]] * [[Flood myth]] * [[List of millennia]] {{div col end}} ===History by period=== * [[List of archaeological periods]] * [[List of time periods]] ===History by region=== {{div col|3}} * [[History of Africa]] * [[History of Asia]] ** [[History of Central Asia]] ** [[History of East Asia]] ** [[History of South Asia]] ** [[History of Southeast Asia]] * [[History of Europe]] * [[History of the Middle East]] * [[History of Oceania]] ** [[History of Australia]] ** [[History of New Zealand]] ** [[History of the Pacific Islands]] * [[History of the Americas]] ** [[History of Central America]] *** [[History of the Maya civilization]] ** [[History of South America]] ** [[History of North America]] ** [[History of the Caribbean]] * [[History of Antarctica]] {{div col end}} {{clear}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|35em}} ==References== {{Spoken Wikipedia|History_of_the_world.ogg|2005-04-19}} {{refbegin|30em}} * [[Martin Rees]], interviewed by Erin Biba, "An Apocalypse Think Tank", ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 312, no. 6 (June 2015), p.&nbsp;26. * Williams, H. S. (1904). ''[[The Historians' History of the World]]''; a comprehensive narrative of the rise and development of nations as recorded by over two thousand of the great writers of all ages. New York: The Outlook Company; [etc.]. * Blainey, Geoffery (2000). ''[[A Short History of the World (Geoffrey Blainey)|A Short History Of The World]]''. Penguin Books, Victoria. ISBN 0-670-88036-1 * Gombrich, Ernst H. ''[[A Little History of the World]]''. Yale. UK and USA, 2005. * [[H. G. Wells]] (1920), ''[[The Outline of History]]'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=-64EAAAAYAAJ Volume One], New York, MacMillan. * [[Howard Spodek|H. Spodek]] (2001), ''[[The World's History]]: combined volume'', Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall. * G.W. Trompf, ''The Idea of [[Historic recurrence|Historical Recurrence]] in Western Thought, from Antiquity to the Reformation'', Berkeley, University of California Press, 1979, ISBN 0-520-03479-1. * G. Parker (1997), ''[[The Times Atlas of World History]]'', London, Times Books. * [[Paul Kennedy]], ''[[The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers]]: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000'', New York, [[Random House]], 1987, ISBN 0-394-54674-1 * ''The [[Biosphere]]'' (A ''[[Scientific American]]'' Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, ISBN 0-7167-0945-7. This seminal book, originally a 1970 ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine issue, covered virtually every major concern and concept that has since been debated regarding materials and [[energy resource]]s, [[population]] trends and [[environmental degradation]]. * David Biello, "The Carbon Capture Fallacy", ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 314, no. 1 (January 2016), pp.&nbsp;58–65. * {{cite book|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History|url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0|first=|last2=Walthall|last3=Palais|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company|year=2006|isbn=0-618-13384-4|location=Boston|pages=|quote=|ref=harv|via=|last1=Ebrey}} * ''Energy and Power'' (A ''[[Scientific American]]'' Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1971, ISBN 0-7167-0938-4. * {{cite book | title=[[Guns, Germs, and Steel|Guns, Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies]]. |first=| date=1996 | publisher=W. W. Norton |year=| isbn=0-393-03891-2| location=New York |pages=|quote=|via=| author=[[Jared Diamond]] }} * {{cite book | title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II |first=| date=1996 | publisher=University of California Press |year=| isbn=0-520-20308-9| location=Berkeley, Calif. |pages=|quote=|via=| author=[[Fernand Braudel]] }} * {{cite book | title=Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800 | url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismmateri0000fern |first=| date=1973 | publisher=HarperCollins |year=| isbn=0-06-010454-6| location=New York |pages=|quote=|via=| author=[[Fernand Braudel]] }} * [[Francis Fukuyama]], ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'', Free Press, 1992, ISBN 0-02-910975-2. * [[Marshall Hodgson]], ''Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History'', Cambridge, 1993. * [[William Nordhaus]], "A New Solution: the Climate Club" (a review of Gernot Wagner and [[Martin Weitzman]], ''Climate Shock: The Economic Consequences of a Hotter Planet'', [[Princeton University Press]], 250 pp, $27.95), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), pp.&nbsp;36–39. * [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], ''The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy'', Princeton, 2000. * [[Clive Ponting]], ''World History: a New Perspective'', London, 2000. * W.N.Weech (editor), [[History of the World (book)|''History of the World'']], Odhams, Long Acre, London, WC2 (no ISBN), 1944. * [[Ronald Wright]], ''[[A Short History of Progress]]'', Toronto, Anansi, 2004, ISBN 0-88784-706-4. * Guy Ankerl, ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western'', Geneva, INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5. * Zongzheng, Xue (1992). ''A History of Turks''. Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. * Whitfield, Susan (2004). ''The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War, and Faith''. Serendia Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2. * [[Eric Schlosser]], ''[[Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety]]'', [[Penguin Press]], 2013, ISBN 1594202273. {{refend}} ==Further reading== * Baten, Joerg (ed.)(2016). ''A History of the Global Economy: 1500 to present.'' ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0. * Fournet, Louis-Henri (1986). ''Diagrammatic Chart of World History.'' Editions Sides. ISBN 978-2-868-61096-6 * [[Peter Frankopan|Frankopan, Peter]] (2015). ''[[The Silk Roads: A New History of the World]]'' Knopf. ISBN 978-1101946329. * [[Larry Gonick|Gonick, Larry]] (1997). ''[[The Cartoon History of the Universe]]'', Volume One, Main Street Books. ISBN 978-0-385-26520-1; Volume Two, Main Street Books, 1994, ISBN 978-0-385-42093-8, Volume Three, [[W. W. Norton & Company]], 2002, ISBN 978-0-393-32403-7. * [[David Landes|Landes, David]] (1999). ''[[The Wealth and Poverty of Nations]]'' W. W. Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 978-0-393-31888-3. * Landes, David, [http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.20.2.3 "Why Europe and the West? Why Not China?"], ''[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]]'', 20:2, 3, 2006. * [[William H. McNeill (historian)|McNeill, William H.]] (1963). ''[https://books.google.de/books/about/The_Rise_of_the_West.html The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community]''. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. * Novick, Sheldon, ''The Careless Atom'', Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1969. ==External links== {{Sister project links}} * [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBDA2E52FB1EF80C9 Crash Course World History] * [[British Museum]] - [https://web.archive.org/web/20150224042828/http://www.britishmuseum.org/channel/object_stories/a_history_of_the_world.aspx A History of the World] (archived). * Pella, John & Erik Ringmar, [https://web.archive.org/web/20141226114621/http://69.164.215.25/irhistory/ History of International Relations Open Textbook Project], Cambridge: Open Book. (archived). {{Social sciences}} {{Earth}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The World}} [[वर्ग:History by topic|World]] [[वर्ग:World history]] [[वर्ग:Articles which contain graphical timelines]] [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] iyeeesiw9xw6fxvpq4rwebmf02uh3m5 0 10021 217182 214953 2026-08-19T20:05:43Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 8 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{lipi|वासको दा गामा|.}} [[फायल:Lisboa-Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga-Retrato dito de Vasco da Gama-20140917.jpg|left|thumbnail|Vasco da Gama]]Vasco da Gama, Vidigueiracho 1lo Count (Purtugez uchhar: [ˈvaʃku ðɐ ˈɣɐmɐ]; sumar. 1460 – 24 Dezembr 1524), ek Purtugez sodprovasi ani poilo Evropi doreamargantlean Bharotant pavpi zavn asa..Tachi Bharotachi (1497–1499) survatechi viaj  Evropak ani Asiak eka doreamargan Atlantik ani Bharoti doriank  zoddunk ani tea khatir, Ostompt ani Udentik zoddunk zavn asli, Da Gamacho Bharotachea doreamargacho sod mhotvacho kiteak tea vorvim jagotik samrajvadachea iugak  ek vatt ugti zali ani Purtugezank ek lamb kallachem vosnnukechem samraj Asiant sthapunk ghoddlem. Doreamargantlean provas korop mhonnche Purtugezank chodd kijilanchea Bhumodheasagorak  ani bhirankull Orbi Dvikolpak tallop zavn aslem. Bhair vochpi ani porot ievpache viajechi ekunn ontor mhonnche hi iatra doreachi lambdig viaj tea kallar keloli asli, itli lamb ji Bhumodhearekha<ref>Diffie, Bailey W. and George D. Winius, ''Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580,'' p. 176</ref> koddlean jogak bhonvaddo marpa poros chodd lamb asli.  Indies-ak pavunk zaitinch doskam tarvotti proiotn kortana, hozaramni jiv vochun, duzamni bottink opghat ani akromonn zavn, da Gama 20 Mai 1498 vorsa Calicut pavlo. Hea mosaleachea vattek koslich addkhol naslolean  Purtugez Samrajache orthvevosthek fattboll mell’llem, hem adim Ut’tor ani doreadegechea Ostompt Afrikecher adarit aslem. Mukhel mosale, poilim Dokxinn Udent Asia koddlean melloilole te kalli miriam ani tikhi zavn asle, punn rokhddench her utpon, Evropak soglle nove, hancho somavex zavnk pavlo. Purtugalak hea vostuncho ek vepari mokto sabar doskam mellunk pavlo. Ek xekddo uprant her Evropi bollam, zoxe porim Dutch Porjeraj ani Ingland, zachea fattlean Frans ani Denmark, hankam Purtugalachea mokteak ani Cape Margachea noudolachea vorteponnak avhan divpant ailem. Da Gama hannem don Purtugez Bharoti Noudolachem fuddariponn choloilem, poilem ani chovtem. Nimannem, vhoddantlem vhodd aslem ani tem Bharota khatir poilem portopa pasun char vorsamni ailem. Hea tachea iogdana khatir, 1524 vorsa da Gama haka Bharotacho Rajiopal, nempant ailo zaka  Rajiodhikaricho kitab ani  Vidigueiracho Count 1519 vorsa dorzo dilo. Vasco da Gama,sodprovasachea itihasant ek fuddari koso zavn gelo. Tachea sodprovasa ani zoita khatir sabar argam taka sonvsarbhor divpant aileant. Purtugez raxttrio mhakaveo,  Camões hannem Os Lusíadas, tachea bhovmanak boroilam(s.1580). Bharotachi tachi poili viaj ek jogachea itihasant ek mhotvachi ghoddnni somzotat, kiteak tea vorvim doreacher-adarit jogachea bhovsonskrutivadachi survat khunnavpant ailea.<ref>{{cite book|first=Cliff|last=Nigel|title=Holy War: How Vasco da Gama's Epic Voyages Turned the Tide in a Centuries-Old Clash of Civilizations|publisher=Harper| date=September 2011}}{{page number|date=January 2016}}.</ref> Mars 2016 vorsant hozaramni hostkaragiri ani noudollacheo urlole jinos Esmeralda bottichea buddpant ailoleacheo sampoddleat, ani Gamachea armara modlo ek, Omanachea udent doreadeger sampoddla.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/20160314-oman-shipwreck-explorer-vasco-da-gama-age-of-exploration-india-route/|title=Shipwreck Discovered from Explorer Vasco da Gama's Fleet|date=2016-03-14|access-date=2017-12-10}}</ref> == Adlem jivit == [[फायल:Sines06_edit1.jpg|thumb|Vasco da Gama-chea zolmachea ganvant tachea kanxeacho, Sines, Purtugal hanga putllo.<br />]] [[फायल:Vasco_Sines.jpg|thumb|Sines,hangasorlea Vasco da Gama hachea dokxinnechea doreak fuddo korpi putlleacho fattlean savn dekhavo<br />]] [[फायल:50_Escudos_célébrant_le_500e_anniversaire_de_la_naissance_de_Vasco_Da_Gama,_1969.jpg|thumb|Vasco da Gama]] Vasco da Gama-cho zolm 1460 vo 1469,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110828160915/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html Modern History Sourcebook: ''Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497–1498 CE''], fordham.edu, Retrieved 27 June 2007.</ref>  Sines, ganvant zalo zo doreachea bondram modem Alentejo  doreadeger ek ganv, zo Purtugalachea dokxinn ostomptek urta ghoddiek eka ghorant Salas Saibinninchea Igorje lagsor zavn asa. Vasco da Gama-cho bapui Estêvão da Gama aslo, zannem 1460 vorsa ek sordar koso Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu.<ref name="ames">{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|page=[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/27 27]|isbn=0-13-193388-4|year=2008}}.</ref> ghorabeant kam kelam. To soinachea Order of Santiago vorga poreant voir sorunk pavlo.. Estêvão da Gama haka  Sines-acho 1460 vorsa alcaide-mór (nagrik rajiopal) nemlo, ek zutti ji tannem 1478 poriant keli; uprant to kor svikarpi ani zageacho Order commendas zavn aslo.. Estêvão da Gama, Isabel Sodré kodden kazar zalo, ji João Sodré (zaka João de Resende mhonnui vollkhotale), hachi dhuv ek Inglix orombachi boro sombond aslolea sontanachi asli.<ref>The Sodrés were said to have been descended from Frederick Sudley, of Gloucestershire, who accompanied the [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Earl of Cambridge]] to Portugal in 1381, and subsequently settled there (Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 61).</ref> Ticho bapui ani her bhav, Vicente Sodré ani Brás Sodré, hanche sombond Infante Diogo, Duke of Viseu, hachea ghorabea kodden asle ani te soinachea Order of Christ hache namneche monis asle. Vasco da Gama ho panchantlo tisro put Estêvão da Gama ani Isabel Sodré hancho aslo– (dista tea pormonnem: Paulo da Gama, João Sodré, Vasco da Gama, Pedro da Gama ani Aires da Gama hanche piraiecho. Vasco-k ek bhoinnui asli, Teresa da Gama (ji Lopo Mendes de Vasconcelos hache kodden kazar zali).<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 61.</ref> da Gama-chea adlea jivita vixim thoddich mhaiti asa. Purtugez itihaskar Teixeira de Aragão suchoita ki tannem Évora ganvant xikop kelem, zoim ghoddiek tannem gonnit ani somudiatrechem xikop kelem astolem. To Abraham Zacuto, hachea khal xiklo mhonn davo korpant ieta zo ek jiotixi ani jiotixastr zanna aslo, punn da Gama-cho choritrkar Subrahmanyam hem pationv nozo oxem somzota.<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 62.</ref> Sumar 1480 vorsa, da Gama-n aplea paicho pattlav kelo (Sodrés-acho korchea poros) ani Order of Santiago<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, pp. 60–61.</ref> hantunt proves kelo.  Santiago-cho voddil Prince John aslo, zo xinvasonar 1481 vorsa Portugalacho John II raza koso choddlo. John II haka Order-achem pixem laglolem, ani da Gamas-achi umed hea vorvim vaddunk pavli. 1492 vorsa, John II hannem da Gama-k eka misanvant  Setúbal bondrarr Algarve hangasor  French botti tabeant ghevnk patthoilo jem xantichea kallar Purtugez bottink akromonn korpak zavn aslem -zoxeak toxem zobab divop aslem—ek potkor ghevpacho vavr zo soddsoddit ani porinnam zaisarko kelo.<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 63.</ref> == da Gama adim sodprovas == 15vea xekddeachea survatek, Purtugez iatra zachi manddavoll Kunvor Henry the Navigator hannem keloli, te Afriki doreadeger pavlole, chodd korun ostompt Afrikechea girestkaie khatir (chodd korun bhangrak) Tannim Purtugezanchi doreachi zannvai vistarloli, punn hem dakhovpache khatir kaim faideachem naslem. Henrychea mornna 1460 vorsa uprant, Purtugez Razvotten ho proiotn chalu dovrunk bhov thoddi umed dakhoili ani 1469 vorsa, durlokx kelolea Afriki veparak eka khasgi Lisboachea vepar sonsthek viklo zacho fuddari Fernão Gomes aslo.Thoddea vorsam modem, Gomesachea kopitamni Purtugez zannvaiecho vistar  Gulf of Guinea hanga kelo je bhangrachea kochreacho, Melegueta miriam,hostidont ani up-Saharachea zulumacho vepar kortale. Jen’na Gomesachem odikarpotr novsornni korpak 1474 vorsa ailem, Kunvor John (fuddaracho John II), hannem aplea bapaik Afonso V of Portugal  Afriki odhikarpotr apnnak divpak sanglem. [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_Leaving_Portugal.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Vasco da Gama leaving the port of [[Lisboa|Lisbon]], Portugal]] 1481 vorsa apunn Raza zatokuch,  Portugaacho John Il hannem zaitem sudarop kelem. Somrattachem samontxai voir ovlumbun ravop unnem korunk, John II haka rajeachem bhanddar bandpachi goroz asli, tannem rajeacho vepar hem korpak ek mukhel ghottok koso manlo. John II che nodre khal, bhangar ani zulumancho vepar ostompt Afrikent boroch vaddlo, Chodd faideachea Evropachea ani Asiachea mosaleachea veparant bhitor sorunk taka umed asli,ji chodd xi zomnivelean zatali. Tea vellar, hacho mokto VenicePorjerazacho aslo jem zomnivelea margantlean, Levantine ani Egyptian bondrantlean  Tambddea Dorea udexim Bharotachea mosaleachea bazarpetthe kodden kortale.  Afriki khonddachea bhonvtonni viaj marun Asia khatir ek doreamarg sodunk, John II hannem ek novo hetu aplea kopitam khatir bosoilo. Vasco da Gama 20 vorsancho astana, razachea ievzonneak foll mellunk laglolem. 1487 vorsa, John II hannem don gupt her, Pero da Covilhã ani Afonso de Paiva, zomnivelean Udent Afrikek ani Bharotant, Egypt margan mosalleacheo bazaarpettho ani veparache marg sodunk patthoile. Motto sod rokhddoch laglo jen’na John IIcho kopit  Bartolomeu Dias  Cape of Good Hope hacho bhonvaddo marun portolo ani 1488 vorsa Fish River (Rio do Infante) poreant sod lailea uprant jem atanchem Dokxinn Afrika asa ani onvollkhi doreadeg ut’tor udent poreant posorloli asa mhonn topastoch. Diasan sodun kaddloleachem ani da Covilhã ani de Paiva, hannim melloiloli mhaitichi zoddnni ani hea vegllea bhagank faidexir veapari marg Bharoti Mhasagorant korunk ek provas sod korpeachi sid’dh korunk goroz asli. == Poili viaj == [[फायल:Gama_route_1.svg|thumb|300x300px|Vasco da Gamachea poile viajicho dorea marg (1497–1499)]]  8 Julh 1497 Vasco da Gama hannem ek char bottincho ani Lisboantle 170 monxancho ghevn fuddakar kelo. Afrika tem Bharot ani porot hea provasachem ontor Bhumodhearekha<ref name="Foundations">{{cite book | title=Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1850 |year=1977 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA184 |first1= Bailey W. |last1=Diffie |first2= George D. |last2=Winius | isbn= 978-0-8166-0850-8 | page=177 | volume=1 | series=Europe and the World in the Age of Expansion}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110828160915/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html Da Gama's ''Round Africa to India''], fordham.edu Retrieved 16 November 2006.</ref> koddlean jogak bhonvaddo marpa poros chodd lamb aslem. Provas korpeam modem Purtugalacho chodd onnbhovi, Pero de Alenquer, Pedro Escobar, João de Coimbra, ani Afonso Gonçalves hancho somavex aslo.Kitlo lok dor bottint aslo tachi khatri na punn sumar 55 portole ani don botti xenddleo. Bottim modleo don carracks asleo, jeo viaje khatir noveo bandloleo, her caravel asleo ani ek purvonnechi bott asli.<ref name="Foundations"/> Char botti oxeo asleo: * ''São Gabriel'', Vasco da Gama hannem fuddariponn choloiloli; ek carrack  178 ttonacho, lambai 27 m, rundai 8.5 m, draft 2.3 m, xiddam 372 m² * ''São Rafael'', Paulo da Gamah tachea bhavan fuddariponn choloiloli, tosleach akarachi zoxi São Gabriel * ''Berrio'' (addnanv, odhikrutponni São Miguel vollkhovpant ailoli), ek caravel, adlea dona pasun matxe lhan, zachem fuddariponn Nicolau Coelho hannem kelem. * Ek santteachi bott zachem nanv nokllot, zachem fuddariponn Gonçalo Nunes choloilolem, jika Mossel Bay (São Brás) Dokxinn Afrikent[5] buddpachem nirmonn ailem.<ref name="ames"/> === Cape kodden viaj === [[फायल:Cross_daGama2.jpg|thumb|Cape of Good Hope, Dokxinn Afrikent Vasco da Gamachea Khursak iadostika<br />]] Sodprovas Lisboak savn 8 Julhak 1497 vorsa bhair sorlo, Adlea sod provas korpeamni kelolo toch Afrikechea doreadege velo Tenerife ani Cape Verde zunveam marg tannem dhorlo. Atanchea Sierra Leone, dorea deger pavtochm da Gama hannem ek vatt ugtea somdiran dokxinnek dhorli, Bhumodhearekha upun ani Dokxinn Atlantikechea vosontrutu sodun zacho Bartolomeu Dias hannem 1487 vorsa sod lailolo.<ref>[[Gago Coutinho]], C.V. (1951–52) ''A Nautica dos Descobrimentos: os descobrimentos maritimos visitos por um navegador'', Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar; pp. 319–363; Axelson, E. (1988) "The Dias Voyage, 1487–1488: toponymy and padrões", ''Revista da Universidade de Coimbra'', Vol. 34, pp. 29–55 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hcMp9hZ_8yAC&lpg=PA25&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false offprint]; Waters, D.W. (1988) "Reflections Upon Some Navigational and Hydrographic Problems of the XVth Century Related to the voyage of Bartolomeu Dias", ''Revista da Universidade de Coimbra'', Vol. 34, pp. 275–347. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UKK-b3If-78C&lpg=PA333&dq=rota%20entre%20santiago&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q&f=false offprint].</ref> Hi vatt iesiesvi zavnk pavli ani 4 Novembr 1497, sodprovas Afikechea doreadeger denvlo. Tin odik mhoine bottimni viaj marli ani 10,000 odik kilometr (6,000&nbsp;mi) uktea doreantlean to zalo, ek soglleant lambdig viaj zomni pelean tea vellar ti zavnk pavli.<ref name="Foundations"/><ref>{{cite book |last= Fernandez-Armesto |first= Felipe |title= Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration |url= https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba0000fern_o3w9 |year= 2006 |publisher= [[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn= 0-393-06259-7 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba0000fern_o3w9/page/177 177]–178}}</ref> 16 Decembr meren, armaran Great Fish River (Eastern Cape, Dokxinn Afrika) – pas keli zoim Dias portololo – ani udkantlean provas kelo zo adim Evropeanank onvollkhi aslo. Natalam ievpachim aslolean, da Gama and tachea sangateamni te pasar zatolea zageak Natal nanv dilem, zacher Purtugezint orth "Kristacho zolm" aslo. === Mozambique === Vasco da Gama hannem 2 tem 29 Mars 1498 vell Mozambique zunvea lagsor sarlo. Orobancho xek aslolo zago Udent Afrikechea doreadegecho ek Bharoti Mhasagorachea veparacho ek mhotvacho bhag zavn aslo.Kristanvank thollave lok ghoddiek virodhi astole hem ghabrun., da Gaman Musolmanacho bhes ghetlo ani Mozambiquechea Sultanachi bhett ghetli. Kirkoll vepareacheo vostu tache kodden aslolean, ek rajkorpeak bori xi bhett divnk ghoddunk na. Thollavea lokak rokddoch da Gama ani tachea monxancho dubav laglo.Eka virodhi zomeachea bollak lagun da Gamak Mozambiquentli pollapoll kaddchi poddli, da Gaman protikar korun aple nalle soddle ani bondr soddlem.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111222043247/http://www.oldnewspublishing.com/dagamma.htm "Vasco da Gamma Seeks Sea Route to India"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222043247/http://www.oldnewspublishing.com/dagamma.htm |date=22 December 2011 }}, Old News Publishing, Retrieved 8 July 2006.</ref> === Mombasa === Adhunik Kenya lagsor, iatra, bottintlea mhalachi chori korpak lagle, Orbi vepari bottink luttunk lagle zanche lagim xostram nasli nhoi mhonn khoddegant nallio. Purtugez poile Evropi Mombasa bondrak bhettunk pavle jem 7 tem 13 Abril 1498 zavnk pavlem, punn tankam virodhak fuddo korcho poddlo ani veginuch thoinche bhair sorle. === Malindi === [[फायल:Pillar_of_Vasco_da_Gama.jpg|thumb|Vasco da Gamacho khambo Malindi, zo portopachea viajent ubo korpant ailo<br />]] Vasco da Gama ut’torek vochot ravlo, ani 14 Abril 1498 ixttagotichea Malindi bondrar pavlo, fuddareank  Mombasa kodde dusmankai asli.. Thoim tankam Bharoti vepari poile disle. Da Gama ani tachea monxamni eka pailottachi zaka monsoon vareachi zannvai asli seva ghetli jea vorvim iatrechem margdorxon Calicut jem Bharotachea dokxinn ostomptek urta, thoim poriant te korunk pavtole. Pailottache vollkhe vixim zhorinchem mot vegllem asa,konn taka Kristanv, ek Musolman ani ek  Gujrati mhonnttat. Ek paromporik kanni pailottak famad Orbi viaj marpi Ibn Majid mhonntta, punn somkalin borovpam Majidak dusre kodden dovortat ani thoim tea vellar lagsar asunk zaina mhonnttat.<ref>{{cite book |last= Fernandez-Armesto |first= Felipe |title= Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration |url= https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba0000fern_o3w9 |year= 2006 |publisher= W. W. Norton & Company |isbn= 0-393-06259-7 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba0000fern_o3w9/page/178 178]–179}}</ref> Khoinchech Purtugez itihaskar tea kallache Ibn Majidacho ul’lekh kornant. Vasco da Gaman Malindi soddun Bharota kodden 24 Abril 1498 vochpak sorlo. === Calicut, India === [[फायल:VASCO_DA_GAMA_LANDING_AT_KALICUT.gif|thumb|Vasco da Gama Calicut pavtana]] [[फायल:A_steel_engraving_from_the_1850's,_with_modern_hand_coloring.jpg|thumb|1850 vorsantlemeEk tikheachem kantop, adhunik hatachea rongovpant.Tem Vasco da Gamachi Zamorina lagim bhett dakhoita.<br />]] [[फायल:Vasco_Memo_Kappad.jpg|thumb|Calicut lagsar Kappad hanga ximefator.]] Kappadu, Kozhikode (Calicut),  Malabar Doreadeger (atanchem Bharotachem Keroll rajio) hanga armar, 20 Mai 1498 pavli. Calicutacho raza, Samudiri (Zamorin), zo tea vellar Ponnani hea dusrea rajdhanint ravtalo, pordexi armar thoim pavlam mhonn kollttoch to Calicutak portolo. Tarvotteak,,paromporik pavnnar korun ghevpant ailo, zantunt ek vhodd mirvonnuk unneant unnem 3,000 xosxostr aslolea Nair hancho aspav aslo, punn ek Zamorin kodden mulakhot kosloch spoxtt porinnam haddunk pavunk na. Jen’na thollavea odhikareamni da Gamachea armarak vicharlem, "He suvater tuka kiteak haddla?", tannim zobab dilo ki te "Kristanvanchea ani mosaleachea."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamarenai0000ames|last=Ames|first=Glenn J.|publisher=Pearson/Longman|year=2005|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/vascodagamarenai0000ames/page/50 50]}}</ref> sodant aileat. da Gamant Zamorinak Dom Manuelacheo  bhetto jeo dhaddloleo – char hatkapi kobaio xendurea rongachea lugttacheo, so chepim, char ponvlleanche fantte, bara almasares,ek pitullchea aidonachi pett, sakhricho khonn, telachim don bol’lam ani ek mhonvanchem bol’l– kirkoll asleo ani chhap marunk pavunk nant. Zamorinache odhikari hantunt bhangar vo rupem kiteak na tea vixim chintunk poddle. Musolman vepari je da Gamank aple virodhi somzotale tannim to ek sado doriantlo luttmaro ani ek rajacho rajdut. nhoi oxem suchoilem.<ref>Castaneda, Herman Lopes de, The First Book of the Historie of the Discoveries and Conquests of the East India by the Portingals, London, 1582, in Kerr, Robert (ed.) A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels Vol. II, London, 1811.</ref> Vasco da Gaman,k kiteak tachean mhal vikunk zaina dekhun, ti razan bhair marli, zannem da Gaman xulk farik korunk zai mhonnnettan sanglem - chodd korun bhangran – her vepaream bhaxen, jea vorvim dogaim bhitorli soirigot tannunk pavli.Hachi tiddok ievn tannem thoddea Nairank ani solla nustekarank (mukkuva) aplea sangata bollan vhele.<ref>[[M.G.S. Narayanan]], ''Calicut: The City of Truth'' (2006) Calicut University Publications (The incident is mentioned by [[Luís de Camões|Camoes]] in [[The Lusiads]], wherein it is stated that the Zamorin "showed no signs of treachery" and that "on the other hand, da Gama's conduct in carrying off the five men he had entrapped on board his ships is indefensible.").</ref> Toruipunn, da Gamacho armar ievjilolea poros iesiesvi zavnk pavlo zantunt tannem mhal haddlo zachem mol armarachea khorcha von satth pavtti vhodd zavn aslem. === Portonnem === Vasco da Gaman Calicut 29 Agost 1498 vorsa soddlem.Ghora vochpache umedin, tannem thollavi zannvai monsoonachea vareachi durlokx keli jem ozun doreadeger martalem.Armar survatek ut’tore dixen Bharoti doreadeger tannddttali ani uprant vixranti ghevche khatir Anjediva zunvear nangraili. Xevttim te Bharoti Somdira velean gele zo tannim 3 Outubrant 14 vorsa uplo. Punn hinvalleacho monsoon ozun ievpacho aslo, ani viaj ek kollvolleachi zavnk pavli. Viaj martana, hunalleachea monsoon vareak fuddo korun, da Gamacho armar Bharoti Somdir fokot 23 disamni uplo, ani atam portonneachea viajen, varea virudh viaj martana tankam132 dis lagle. Da Gaman zomin fokot 2 Janerak 1499 polloili,jen’na to doreadegechea Somali xarantlea Mogadishu hachea pasar zatalo, ten’na tem Ajuran Samraja khal Horn of Africant aslem.Armar thambunk na, punn Mogadishu pasar zavche poilim, hea iatrecho ninami dispott’tti borovpi hannem tem ek vhodd xar zantunt ghoram char vo panch mallianchim unch aslim ani vhodd rajmoholam tanchea modekat ani sabar mosjidam zankam lamb vattkuleo gumtteo asleo; oxi nond kelea.<ref>Da Gama's First Voyage p. 88.</ref> Da Gamacho armar xevttim Malindi , eka bhirankull poristhitint 7 Janer 1499 pavlo – sumar orde monis viaj kortana tantuntle somplole ani herank rogtachea sravacho rog zalolo. Tin bottincho poramus korunk favo te monis na zavn, da Gaman São Rafaelak Udent Afrikechea doreadeger udkant buddoili ani tarvavelea monxank don urlolea bottint São Gabriel ani Berrio. vanttpant aile.  Tea uprant, viaj sullsullit zavnk pavli. Survatechea Marsant, te Mossel Bay pavle, ani Cape of Good Hope urfattea dixen 20 Marsak uplo,ani ostompt Afriki doreadeger 25 Abrilak pavle. Iatrehi nondnni avchit hanga sompta. Dusrea zhorintlean portun ektthaim korun, oxem vachunk melltta ki te Cape Verde poreant pavle, zoim Nicolau Coelhocho Berrio  Vasco da Gamachea São Gabriel haka vegllo zalo ani ekttoch viaj marunk laglo.<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 149.</ref>  Berrio  Lisboak 10 Julh 1499 pavlo ani Nicolau Coelho hannem khaxa hi khobor Raza Manuel I ani rajeacho dorbar Sintra zomo zalo. Itlea modekat, Cape Verde porto pavun, da Gamacho bhav, Paulo da Gama chodd duent zalo. Da Gama tachea sangata Santiago zunvear ravpak kobul zalo ani tannem São Gabriel João de Sák hora vhorpak aplea gumosta suvadin kelem. São Gabriel, Sá-chea khala, Lisboak uprant sumar uxirachea Juhant vo survatechea Augustant pavlo. Da Gama ani tacho duent bhav hannim eka Guinea caravelant provas korun Purtugalak portole, punn Paulo da Gama vatter somplo. Da Gama, Azores denvlo aplea bhavak São FranciscoAngra do Heroismo hangasor purunk , ani thoddo kall dukh korpak thoimsor ravlo. Uprant to eka Azorean caravelan bosun xevttim Lisboak 29 Agost 1499 (Barrosa pormonnem) pavlo,<ref>João de Barros, ''Da Asia'', Dec. I, Lib. IV, c. 11, p. 370.</ref> vo survatechea Setembrant (8ver vo 18ver, her zhorim pormonnem). Oxea chintent gul’l astanaim, da Gama haka eka porakromi ievkar dilo ani bhovmanan taka bhorlo zantunt ek zoitivont mirvonnuk ani bhousachea porbamcho somavex aslo. Raza Manuel hannem don chitti boroileant, Julh ani Agost 1499,bottinchea portonnea uprant jeo da Gamachea poile viajechi khobor ditat. Girolamo Sernigi hanneim tannim iatra sompoilea uprant da Gamachea poilea viaje vixim boroilam. [[फायल:Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif|thumb|350x350px|Bhaileo ani portonneache viaji Purtugez Bharotacheo (''Carreira da Índia''). Dokxinn Atlantikachea vosont rutucho marg zo Bartolomeu Dias hannem 1487vorsa sod lailo, zacho pattlav ani sodprovas da Gaman ugtea doreant kelo tacho vikas uprantlea vorsamni zavpacho aslo.<br />]] Iatrek boroch khorch ailo – ek bott ani orde monis xenddpant aile. Calicuta kodden ek vepari koblat korpachea jivonkariantui opies ailolem. Tori legit, mosalo zo urlolea don bottimni haddlolo to prochondd faideak, rajeak vikpant ailo. Vasco da Gama hacho favo to sotkar ek nitt Asiak vochpachea doreamarga khatir korpant ailo.Tache vattecho pattlav uprant dor Purtugez Bharotachea noudolant kelo. Purtugez rajeachea bhanddarak ek mukhel aspot mosaleacho vepar zavnk pavlo ani her porinnamacho uprant pattlav zalo.Dekhik: da Gama-chea viajen ek spoxtt kelolem ki Afrikechi udent doreadeg Contra Costa, Purtugez hitsombonda khatir mhotvachi zavn asli; tanchim bondram tajem udok purvonn kortalem, her purvonni, lakudd ani durusti korpak bondram ani sabar tarvank ek asro zoim tim vaitt hovamanak lagun ravunk zatalim. Ek mhotvacho porinnnam Purtugez razvottkek  Mozambiquechi vosahot korunk pavlem. == Inama == [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_signature_almirante.svg|thumb|Vasco da Gama-chi soi (Ho Comde Almirante, "Nousenadhipoti Count" vachpak melltta) ]] Dezembr 1499, Raza  Portugalacho Manuel I hannem Vasco da Gama haka Sines ganv inam koso bhettoilo ek vonxachem daiz koxem (tachea bapain, Estêvão, hannem ek favtt commenda koxem aslem). Hem ek gusponnechea zavnk pavlem, kiteak Sinesachi malki ozun Order of Santiago hachi asli. Order-achea voddilan, Jorge de Lencastre, hannem ghoddiek inam pas kela astolo –xevttim, da Gama ek Santiago sordar, ek tanchoch, ani ek chodd lagxilo bhagidar Lencastre hacho aslo.Punn Sinesak razan inam dila dekhun Lencastre-ak khubllavnk pavlo tem totvak lagun nakarunk, kiteak tem ghoddiek razak odik Order-achim bhattam dan korunk ut’tejon divnk pavtolem.<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 168.</ref> Da Gama fuddlim kaim vorsam Sinesak tabeant ghevnk sarchim poddtta aslim, ek proiotn zo taka Lencastre sovem poisavunk pavta astolo ani xevttim da Gama-n, Order of Christ hachea vixim vochun Order of Santiago 1507 vorsa soddun divpak poddlem. Itlea modekat,.da Gama haka vonxakullachem rajeo bospagar 300,000 reis favo zalem. Taka, tachea bhavonddank ani fuddle pillgek kullvont kitab Dom (somi) sodankal favo zalo. 30 Janerak 1502, da Gama haka Almirante dos mares de Arabia, Persia, India e de todo o Oriente ("Orob, Persia ani Akh’khea udenticho Nousenadhipoti") – ho kitab favo zalo zo ek sozoilolo ugddasacho Castilian kitab zo Christopher Columbus (spoxttponni, zor Manuelak dila tor Castile hacho 'Somdirachea doreacho Nousenadhipoti',dila tor khatren Purtugalan sud’dham ek divnk zai) doxoilolo divpant ailo.<ref>João de Barros (1552, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BJ42AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 23–24]) dates this appointment in January 1502, just before da Gama's departure on his second voyage. But Subrahmanyan (1997, p. 169), following Braancamp Freire, conjectures this award may have been made as early as January 1500.</ref> Anik ek Outubr 1501 tarkhechi rajiachi chitt, hannem da Gamak modem poddunk svotacho hok dilo ani ek nischit bhumika khoinchea fuddle Bharotant vochpi iatrecher korunk dilo.  1501 hachea sumarak, Vasco da Gama hannem Catarina de Ataíde, Álvaro de Ataídechi dhuv, Alvorachea  (Algarve) alcaide-mór  hiche kodden kazar zoddlem, ani ek famad kullvont natem bollvont Almeida kuttumba kodden zoddlem (Catarina D. Francisco de Almeida)hachi bapulbhoinn asli.<ref>Catarina de Ataíde's mother, Maria da Silva, was the sister of Beatriz da Silva, mother of Francisco de Almeida. The Almeidas provided a substantial part of Catarina's dowry (Subrahmanyan, 1997, p. 174).</ref> == Dusri viaj == [[फायल:Gama_armada_in_India,_1502.gif|thumb|Bharotachi Malabar Doreadeg, c. 1500, Vasco da Gamachi vatt 4tea Bharoti armarachi 1502 vorsantli dakhoita<br />]] Pattlav korpi iatra, Dusri Bharotachi Armar,ji 1500 vorsa Pedro Álvares Cabral hachea fuddariponna khal ek koblati vorvim   Calicucho Zamorin  ani ek Purtugez karkhano xarant sthaplo..Punn, Pedro Cabral thollavea Orbi vepari sonstham kodden eka kijilant poddlo, zacho porinnam karkhano eka marmarint sampoddlo ani sumar 70 Purtugez tantunt morunk pavle. Cabral hannem Zamorinacher tea ghoddnne bodol boglantt ghatlem ani xaracher bomb ghatle. Hea vorvim Purtugal ani Calicuta modem zhuz zavnk pavlem.  Vasco da Gaman gharannem ghatlea tachea rajeachea chittint 4tea Bharoti Armar hachem fuddarponn aplea hatant ghevnk, jem 1502 korpak tharailem, Zamorinacher sudd ghetolo mhonn spoxtt korun ani Purtugezachea otti manun ghevnk taka boll korunk. Zobordost xoxostr armar pondra bottinchi asun oixim monis Lisboak savn 12 Fevrer 1502 bhair sorli.Tachea fattlean Abrilant anik ek panch bottinchi tukddi tachea bapul bhav, Estêvão da Gama (Aires da Gamacho put), hachea fuddariponna khal bhair sorli ji tankam Bharoti Mhasagorant bhettli. 4to armar ek da Gama kuttumbacho zavn aslo. Tache don mama, Vicente Sodré ani Brás Sodré, hankam adinch Bharoti Mhasagorantle noudolachi rakhnni korunk fuddari koxen nemlole, ani mevnneank Álvaro de Ataíde (Vascochi bail Catarinacho bhav) ani Lopo Mendes de Vasconcelos (Vascochea bhoinn Teresa da Gama cho ghov) hannim mukhel armarichea bottinchem kopitponn choloilem. Bhair sorpi viajent, da Gamachea armaran Udent Afriki bhangra vepar korpi bondr Sofala hache kodden sompork kelo ani Kilwatochea Sultanacho odhikar hachim, ek borench xem bhangar ghevn argam unnem kelim. Bharotant, Outubr 1502, da Gamacho armar khoinchea Orbi bottik tabeant ghetali jeo Bharoti udkant provas kortaleo chodd noxtti asli Miri, ek tirthiatrechi bott Meccachi zache provaxeank tannem ugtea udkant kot’tol kele.[26] Uprant to Calicut pavlo, zoim Cabralachea ilaza khatir magnni keli. Zorui Zamorin eke nove koblaticher soi korunk toiar aslo, [27] da Gaman Hindu razak ek ulo kelo sogllea Musolmanak Calicutantle dhanvddavnk vattagoti korche adim, ji magnni nakarpant aili. Purtugez armarin uprant xaracher doreadeger ravun bollixtt korunk naslolea xaracher don dis bomb ghatle.Tannem zaiteoch tandllacheo botti tabeant ghetleo, bottintlea lokanche hat ani nakam katorlim ani eka opmanachi chitt Zamorinak patthoili.[28] [[फायल:Gama_squadron_of_1502_Armada_(Livro_das_Armadas).jpg|thumb|da Gamachea armaricho ek dekhavo (''Livro das Armadas'' pustoka velean)<br />]] [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_(Livro_de_Lisuarte_de_Abreu).jpg|right|thumb|266x266px|Ek piraien vaddlolo, Bharotacho Rajiodhikari ani Vidigueiracho Count ( Lisuarte de Abreu pustoka velean)<br />]] [[फायल:St-Francis-Church.jpg|right|thumb|Kochintli.St. Francis CSI Igorz,  Vasco da Gama Kochint 1524 somplo jen’na to Bharotache tisre bhetter ailolo.Tachi kudd poilim hea Igorjent nikipiloli.<br />]] da Gaman kelolea hinvsecho prokar Bharotachea  Malabar Doreadeger, zacher Calicut ovlumbun aslem, taka khondd poddlo. Punn Zamorinan koslech Purtugezachea ottink man dina zalo, ani tannem da Gamachea armarak avhan divnk ek mozbut zhuzabottincho armar bhaddean pasun kelo (jem da Gama Calicut bondra samkar eka noudolachea zhuzant harovnk pavlo). Da Gaman Cochin  ani Cannanore hanga mosale bhorle, dhaktteo lagsorleo razvotteo, orde-vassal ani thodde Zamorina kodde orde zhuzant, zancheo iuti surokxit keloleo adlea Purtugez armaramni 4to armar Bharotantlo survatechea 1503 bhair sorlo. Da Gama fattim caravelsanchi ek dhaktti tukdi tachea tivachea ,Vicente Sodré, fuddariponna khal Bharoti doreadegecher Calicut bottink sotavunk, ani Purtugez karkhane Cochinantle ani Cannanore che surokxit dovrunk Zamorinchea oporiaiachea bodlea pasun paro korunk dovorli. Vasco da Gama, aplea misanvant Zamorinak suvadin korpant purnnponni opies ievun Setembr 1503 Purtugalak portolo.Hem opies ani uprant anikui opies tachea tiv Vicente Sodré hachem Cochincho karkhano surokxik na korpant, hem sogllem fuddle inama virudh gelem.Jen’na Purtugez Razak Purtugalacho ManuelI poilo Purtugez Bharotacho rajiopal ani rajiodhikari nempachi palli 1505 vorsa aili, da Gamak zannovta oslem durlokx korpant ailem ani ti zutti Francisco de Almeidak divpant aili. === Tirthiatrechea bottichi ghoddnni === Tache dusre viajint, Vasco da Gaman nixttur ghoddneo spordha korpi vepareancher ani thollavea ravpeancher keleo, zachi tachi Bharotant fank toddun pavli.[29][30] Calicutchea dusrea viaje vellar, da Gaman ek Musolmanachea tirthiatrek vochpi botti addaili Madayi ji Calicut savn Mecca vetali. Protioxant govai divpi Thomé Lopes ani zontrekar Gaspar Correia bariksann dita tea pormonnem, da Gaman 400 tirthkaranchi bott zantunt 50 ostoreo asleo ti luttli, provaxeank bond kele, ani malok ani ek Egyptachea rajdutak jive hulpaile. Tannim apli doulot, ji " Fezchea rajvottkent sogllea Kristi gulamanchi khonddnni ani borench zaitem korta asli” punn torui tankam soddunk nant. Ostoreo aplem bhangar ani rotna ghevn aplea lhan ballank ghott dhorun churchure kor mhonn magun ietaleo tem Da Gaman burakantean pollelem.'[31]  Calicutantlea Musolmanank dhanvddavn Hindu Zamorina kodde vochunk magnnem kortoch, nimannean vhoddlea bhottak Talappana Namboothiri haka (toch monis zannem da Gamak Zamorinache kuddint patthoilo tache chodd sotkar korpi poilea Calicutche bhetter Mai 1498 vorsa) ulovpam korunk patthoilo. Da Gaman taka gupt her pacharlo, ani tea bhottache vontth ani kan katorpak hukum dilo ani sunneache kan tache toklek xivun taka patthoilo. [29]  == Modlo Kall == Don fudllim doskam, Vasco da Gama ek xant jivit jielo, taka rajdorbarant ievkar naslo ani Bharoti ghoddnnuka vixim taka pois dovorlolo.Tache proiotn ManuelI hache kodden boro asunk (zantunt Order of Christ kodden 1507 vorsa vochpacho somavex asa), kainch korunk pavunk na.. Almeida, ani khoddegant Afonso de Albuquerque ani uprant Albergaria ani Sequeira he razache posontiche monis Bharota khatir asle.  Ferdinand Magellan hannem Castileche Razvottkek  1518 vorsa haroilea uprant, Vasco da Gaman toxem korunk dhomki dili, jem razak taka Purtugalant dovrunk ani aplo khas "Indiescho Nousenadhipoti" Espanhak tallche khatir pavlam marchim poddlim.[32]  1519 vorsa, magnneacher durlokx kelea uprant. Raza Manuel I hannem xevttim Vasco da Gama haka ek samontxaicho kitab divnk taktik keli, ani taka poilo  Vidigueiracho Count nemlo, ek Countacho kitab zo rajeache hukumen Evorant kaddpant ailo 29 Dezembrant, eka gusponnechea koblatent Jaime, Duke of Braganza hachea kodden, ganv Vidigueira ani Vila dos Frades farik kelea uprant zannem odhikar soddle. Hea hukuman Vasco da Gama ani tachea daizank sogllo mhosul ani sombondit faide divpant aile,[33] jea vorvim da Gamank poilo Purtugez Count koso kelo zorui to rajeachea vonxantlo naslo.[34] == Tisri viaj ani moronn == [[फायल:St_Francis_Church,_Fort_Kochi_001_(14).jpg|thumb|Gamacho adlo fondd  St. Francis Igorjent, Kochi<br />]] [[फायल:St_Francis_Church,_Fort_Kochi_001_(17).jpg|left|thumb|311x311px|St Francisache Igorjent fondda lagsor kantoiloli nanvanchi patti]] 1521 chea usram Raza Manuel I chea mornna uprant, tacho put ani herderi, Raza PurtugalachoJohn III ,Purtugez sorkarache doreapoltoddche bhag niall korpak laglo. Adlea Albuquerque choukoddi koddlean koddsoron (atam Diogo Lopes de Sequeira kelolem protinidhiponn), John III ek taji survat korunk sodi. Vasco da Gama aplea rajki vonvasantlo ek mhotvacho sol’lagar koso novea razachea nemnnukank ani hikmotink portun upzolo.Novea Espanishachem sonkott Maluku Zunvea vixim pollovn apli poilitai koxi, Vasco da Gaman Orbi virudh nad soddunk sol’lo dilo zo Manueline kallant aslo, ani to ek sot’techi kallji Duarte de Menezes hachi chalu aslo,zo ten’nacho- Purtugez Bharatacho rajiopal aslo. Menezesui okuxoll ani bhroxtt utorlo, ani tachea vixim sabar kagalli aileo. Hea vorvim, John III hannem, tachea nanvancho jadu ani tachea kortubancho ugddas ghoddiek Purtugez Bharotachea odhikareak chhap marunk pavot and ek novea sorkarak ani nove ievzonnen bodol zavnk pavtolo mhonn khatri asun Vasco da Gamak tachea zagear ghalunk nirnnoi ghetlo.. Tachea nemnnukeche chittint Fevrer 1524, John III hannem Vasco da Gamak khaxelo kitab "Rajiodhikari" dilo,zo dusro Purtugez rajiopal duxoitalo (poilo kitab mellovpi Francisco de Almeida  1505 vorsa aslo).[35] Tachea dusrea putak, Estêvão da Gama haka teach vellar Capitão-mor do Mar da Índia ('Bharoti doreacho vhodd- dolpoti ',Bharoti Somdirachea noudol paro korpi armaracho Senapoti) Duarte-achea bhavachea Luís de Menezes bodlek neml,. Eke nimanne ottin, Gaman Portugalachea John III koddlean aplea sogllea putank vollin Malacca-che kopit korunk ek vaido ghetlo. Abril 1524 vorsa, chouda bottincho armar ghevn bhair sorun, Vasco da Gaman aplea dolpoti sangatak asun, bott famad vhodd carrack Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai  aplea don putam sangata, Estêvão ani Paulo Bharotachea nimannea viajik vheli. Ek trasanchea viajen (char vo panch botti vatter xenddleo), to Bharotant Seembrant pavlo. Vasco da Gaman aple unchlea somrattachea hukumen ek novo hukum Purtugez Bharotak porgott kelo zantunt sogllea adlea odhikaream zagear aple khas monxank nemle. Punn Gamank kuddkuddeancho zor thoim pavtoch ailo ani to Cochin xarant, thoim pavchea tin mhoinea uprant Natalanchea adlea disa 1524 somplo. Rajeache suchovnne pormonnem, da Gama uprant Bharotacho rajiopal koso tachea sangata ailea kopitam modleak ekleak ti zutti Henrique de Menezes ( Duarte vixim soirigot na) dili. Da Gamache put Estêvão ani Paulo hankam tancheo zuttio na zaleo ani te porot ietolea armarint survatechea 1525 portole (kaddun uddoilolea Duarte de Menezes ani Luís de Menezes hanchea sangata).[36] Vasco da Gamachi kudd poili  St. Francis Igorjent,nikipili ji  Fort Kochint  Kochi xarant asa, punn tacheo osti Purtugalant 1539 vorsa vheleo. Vasco da Gamachi kudd Vidigueira eka petulant bhangar ani rotnamni sozovn porot nikipili. [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_Jerónimos_2008-1.jpg|thumb|Belem, Lisboant Vasco da Gamacho Jerónimos Motthant fondd<br />]] Belem hantuntlo Hieronymites Motth zo Purtugez rajeaxaichea Aviz achi ximiter zanvcho aslo, ti survatechea 1500 ji Vasco da Gamachea poili viaj bhair sorli thoim lagsor asa ubarpant aili, ani tichi bandavollik duddu ek Purtugez Bharotantlea armarichea faideacher kor ghalun korpant aili. 1880 vorsa , da Gamacheo osti ani toxench kovi Luís de Camões (zannem da Gamachea poile viajechem sozovp aplea 1572 vorsantlea kovitent, The Lusiad hantunt kelam), hacheo osti novea kantoilolea fonddar motthachea Igorjechea gabharant, raza Manuel I ani John III thodde metr pois, hanchea fonddam savn halovpant aileo, zachi tannem seva keloli. == Kazar ani bhurgim == Vasco da Gama ani tache ghorkan’nik, Catarina de Ataíde, hankam so put ani ek dhuv asli:[37] # Dom Francisco da Gama, zannem Vidigueiracho 2ro Count  ani 2ro "Bharoti Orbi ani Farsi Doriancho Novsenadhipoti," aplea bapaiche kitabanchem herderponn ghetlem. To Purtugalant ravlo.  # Dom Estevão da Gama, ek nirfoll proiotnant 1524 vorsachea kallant Bharoti paro korpi dolpoti koso, taka tin vorsanchea kallak Malaccacho Dolpoti nempant ailo ani tannem, 1534 tem 1539 seva keli (zantunt tachea bhav Pauluchea kallacho don vorsancho kall somavex asa. Tea uprant taka  Bharotacho 11vo Rajiopal 1540 tem 1542 poriant nemlo.  # Dom Paulo da Gama, Malaccacho dolpoti 1533–34, haka Malacca lagim eka noudol kariant marpant ailo.  # Dom Cristovão da Gama, Malaccachea armaricho dolpoti 1538 tem 1540; haka Malaccant pod ghevpak nemlo, punn taka  Ahmad ibn Ibrahim hannem  Ethiopian-Adal zhuzant  1542 vorsa marlo.  # Dom Pedro da Silva da Gama, Malaccacho dolpoti 1548 tem 1552 nemlo.  # Dom Álvaro d'Ataide da Gama Malaccachea armaracho kopit 1540 nemlo, Malaccacho dolpoti 1552 tem 1554 aslo. # Dona Isabel d'Ataide da Gama, ekuch dhuv, ti Ignacio de Noronha kodden kazar zali,zo poilea  Linharesachea Cointacho put aslo. Tacho dadleacho vonx 1747 vorsa sompunk pavlo, zorui kitab ostoreanchea vollint gelo.{{what?|date=February 2018}} == Kitab, prokar ani bhovman == Purtugez razvottkechi seva sabar vorsam korun, da Gamak zaite inam veglle kitab, protixtta ani sorkari khatim divpant ailim: * Orbi,Persia, Bharot Doreanche ani sorv Udenticho Nousenadhipoti –Purtugez Bharotantlea Armaricho mukhel koso kitab (Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia, India and all the Orient – Title as chief of the Portuguese India Armadas) * Bharotacho 2roi Rajiodhikari – Purtugez Bharotantlo vosnnukecho mukheli (2nd Viceroy of India – Title of office as colonial head of Portuguese India) * Vidigueiracho 1lo Count –Purtuguese kullvonticho kitab (1st Count of Vidigueira – Title of Portuguese nobility) == Purvoz == == Daiz == [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_-_1838.png|thumb|António Manuel da Fonseca (1838)hannem kaddlolem Vasco da Gamachem rupchitr <br />]] Vasco da Gama ek chodd famad ani sozoilolo Sodachea kallantlo provassodpi.Henry the Navigator, uprant survatechea vosnnukechea bollacho to Purtugalachea iesak zobabdar. Hachea xivai poili viaj dhorun, tachem rajkaronn ani zhuz dusrea sonvsarachea bazuchem mixronn korop hem Purtugalak eka mukhel zagear pavoilem Bharotachea Doreachea veparant da Gamachi survateche viajicho pattlav korun, Purtugez rajvottken chintlem ki udent Afrikechea doreadeger zage mellovp chodd gorjechem raxttrio veparak poixilea udente khatir chodd gorjechem . Punn, hi tachi fank kaim ghoddnneam ani avosthek lagun zoxem noxttea Tirthiatrechea bottichea ghoddnek lagun adim bhasabhas kelea; dhilavnk pavli. Purtugez raxttrio mhakavio Luís Vaz de Camões hachem  Lusíadas , hache chodd vixoi Vasco da Gamachea viajiche asat.[38] 1865 vorsantlo vhodd songitika L'Africaine: Opéra en Cinq Actes, zacho ghoddpi Giacomo Meyerbeer asa jem Eugène Scribe hachem songitachem borovp asa, tem mukhelponni Vasco da Gama hachem patr somavex korta. Ghoddnneachem dakhovp, zorui kolponik zavn asa, Meyerbeer hachea songitikecho mathallo Vasco da Gama aslo. 1989 vorsantlea prostuti songitechi San Francisco Songitikechii hantunt famad tenor Plácido Domingo  da Gamachea patrant aslo.[39]  19vea-xekddeacho rochpi Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray hannem ek nanv divpi songitika 1872 vorsa da Gamachea jivitacher ani doreachea porakromacher adarit asli Goeantlea Vasco da Gamachea bondrachea xarak tachem nanv dilam zoxe porim Chondracher ek Vasco da Gama vattkullo fondd asa,Brazilant ( Club de Regatas Vasco da Gama hacho somavex korun) tin futtbol ekvott ani Vasco Sports Club  Goeant asat zankam tachem nanv divpant ailam.Ek Igorz Kerollache Kochint asa, Kerollant Vasco da Gama Igorz, ani ek khasgi imarot Saint Helena zunvear asa.Cape Townantlem Vasco upnogor taka bhovman dita.  [[फायल:Panteão_Nacional_-_Cenotáfio_de_Vasco_da_Gama_-_Jul_2008.jpg|left|thumb|Santa Engrácia Igorjent Vasco da Gamak mornnachi iadostika <br />]] Thoddea zageank Lisboachea  Parque das Nações tankam sodprovasachem nanv dilam zoxe porim Vasco da Gama Pul, Vasco da Gama Gumtti ani Centro Comercial Vasco da Gama vepareacho kendr.[40]  Oceanário  Parque das Nações hantuntlea ek taviz eka veongchitr buddi marpeachem asa zachem nanv "Vasco" asa zaka hea sodprovas korpeachem nanv dilam,[41] Vasco da Gama ekttoch sodprovai xevttachea Os Grandes Portugueses poolant aslo. Zorui xevttache vollerint her Age of Discovery sombondit lok asle, te khoreponni kosleach karonnank sodprovas korpi nhoi mhonn tarvotti asle. Purtugez Noudol hachea zhuzabottinchea vorgank tachem nanv asa. Ekunn tin Vasco da Gama vorgacheo zhuza botti asat, zantuntli poilek tachem nanv dilam. Dokxinn Afriki songitkar Hugh Masekela hannem ek vosnnukvada addt kantar mudrailam zachem nanv "Vosnnukvadi Monis", zantun kaveachi utram "Vasco da Gama mhozo ixtt naslo", ani anik ek kantar zachem nanv "Vasco da Gama (Tarvotti Monis)". Donui kantarancho somavex tachea 1976 album Colonial Man.ant somavex kela. Vasco da Gamak eka Bharoti film Urumint ek virodhok koso dakhoila. Filmachem digdorxon, Santosh Sivan kelam ani tantunt eka Bharoteachem opiesachem da Gamak faran marop dakhoilam, Mars 2016, pornavollxasti je  Oman doreadeger vavurtale tankam ek buddloli bott sampoddli ji Esmeralda da Gamachea 1502–1503 armarantli oxem somzotat. Buddpache survatecho sod 1998 vorsa laglolo. Uprant udkapondchea khonddop, 2013 ani 2015 modem zalem Oman Ministry of Heritage and Culture ani Bluewater Recoveries Ltd. Hanche eka bhagidari vorvim, ek buddlolea bottinchi mellovn ghevpachi komponi, bottichi vollokh, hostikola vorvim zoxe porim ek"Purtugez nanno zo Bharota kodden vepar korpeak mudrailolo ‘(dona modlo ek nanno protiokxant asa oxem somzotat) ani fattrache tofantlean soddlole dhatu kantoilole zacher Vincente Sodré, da Gamachea mavxebhav ani  Esmeraldachea Senapoticheo lhan soi asa."[42] == Henvui polloi == * Chronology of European exploration of Asia / Evropi lokachea Asiachea sodprovasachi Zontri * Count of Vidigueira / Vidigueiracho Count * Portuguese India Armadas / Purtugez Bharotacheo Armari * Portuguese India / Purtugez Bharot * Spice trade / Mosaleacho vepar * ''Urumi'', a film which portrays Vasco da Gama / Urumi, ek film jem Vasco da Gamak vornnon korta == Sondorb == ; Tipnneo {{Reflist}} ; Zhori * {{Cite book|title=Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamarenai0000ames|last=Ames|first=Glenn J.|publisher=Longman|year=2004|isbn=0-321-09282-1}} * {{Cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|last=Ames|first=Glenn J.|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2007|isbn=978-0-13-193388-0}} * Castanhoso, M. de (1898) ''Dos feitos de D. Christovam da Gama em Ethiopia'' Lisbon: Imprensa nacional. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MiFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3 online] * {{Cite book|title=The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama, and His Viceroyalty|last=Corrêa|first=Gaspar|publisher=Adamant Media Corporation|year=2001|isbn=1-4021-9543-5|author-link=Gaspar Correia}} Facsimile reprint of an 1869 edition by the Hakluyt Society, London. * {{Cite book|title=The Indian Ocean in World History|last=Disney|first=Anthony|last2=Booth|first2=Emily|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|location=New Delhi and New York}} * {{Cite book|title=Civilizations|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|publisher=Macmillan|year=2001|isbn=0-7432-0248-1|location=Basingstoke and Oxford, U.K.|author-link=Felipe Fernández-Armesto}} * {{Cite book|title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|publisher=W. W. Norton|year=2006|isbn=978-0-393-06259-5|pages=177–181}} * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamahissu00jaynuoft|title=Vasco Da Gama and His Successors 1460 to 1580|last=Jayne|first=Kingsley Garland|publisher=Meuthen & Co.Ltd.|year=1910|isbn=978-0-548-00895-9|location=London, England}} * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/asiaandwesterndo009963mbp|title=Asia and Western Dominance: A Survey of the Vasco da Gama Epoch of Asian History, 1498–1945|last=Panikkar|first=K. M.|publisher=Allen & Unwin|year=1959|edition=new|location=London|asin=B000Q5T6X6|author-link=Kavalam Madhava Panikkar}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13stAAAAMAAJ|title=A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497–1499|last=Ravenstein|first=E. G.|last2=ed. and trans.|publisher=Hakluyt Society|year=1898|location=London|author-link=Ernst Georg Ravenstein}}CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ([[:वर्ग:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list|link]]) <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1-108-01296-6}}ISBN{{ISBN|978-1-108-01296-6}}978-1-108-01296-6) * {{Cite book|title=A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonmoveportu0000russ|last=Russell-Wood|first=A. J. R.|publisher=Macmillan|year=1993|isbn=978-0-312-09427-0}} * {{Cite book|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama|url=https://archive.org/details/careerlegendofva0000subr|last=Subrahmanyam|first=Sanjay|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-47072-8}} * Teixeira de Aragão, A.C. (1887) ''Vasco da Gama e a Vidigueira: um estudo historico''. Lisbon: Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa [https://books.google.com/books?id=cBAoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7 online] * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamahisvo00towl|title=Vasco da Gama, his voyages and adventures|last=Towle|first=George Makepeace|publisher=Lothrop, Lee & Shepard|year=c. 1878|location=Boston}} == Fuddlem vachop == * Vasco da Gama (Ernst Georg Ravenstein, Gaspar Corrêa, Alvaro Velho) [2011] Viartis {{ISBN|978-1-906421-04-5}}ISBN{{ISBN|978-1-906421-04-5}}978-1-906421-04-5 * Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader (Glen J.Ames) [2004] Longman {{ISBN|0-321-09282-1}}ISBN{{ISBN|0-321-09282-1}}0-321-09282-1 * The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Sanjay Subrahmanyam) [1997] Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|978-0-521-47072-8}}ISBN{{ISBN|978-0-521-47072-8}}978-0-521-47072-8 == Bhaileo zullovnneo == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110828160915/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html Vasco da Gama's ''Round Africa to India''], fordham.edu * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131213003604/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/vasco.html Vasco da Gama web tutorial with animated maps], ucalgary.ca * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1095-9270.12175/pdf A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502–1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an interim report], IJNA {| class="wikitable succession-box" style="margin: 0.5em auto 10px; font-size: 95%; clear: both;" | id="1151" rowspan="1" style="width:30%;" |Preceded&nbsp;by<br />Duarte de Menezes | id="1154" rowspan="1" style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" |''' Governor of Portuguese India'''<br />September−December 1524 | id="1157" rowspan="1" style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" |Succeeded&nbsp;by<br />Henrique de Menezes, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio |} [[वर्ग:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list]] [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] pm3gr5m409n0cs8dks2261z4sysfmvq 0 10029 217174 214954 2026-08-19T19:34:53Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217174 wikitext text/x-wiki {{lipi|.|Vasco da Gama}} [[फायल:Lisboa-Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga-Retrato dito de Vasco da Gama-20140917.jpg|left|thumbnail|Vasco da Gama]]'''वासचो दा गामा''', विदिगुेइराचो १लो चवंत (पुर्तुगेज उछार: [ˈvaʃku ðɐ ˈɣɐmɐ]; सुमार. १४६० – २४ देजेंबर १५२४), एक पुर्तुगेज सदप्रवासी आनी पयलो एवरपी दऱ्यामार्गांतल्यान भारतांत पावपी जावन आसा..ताची भारताची (१४९७–१४९९) सुर्वातेची वियाज एवरपाक आनी आसियाक एका दऱ्यामार्गान आतलांतीक आनी भारती दरियांक जडुंक आनी त्या खातीर, असतंप्त आनी उदेंतीक जडुंक जावन आसली, दा गामाचो भारताच्या दऱ्यामार्गाचो सद म्हत्वाचो कित्याक त्या वर्वीं जागतीक सांराज्वादाच्या ईवगाक एक वाट उग्ती जाली आनी पुर्तुगेजांक एक लांब काळाचें वसणुकेचें सांराज आसियांत स्थापुंक घडलें. दऱ्यामार्गांतल्यान प्रवास करप म्हणचे पुर्तुगेजांक चड किजिलांच्या भुमध्यासागराक आनी भिरांकूळ अरबी द्विकल्पाक ताळप जावन आसलें. भायर वचपी आनी परत येवपाचे वियाजेची एकूण अंतर म्हणचे ही इयात्रा दऱ्याची लांब्दीग वियाज त्या काळार केलली आसली, इतली लांब जी भुमध्यारेखा<ref>Diffie, Bailey W. and George D. Winius, ''Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580,'' p. 176</ref> कडल्यान जगाक भंवाडो मार्पा परस चड लांब आसली. इंदियेस-आक पावुंक जायतिंच दसकां तार्वटी प्रय्योत्न कर्ताना, हजारांनी जीव वचून, दुजांनी बटिंक अपघात आनी आक्रमण जावन, दा गामा २० माय १४९८ वर्सा चालिचूत पावलो. ह्या मसाल्याच्या वाटेक कसलीच आडखल नासलल्यान पुर्तुगेज सांराजाचे अर्थ्वेवस्थेक फाटबळ मेळ्ळें, हें आदीं उत्तर आनी दऱ्यादेगेच्या असतंप्त आफ्रिकेचेर आदारीत आसलें. मुखेल मसाले, पयलीं दक्षीण उदेंत आसिया कडल्यान मेळयलले ते काळी मिरियां आनी तिखी जावन आसले, पूण रखडेंच हेर उत्पन, एवरपाक सगळे नवे, हांचो समावेश जावंक पावलो. पुर्तुगालाक ह्या वसतुंचो एक वेपारी मक्तो साबार दसकां मेळुंक पावलो. एक शेकडो उपरांत हेर एवरपी बळां, जशे परीं दुतच पर्जेराज आनी इंगलांद, जाच्या फाटल्यान फ्रान्स आनी देन्मार्क, हांकां पुर्तुगालाच्या मक्त्याक आनी चापे मार्गाच्या नवदलाच्या वर्तेपणाक आव्हान दिवपांत आयलें. दा गामा हाणें दन पुर्तुगेज भारती नवदलाचें फुडारिपण चलयलें, पयलें आनी चवतें. निमाणें, व्हडांतलें व्हड आसलें आनी तें भारता खातीर पयलें पर्तपा पासून चार वर्सांनी आयलें. ह्या ताच्या योगदाना खातीर, १५२४ वर्सा दा गामा हाका भारताचो राजियोपाल, नेंपांत आयलो जाका राजियोधिकारिचो किताब आनी विदिगुेइराचो चवंत १५१९ वर्सा दर्जो दिलो. वासचो दा गामा,सदपरवासाच्या इतिहासांत एक फुडारी कसो जावन गेलो. ताच्या सदपरवासा आनी जयता खातीर साबार आर्गां ताका संवसार्भर दिवपांत आयल्यांत. पुर्तुगेज राश्ट्रियो म्हाकाव्यो, चामोंेस हाणें अस लूसíआदास, ताच्या भवमानाक बरयलां(स.१५८०). भारताची ताची पयली वियाज एक जगाच्या इतिहासांत एक म्हत्वाची घडणी संजतात, कित्याक त्या वर्वीं दऱ्याचेर-आदारीत जगाच्या भवसन्सक्रुतिवादाची सुर्वात खुणावपांत आयल्या.<ref>{{cite book|first=Cliff|last=Nigel|title=Holy War: How Vasco da Gama's Epic Voyages Turned the Tide in a Centuries-Old Clash of Civilizations|publisher=Harper| date=September 2011}}{{page number|date=January 2016}}.</ref> मार्स २०१६ वर्सांत हजारांनी हसत्कारागिरी आनी नवदळाच्यो उरलले जिनस एस्मेराल्दा बटिच्या बुडपांत आयलल्याच्यो सांपडल्यात, आनी गामाच्या आर्मारा मदलो एक, अमानाच्या उदेंत दऱ्यादेगेर सांपडला.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/20160314-oman-shipwreck-explorer-vasco-da-gama-age-of-exploration-india-route/|title=Shipwreck Discovered from Explorer Vasco da Gama's Fleet|date=2016-03-14|access-date=2017-12-10}}</ref> == आदलें जिवीत == [[फायल:Sines06_edit1.jpg|thumb|वासचो दा गामाच्या जल्माच्या गांवांत ताच्या कांश्याचो, सिनेस, पुर्तुगाल हांगा पुतळो.<br />]] [[फायल:Vasco_Sines.jpg|thumb|सिनेस,हांगासरल्या वासचो दा गामा हाच्या दक्षिणेच्या दऱ्याक फुडो कर्पी पुतळ्याचो फाटल्यान सावन देखावो<br />]] [[फायल:50_Escudos_célébrant_le_500e_anniversaire_de_la_naissance_de_Vasco_Da_Gama,_1969.jpg|thumb|वासचो दा गामा]] वासचो दा गामाचो जलं १४६० वो १४६९,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110828160915/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html Modern History Sourcebook: ''Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497–1498 CE''], fordham.edu, Retrieved 27 June 2007.</ref> सिनेस, गांवांत जालो जो दऱ्याच्या बंद्रां मदें आलेंतेजो दऱ्यादेगेर एक गांव, जो पुर्तुगालाच्या दक्षीण असतंप्तेक उर्ता घडियेक एका घरांत सालास सायबिणिंच्या इगर्जे लागसर जावन आसा. वासचो दा गामाचो बापूय एसतêवãओ दा गामा आसलो, जाणें १४६० वर्सा एक सर्दार कसो इनफांते फेर्दिनांद, दुके अफ विसेव.<ref name="ames">{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|page=[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/27 27]|isbn=0-13-193388-4|year=2008}}.</ref> घराब्यांत कां केलां. तो सयनाच्या अर्देर अफ सांतियागो वर्गा पऱ्यांत वयर सरुंक पावलो.. एसतêवãओ दा गामा हाका सिनेस-आचो १४६० वर्सा आल्चायदेमóर (नाग्रीक राजियोपाल) नेंलो, एक जुटी जी ताणें १४७८ परियांत केली; उपरांत तो कर स्विकार्पी आनी जाग्याचो अर्देर चंमेंदास जावन आसलो.. एसतêवãओ दा गामा, इसाबेल सद्रé कडेन काजार जालो, जी जोãओ सद्रé (जाका जोãओ दे रेसेंदे म्हणूय वळखताले), हाची धूव एक इंगलीश अरंबाची बरो संबंद आसलल्या संतानाची आसली.<ref>The Sodrés were said to have been descended from Frederick Sudley, of Gloucestershire, who accompanied the [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Earl of Cambridge]] to Portugal in 1381, and subsequently settled there (Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 61).</ref> तिचो बापूय आनी हेर भाव, विचेंते सद्रé आनी ब्रáस सद्रé, हांचे संबंद इनफांते दियोगो, दुके अफ विसेव, हाच्या घराब्या कडेन आसले आनी ते सयनाच्या अर्देर अफ च्रिसत हाचे नांनेचे मनीस आसले. वासचो दा गामा हो पांचांतलो तिस्रो पूत एसतêवãओ दा गामा आनी इसाबेल सद्रé हांचो आसलो– (दिसता त्या पर्मणें: पावलो दा गामा, जोãओ सद्रé, वासचो दा गामा, पेद्रो दा गामा आनी आयरेस दा गामा हांचे पिराय्ेचो. वासचोक एक भयणूय आसली, तेरेसा दा गामा (जी लपो मेंदेस दे वासचंचेलस हाचे कडेन काजार जाली).<ref>Subrahmanyam, 1997, p. 61.</ref> दा गामाच्या आदल्या जिविता विशीं थडीच म्हायती आसा. पुर्तुगेज इतिहासकार तेइशेइरा दे आरागãओ सुचयता की ताणें éवरा गांवांत शिकप केलें, जंय घडियेक ताणें गणीत आनी समुदियात्रेचें शिकप केलें आसतलें. तो आबराहां जाचुतो,हाच्या खाल शिकलो म्हण दावो कर्पांत येता जो एक जियोतिशी आनी जियोतिशासत्र जाणा आसलो, पूण दा गामाचो चरित्र्कार सुबराह्मान्यां हें पातियोंव नजो अशें संजता..[८] सुमार १४८० वर्सा, दा गामान आपल्या पायचो पाटलाव केलो (सद्रéस-आचो कर्च्या परस) आनी अर्देर अफ सांतियागो.[९]हांतुंत प्रवेस केलो. सांतियागोचो वडील प्रिंचे जहन आसलो, जो शिंवासनार १४८१ वर्सा पर्तुगालाचो जहन ईि राजा कसो चडलो. जहन ईि हाका अर्देर-आचें पिशें लागललें, आनी दा गामास-आची उमेद ह्या वर्वीं वाडुंक पावली. १४९२ वर्सा, जहन ईि हाणें दा गामाक एका मिसांवांत सेतúबाल बंद्रार्र आल्गार्वे हांगासर फ्रेंच बटी ताब्यांत घेवंक पाठयलो जें शांतिच्या काळार पुर्तुगेज बटिंक आक्रमण कर्पाक जावन आसलें -जश्याक तशें जबाब दिवप आसलें—एक पत्कर घेवपाचो वावर जो सडसडीत आनी परिणां जायसार्को केलो.[१०] == दा गामा आदीं सदपरवास == १५व्या शेकड्याच्या सुर्वातेक, पुर्तुगेज इयात्रा जाची मानडावळ कुंवर हेनऱ्य थे नाविगातर हाणें केलली, ते आफ्रिकी दऱ्यादेगेर पावलले, चड करून असतंप्त आफ्रिकेच्या गिरेसत्काय्े खातीर (चड करून भांग्राक) ताणीं पुर्तुगेजांची दऱ्याची जाण्वाय विसतारलली, पूण हें दाखवपाचे खातीर कांय फायद्याचें नासलें. हेनऱ्यचया मर्णा १४६० वर्सा उपरांत, पुर्तुगेज राज्वटेन हो प्रय्योत्न चालू दवरुंक भव थडी उमेद दाखयली आनी १४६९ वर्सा, दुरलक्ष केलल्या आफ्रिकी वेपाराक एका खासगी लिसबाच्या वेपार सन्स्थेक विकलो जाचो फुडारी फेर्नãओ गमेस आसलो.थड्या वर्सां मदें, गमेसाच्या कपितांनी पुर्तुगेज जाण्वाय्ेचो विसतार गुलफ अफ गुयन्या हांगा केलो जे भांग्राच्या कचऱ्याचो, मेलेगुेता मिरियां,हसतिदंत आनी ऊप-साहाराच्या जुलुमाचो वेपार कर्ताले. जेन्ना गमेसाचें अदिकार्पत्र नवसर्णी कर्पाक १४७४ वर्सा आयलें, कुंवर जहन (फुडाराचो जहन ईि), हाणें आपल्या बापायक आफन्सो व अफ पर्तुगाल आफ्रिकी अधिकार्पत्र आपणाक दिवपाक सांगलें. [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_Leaving_Portugal.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Vasco da Gama leaving the port of [[Lisboa|Lisbon]], Portugal]] १४८१ वर्सा आपूण राजा जातकूच, पर्तुगााचो जहन ईल हाणें जायतें सुदारप केलें. संराटाचें सामंतशाय वयर अवलुंबून रावप उणें करुंक, जहन ईि हाका राज्याचें भानडार बांदपाची गरज आसली, ताणें राज्याचो वेपार हें कर्पाक एक मुखेल घटक कसो मानलो. जहन ईि चे नद्रे खाल, भांगार आनी जुलुमांचो वेपार असतंप्त आफ्रिकेंत बरच वाडलो, चड फायद्याच्या एवरपाच्या आनी आसियाच्या मसाल्याच्या वेपारांत भितर सरुंक ताका उमेद आसली,जी चड शी जंनिवेल्यान जाताली. त्या वेळार, हाचो मक्तो वेनिचेपर्जेराजाचो आसलो जें जंनिवेल्या मार्गांतल्यान, लेवांतिने आनी एग्य्प्तियान बंद्रांतल्यान तांबड्या दऱ्या उदेशीं भारताच्या मसाल्याच्या बाजार्पेठे कडेन कर्ताले. आफ्रिकी खनडाच्या भंवतणी वियाज मारून आसिया खातीर एक दऱ्यामार्ग सदुंक, जहन ईि हाणें एक नवो हेतू आपल्या कपितां खातीर बसयलो. वासचो दा गामा २० वर्सांचो आसताना, राजाच्या येवजण्याक फळ मेळुंक लागललें. १४८७ वर्सा, जहन ईि हाणें दन गुप्त हेर, पेरो दा चविल्हã आनी आफन्सो दे पायवा, जंनिवेल्यान उदेंत आफ्रिकेक आनी भारतांत, एग्य्प्त मार्गान मसाळ्याच्यो बाजाार्पेठो आनी वेपाराचे मार्ग सदुंक पाठयले. मटो सद रखडच लागलो जेन्ना जहन इिचो कपीत बार्तलमेव दियास चापे अफ गद हपे हाचो भंवाडो मारून पर्तलो आनी १४८८ वर्सा फिसह रिवेर (रियो दो इनफांते) पऱ्यांत सद लायल्या उपरांत जें आतांचें दक्षीण आफ्रिका आसा आनी अंवळखी दऱ्यादेग उत्तर उदेंत पऱ्यांत पसरलली आसा म्हण तपासतच. दियासान सदून काडलल्याचें आनी दा चविल्हã आनी दे पायवा, हाणीं मेळयलली म्हायतिची जडणी आनी ह्या वेगळ्या भागांक फायदेशीर व्यापारी मार्ग भारती म्हासागरांत करुंक एक प्रवास सद कर्प्याची सिद्ध करुंक गरज आसली. == पयली वियाज == [[फायल:Gama_route_1.svg|thumb|300x300px|वासचो दा गामाच्या पयले वियाजिचो दऱ्या मार्ग (१४९७–१४९९)]] ८ जुल्ह १४९७ वासचो दा गामा हाणें एक चार बटिंचो आनी लिसबांतले १७० मंशांचो घेवन फुडाकार केलो. आफ्रिका तें भारत आनी परत ह्या प्रवासाचें अंतर भुमध्यारेखा[११][१२] कडल्यान जगाक भंवाडो मार्पा परस चड लांब आसलें. प्रवास कर्प्यां मदें पुर्तुगालाचो चड अणभवी, पेरो दे आलेंकुेर, पेद्रो एसचबार, जोãओ दे चंयबरा, आनी आफन्सो गनçआलवेस हांचो समावेश आसलो.कितलो लक दर बटिंत आसलो ताची खात्री ना पूण सुमार ५५ पर्तले आनी दन बटी शेनडल्यो. बटीं मदल्यो दन चार्राचक्स आसल्यो, ज्यो वियाजे खातीर नव्यो बांदलल्यो, हेर चारावेल आसल्यो आनी एक पुर्वणेची बट आसली.[११] चार बटी अश्यो आसल्यो: * ''सãओ गाबरियेल'', वासचो दा गामा हाणें फुडारिपण चलयलली; एक चार्राचक १७८ टनाचो, लांबाय २७ म, रुंदाय ८.५ म, द्राफ्त २.३ म, शिडां ३७२ म² * ''सãओ राफाेल'', पावलो दा गामाह ताच्या भावान फुडारिपण चलयलली, तसल्याच आकाराची जशी सãओ गाबरियेल * ''बेर्रियो'' (आडनांव, अधिक्रुत्पणी सãओ मिगुेल वळखवपांत आयलली), एक चारावेल, आदल्या दना पासून मातशे ल्हान, जाचें फुडारिपण निचलाव चेल्हो हाणें केलें. * एक सानट्याची बट जाचें नांव नकळत, जाचें फुडारिपण गनçआलो नुनेस चलयललें, जिका मस्सेल बाय (सãओ ब्रáस) दक्षीण आफ्रिकेंत[५] बुडपाचें निर्मण आयलें. === चापे कडेन वियाज === [[फायल:Cross_daGama2.jpg|thumb|चापे अफ गद हपे, दक्षीण आफ्रिकेंत वासचो दा गामाच्या खुर्साक इयादसतिका<br />]] सदप्रवास लिसबाक सावन ८ जुल्हाक१४९७ वर्सा भायर सरलो, आदल्या सद प्रवास कर्प्यांनी केललो तच आफ्रिकेच्या दऱ्यादेगे वेलो तेनेरिफे आनी चापे वेर्दे जुंव्यां मार्ग ताणें धरलो. आतांच्या सियेर्रा लेवन्े, दऱ्या देगेर पावतचं दा गामा हाणें एक वाट उग्त्या संदिरान दक्षिणेक धरली, भुमध्यारेखा उपून आनी दक्षीण आतलांतिकेच्या वसंत्रुतू सदून जाचो बार्तलमेव दियास हाणें १४८७ वर्सा सद लायललो.[१३] ही वाट येसियेस्वी जावंक पावली आनी ४ नवेंबर १४९७, सदप्रवास आफिकेच्या दऱ्यादेगेर देंवलो. तीन अदीक म्हयने बटिंनी वियाज मारली आनी १०,००० अदीक किलमेत्र (६,००० मी) उक्त्या दऱ्यांतल्यान तो जालो, एक सगळ्यांत लांब्दीग वियाज जंनी पेल्यान त्या वेळार ती जावंक पावली.[११][१४] १६ देचेंबर मेरेन, आर्मारान गऱ्यात फिसह रिवेर (यासतेर्न चापे, दक्षीण आफ्रिका) – पास केली जंय दियास पर्तललो – आनी उदकांतल्यान प्रवास केलो जो आदीं एवरप्यानांक अंवळखी आसलो. नातालां येवपाचीं आसलल्यान, दा गामा आंद ताच्या सांगात्यांनी ते पासार जातल्या जाग्याक नाताल नांव दिलें, जाचेर पुर्तुगेजिंत अर्थ "क्रिसताचो जलं" आसलो. === मसांबिके === वासचो दा गामा हाणें २ तें २९ मार्स १४९८ वेळ मजांबिकूे जुंव्या लागसर सारलो. अरबांचो शेक आसललो जागो उदेंत आफ्रिकेच्या दऱ्यादेगेचो एक भारती म्हासागराच्या वेपाराचो एक म्हत्वाचो भाग जावन आसलो.क्रिसतांवांक थळावे लक घडियेक विरधी आसतले हें घाबरून., दा गामान मुसल्मानाचो भेस घेतलो आनी मजांबिकुेच्या सुल्तानाची भेट घेतली. किर्कळ वेपाऱ्याच्यो वसतू ताचे कडेन आसलल्यान, एक राजकर्प्याक बरी शी भेट दिवंक घडुंक ना. थळाव्या लकाक रकडच दा गामा आनी ताच्या मंशांचो दुबाव लागलो.एका विरधी जंयाच्या बळाक लागून दा गामाक मजांबिकुेंतली पळापळ काडची पडली, दा गामान प्रतिकार करून आपले नाळे सडले आनी बंद्र सडलें.[१५] === मंबासा === आधुनीक केन्या लागसर, इयात्रा, बटिंतल्या म्हालाची चरी कर्पाक लागले, अरबी वेपारी बटिंक लुटुंक लागले जांचे लागीं शसत्रां नासली न्हय म्हण खडेगांत नाळियो. पुर्तुगेज पयले एवरपी मंबासा बंद्राक भेटुंक पावले जें ७ तें १३ आबरील १४९८ जावंक पावलें, पूण तांकां विरधाक फुडो कर्चो पडलो आनी वेगिनूच थयंचे भायर सरले. === मालिंदी === [[फायल:Pillar_of_Vasco_da_Gama.jpg|thumb|वासचो दा गामाचो खांबो मालिंदी, जो पर्तपाच्या वियाजेंत उबो कर्पांत आयलो<br />]] वासचो दा गामा उत्तरेक वचत रावलो, आनी १४ आबरील १४९८ इश्टागतिच्या मालिंदी बंद्रार पावलो, फुडाऱ्यांक मंबासा कडे दुस्मांकाय आसली.. थंय तांकां भारती वेपारी पयले दिसले. दा गामा आनी ताच्या मंशांनी एका पायलटाची जाका मन्सन वाऱ्याची जाण्वाय आसली सेवा घेतली ज्या वर्वीं इयात्रेचें मार्ग्दर्शन चालिचूत जें भारताच्या दक्षीण असतंप्तेक उर्ता, थंय परियांत ते करुंक पावतले. पायलटाचे वळखे विशीं झरिंचें मत वेगळें आसा,कण ताका क्रिसतांव, एक मुसल्मान आनी एक गुज्राती म्हणटात. एक पारंपरीक काणी पायलटाक फामाद अरबी वियाज मार्पी इब्न माजीद म्हणटा, पूण संकालीन बरवपां माजिदाक दुस्रे कडेन दवर्तात आनी थंय त्या वेळार लागसार आसुंक जायना म्हणटात.[१६] खयंचेच पुर्तुगेज इतिहासकार त्या काळाचे इब्न माजिदाचो उल्लेख कर्नांत. वासचो दा गामान मालिंदी सडून भारता कडेन २४ आबरील १४९८ वचपाक सरलो. === चालिचूत, इंदिया === [[फायल:VASCO_DA_GAMA_LANDING_AT_KALICUT.gif|thumb|वासचो दा गामा चालिचूत पावताना]] [[फायल:A_steel_engraving_from_the_1850's,_with_modern_hand_coloring.jpg|thumb|१८५० वर्सांतलेमेेक तिख्याचें कांतप, आधुनीक हाताच्या रंगवपांत.तें वासचो दा गामाची जामरिना लागीं भेट दाखयता.<br />]] [[फायल:Vasco_Memo_Kappad.jpg|thumb|चालिचूत लागसार काप्पाद हांगा शिमेफातर.]] काप्पादू, कझिकदे (चालिचूत), मालाबार दऱ्यादेगेर (आतांचें भारताचें केरळ राजियो) हांगा आर्मार, २० माय १४९८ पावली. चालिचुताचो राजा, सामुदिरी (जामरीन), जो त्या वेळार पणानी ह्या दूसऱ्या राजधानिंत रावतालो, पर्देशी आर्मार थंय पावलां म्हण कळटच तो चालिचुताक पर्तलो. तार्वट्याक,,पारंपरीक पावणार करून घेवपांत आयलो, जांतुंत एक व्हड मिर्वणूक उण्यांत उणें ३,००० शसशसत्र आसलल्या नायर हांचो आस्पाव आसलो, पूण एक जामरीन कडेन मुलाखत कसलच स्पश्ट परिणां हाडुंक पावुंक ना. जेन्ना थळाव्या अधिकाऱ्यांनी दा गामाच्या आर्माराक विचारलें, "हे सुवातेर तुका कित्याक हाडला?", ताणीं जबाब दिलो की ते "क्रिसतांवांच्या आनी मसाल्याच्या."[१७] सदांत आयल्यात. दा गामांत जामरिनाक दं मानुेलाच्यो भेटो ज्यो धाडलल्यो – चार हात्कापी कबाय् शेंदूऱ्या रंगाच्या लुगटाच्यो, सो चेपीं, चार पंवळ्यांचे फानटे,बारा आल्मासारेस,एक पितुळच्या आयदनाची पेट, साखरिचो खण, तेलाचीं दन बल्लां आनी एक म्हंवांचें बल्ल– किर्कळ आसल्यो आनी छाप मारुंक पावुंक नांत. जामरिनाचे अधिकारी हांतुंत भांगार वो रुपें कित्याक ना त्या विशीं चिंतुंक पडले. मुसल्मान वेपारी जे दा गामांक आपले विरधी संजताले ताणीं तो एक सादो दरियांतलो लुटमारो आनी एक राजाचो राजदूत. न्हय अशें सुचयलें. [१८] वासचो दा गामान,क कित्याक ताच्यान म्हाल विकुंक जायना देखून, ती राजान भायर मारली, जाणें दा गामान शुल्क फारीक करुंक जाय म्हणनेटान सांगलें - चड करून भांग्रान – हेर वेपाऱ्यां भाशेन, ज्या वर्वीं दगांय भितरली सयरिगत ताणुंक पावली.हाची तिडक येवन ताणें थड्या नायरांक आनी सळा नुसतेकारांक (मुक्कुवा) आपल्या सांगाता बळान व्हेले.[१९] तरुयपूण, दा गामाचो आर्मार येवजिलल्या परस येसियेस्वी जावंक पावलो जांतुंत ताणें म्हाल हाडलो जाचें मल आर्माराच्या खर्चा वन साठ पावटी व्हड जावन आसलें. === पर्तणें === वासचो दा गामान चालिचूत २९ आगसत १४९८ वर्सा सडलें.घरा वचपाचे उमेदीन, ताणें थळावी जाण्वाय मन्सनाच्या वाऱ्याची दुरलक्ष केली जें अजून दऱ्यादेगेर मार्तालें.आर्मार सुर्वातेक उत्तरे दिशेन भारती दऱ्यादेगेर ताणड्टाली आनी उपरांत विश्रांती घेवचे खातीर आंजेदिवा जुंव्यार नांग्रायली. शेवटीं ते भारती संदिरा वेल्यान गेले जो ताणीं ३ अवतुबरांत १४ वर्सा उपलो. पूण हिंवाळ्याचो मन्सन अजून येवपाचो आसलो, आनी वियाज एक कळवळ्याची जावंक पावली. वियाज मार्ताना, हुनाळ्याच्या मन्सन वाऱ्याक फुडो करून, दा गामाचो आर्मार भारती संदीर फकत २३ दिसांनी उपलो, आनी आतां पर्तण्याच्या वियाजेन, वाऱ्या विरूध वियाज मार्ताना तांकां१३२ दीस लागले. दा गामान जमीन फकत २ जानेराक १४९९ पळयली,जेन्ना तो दऱ्यादेगेच्या समाली शारांतल्या मगादिसहू हाच्या पासार जातालो, तेन्ना तें आजुरान सांराजा खाल हर्न अफ आफ्रिचांत आसलें.आर्मार थांबुंक ना, पूण मगादिसहू पासार जावचे पयलीं, ह्या इयात्रेचो निनामी दिस्पट्टी बरवपी हाणें तें एक व्हड शार जांतुंत घरां चार वो पांच माळियांचीं उंच आसलीं आनी व्हड राज्महलां तांच्या मदेकात आनी साबार मसजिदां जांकां लांब वाटकुल्यो गुंट्यो आसल्यो;अशी नंद केल्या.[२०] दा गामाचो आर्मार शेवटीं मालिंदी , एका भिरांकूळ परिस्थितिंत ७ जानेर १४९९ पावलो – सुमार अर्दे मनीस वियाज कर्ताना तांतुंतले संपलले आनी हेरांक रग्ताच्या स्रावाचो रग जाललो. तीन बटिंचो परामूस करुंक फावो ते मनीस ना जावन, दा गामान सãओ राफाेलाक उदेंत आफ्रिकेच्या दऱ्यादेगेर उदकांत बुडयली आनी तार्वावेल्या मंशांक दन उरलल्या बटिंत सãओ गाबरियेल आनी बेर्रियो. वानट्पांत आयले. त्या उपरांत, वियाज सुळसुळीत जावंक पावली. सुर्वातेच्या मार्सांत, ते मस्सेल बाय पावले, आनी चापे अफ गद हपे उर्फाट्या दिशेन २० मार्साक उपलो,आनी असतंप्त आफ्रिकी दऱ्यादेगेर २५ आबरिलाक पावले. इयात्रेही नंदणी आवचीत हांगा संप्ता. दूसऱ्या झरिंतल्यान पर्तून एकठांय करून, अशें वाचुंक मेळटा की ते चापे वेर्दे पऱ्यांत पावले, जंय निचलाव चेल्हचो बेर्रियो वासचो दा गामाच्या सãओ गाबरियेल हाका वेगळो जालो आनी एकटच वियाज मारुंक लागलो.[२१] बेर्रियो लिसबाक १० जुल्ह १४९९ पावलो आनी निचलाव चेल्हो हाणें खाशा ही खबर राजा मानुेल ई आनी राज्याचो दरबार सिंत्रा जमो जालो. इतल्या मदेकात, चापे वेर्दे पर्तो पावून, दा गामाचो भाव, पावलो दा गामा चड दुेंत जालो. दा गामा ताच्या सांगाता सांतियागो जुंव्यार रावपाक कबूल जालो आनी ताणें सãओ गाबरियेल जोãओ दे सáक हरा व्हर्पाक आपल्या गुमसता सुवादीन केलें. सãओ गाबरियेल , सá-च्या खाला, लिसबाक उपरांत सुमार उशिराच्या जुहांत वो सुर्वातेच्या आवगुसतांत पावलो. दा गामा आनी ताचो दुेंत भाव हाणीं एका गुयन्या चारावेलांत प्रवास करून पुर्तुगालाक पर्तले, पूण पावलो दा गामा वाटेर संपलो. दा गामा, आजरेस देंवलो आपल्या भावाक सãओ फ्रांचिसचांग्रा दो हेरयस्मो हांगासर पुरुंक , आनी थडो काळ दूख कर्पाक थंयसर रावलो. उपरांत तो एका आजऱ्यान चारावेलान बसून शेवटीं लिसबाक २९ आगसत १४९९ (बार्रसा पर्मणें) पावलो,[२२] वो सुर्वातेच्या सेतेंबरांत (८वेर वो १८वेर, हेर झरीं पर्मणें). अश्या चिंतेंत गुल्ल आसतानांय, दा गामा हाका एका पराक्रमी येवकार दिलो आनी भवमानान ताका भरलो जांतुंत एक जयतिवंत मिर्वणूक आनी भवसाच्या परबांचो समावेश आसलो. राजा मानुेल हाणें दन चिटी बरयल्यांत, जुल्ह आनी आगसत १४९९,बटिंच्या पर्तण्या उपरांत ज्यो दा गामाच्या पयले वियाजेची खबर दितात. गिरलामो सेर्निगी हाणेईं ताणीं इयात्रा संपयल्या उपरांत दा गामाच्या पयल्या वियाजे विशीं बरयलां. [[फायल:Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif|thumb|350x350px|भायल्यो आनी पर्तण्याचे वियाजी पुर्तुगेज भारताच्यो (''चार्रेइरा दा í_ंदिया''). दक्षीण आतलांतिकाच्या वसंत रुतुचो मार्ग जो बार्तलमेव दियास हाणें १४८७वर्सा सद लायलो, जाचो पाटलाव आनी सदपरवास दा गामान उग्त्या दऱ्यांत केलो ताचो विकास उपरांतल्या वर्सांनी जावपाचो आसलो.<br />]] इयात्रेक बरच खर्च आयलो – एक बट आनी अर्दे मनीस शेनड्पांत आयले. चालिचुता कडेन एक वेपारी कबलात कर्पाच्या जिवंकारियांतूय अपियेस आयललें. तरी लेगीत, मसालो जो उरलल्या दन बटिंनी हाडललो तो प्रचनड फायद्याक, राज्याक विकपांत आयलो. वासचो दा गामा हाचो फावो तो सत्कार एक नीट आसियाक वचपाच्या दऱ्यामार्गा खातीर कर्पांत आयलो.ताचे वाटेचो पाटलाव उपरांत दर पुर्तुगेज भारताच्या नवदलांत केलो. पुर्तुगेज राज्याच्या भानडाराक एक मुखेल आस्पत मसाल्याचो वेपार जावंक पावलो आनी हेर परिणामाचो उपरांत पाटलाव जालो.देखीक: दा गामाच्या वियाजेन एक स्पश्ट केललें की आफ्रिकेची उदेंत दऱ्यादेग चंत्रा चसता, पुर्तुगेज हित्संबंदा खातीर म्हत्वाची जावन आसली; तांचीं बंद्रां ताजें उदक पुर्वण कर्तालें, हेर पुर्वणी, लाकूड आनी दुरुसती कर्पाक बंद्रां आनी साबार तार्वांक एक आस्रो जंय तीं वायट हवामानाक लागून रावुंक जातालीं. एक म्हत्वाचो परिणनां पुर्तुगेज राज्वटकेक मजांबिकुेची वसाहत करुंक पावलें. == इनामा == [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_signature_almirante.svg|thumb|वासचो दा गामाची सय (हो चंदे आल्मिरांते, "नवसेनाधिपती चवंत" वाचपाक मेळटा) ]] देजेंबर १४९९, राजा पर्तुगालाचो मानुेल ई हाणें वासचो दा गामा हाका सिनेस गांव इनां कसो भेटयलो एक वंशाचें दायज कशें (ताच्या बापायन, एसतêवãओ, हाणें एक फावट चंमेंदा कशें आसलें). हें एक गुस्पणेच्या जावंक पावलें, कित्याक सिनेसाची माल्की अजून अर्देर अफ सांतियागो हाची आसली. अर्देर-आच्या वडिलान, जर्गे दे लेंचासत्रे, हाणें घडियेक इनां पास केला आसतलो –शेवटीं, दा गामा एक सांतियागो सर्दार, एक तांचच, आनी एक चड लागशिलो भागिदार लेंचासत्रे हाचो आसलो.पूण सिनेसाक राजान इनां दिला देखून लेंचासत्रे-आक खुबळावंक पावलो तें तत्वाक लागून नाकारुंक, कित्याक तें घडियेक राजाक अदीक अर्देर-आचीं भाटां दान करुंक उत्तेजन दिवंक पावतलें. [२३] दा गामा फुडलीं कांय वर्सां सिनेसाक ताब्यांत घेवंक सार्चीं पडटा आसलीं, एक प्रय्योत्न जो ताका लेंचासत्रे सवें पयसावुंक पावता आसतलो आनी शेवटीं दा गामान, अर्देर अफ च्रिसत हाच्या विशीं वचून अर्देर अफ सांतियागो १५०७ वर्सा सडून दिवपाक पडलें. इतल्या मदेकात,.दा गामा हाका वंशाकुळाचें राज्यो बस्पागार ३००,००० रेईस फावो जालें. ताका, ताच्या भावनडांक आनी फुडले पिळगेक कुळवंत किताब दं (समी) सदांकाल फावो जालो. ३० जानेराक १५०२, दा गामा हाका आल्मिरांते दस मारेस दे आराबिया, पेर्सिया, इंदिया ए दे तदो ओ अरियेंते ("अरब, पेर्सिया आनी आख'ख्या उदेंतिचो नवसेनाधिपती") – हो किताब फावो जालो जो एक सजयललो उगडासाचो चासतिलियान किताब जो च्रिसतपहेर चलुंबूस (स्पश्ट्पणी, जर मानुेलाक दिला तर चासतिले हाचो 'संदिराच्या दऱ्याचो नवसेनाधिपती',दिला तर खात्रेन पुर्तुगालान सुद्धां एक दिवंक जाय) दशयललो दिवपांत आयलो.[२४] आनीक एक अवतुबर १५०१ तार्खेची राजियाची चीट, हाणें दा गामाक मदें पडुंक स्वताचो हक दिलो आनी एक निसचीत भुमिका खयंच्या फुडले भारतांत वचपी इयात्रेचेर करुंक दिलो. १५०१ हाच्या सुमाराक, वासचो दा गामा हाणें चातारिना दे आताíदे, áल्वारो दे आताíदेची धूव, आलवराच्या (आल्गार्वे) आल्चायदेमóर हिचे कडेन काजार जडलें, आनी एक फामाद कुळवंत नातें बळवंत आल्मेइदा कुटुंबा कडेन जडलें (चातारिना द. फ्रांचिसचो दे आल्मेइदा)हाची बापुल्भयण आसली.[२५] == दुस्री वियाज == [[फायल:Gama_armada_in_India,_1502.gif|thumb|भारताची मालाबार दऱ्यादेग, च. १५००, वासचो दा गामाची वाट ४त्या भारती आर्माराची १५०२ वर्सांतली दाखयता<br />]] पाटलाव कर्पी इयात्रा, दुस्री भारताची आर्मार,जी १५०० वर्सा पेद्रो áल्वारेस चाबराल हाच्या फुडारिपणा खाल एक कबलाती वर्वीं चालिचुचो जामरीन आनी एक पुर्तुगेज कार्खानो शारांत स्थापलो..पूण, पेद्रो चाबराल थळाव्या अरबी वेपारी सन्स्थां कडेन एका किजिलांत पडलो, जाचो परिणां कार्खानो एका मार्मारिंत सांपडलो आनी सुमार ७० पुर्तुगेज तांतुंत मरुंक पावले. चाबराल हाणें जामरिनाचेर त्या घडणे बदल बगलानट घातलें आनी शाराचेर बंब घातले. ह्या वर्वीं पुर्तुगाल आनी चालिचुता मदें झूज जावंक पावलें. वासचो दा गामान घाराणें घातल्या ताच्या राज्याच्या चिटिंत ४त्या भारती आर्मार हाचें फुडार्पण आपल्या हातांत घेवंक, जें १५०२ कर्पाक थारायलें, जामरिनाचेर सूड घेतलो म्हण स्पश्ट करून आनी पुर्तुगेजाच्या अटी मानून घेवंक ताका बळ करुंक. जबर्दसत शशसत्र आर्मार पंद्रा बटिंची आसून अयशीं मनीस लिसबाक सावन १२ फेवरेर १५०२ भायर सरली.ताच्या फाटल्यान आबरिलांत आनीक एक पांच बटिंची तुकडी ताच्या बापूल भाव, एसतêवãओ दा गामा (आयरेस दा गामाचो पूत), हाच्या फुडारिपणा खाल भायर सरली जी तांकां भारती म्हासागरांत भेटली. ४तो आर्मार एक दा गामा कुटुंबाचो जावन आसलो. ताचे दन मामा, विचेंते सद्रé आनी ब्रáस सद्रé, हांकां आदिंच भारती म्हासागरांतले नवदलाची राखणी करुंक फुडारी कशेन नेंलले, आनी मेवण्यांक áल्वारो दे आताíदे (वासचची बायल चातारिनाचो भाव) आनी लपो मेंदेस दे वासचंचेलस (वासचच्या भयण तेरेसा दा गामा चो घव) हाणीं मुखेल आर्मारिच्या बटिंचें कपित्पण चलयलें. भायर सर्पी वियाजेंत, दा गामाच्या आर्मारान उदेंत आफ्रिकी भांग्रा वेपार कर्पी बंद्र सफाला हाचे कडेन संपर्क केलो आनी किलवातच्या सुल्तानाचो अधिकार हाचीं, एक बरेंच शें भांगार घेवन आर्गां उणें केलीं. भारतांत, अवतुबर १५०२, दा गामाचो आर्मार खयंच्या अरबी बटीक ताब्यांत घेताली ज्यो भारती उदकांत प्रवास कर्ताल्यो चड नश्टी आसली मिरी, एक तिर्थियात्रेची बट मेच्चाची जाचे प्रवाश्यांक ताणें उग्त्या उदकांत कत्तल केले.[२६] उपरांत तो चालिचूत पावलो, जंय चाबरालाच्या इलाजा खातीर मागणी केली. जरूय जामरीन एके नवे कबलातिचेर सय करुंक तय्यार आसलो, [२७] दा गामान हिंदू राजाक एक उलो केलो सगळ्या मुसल्मानाक चालिचुतांतले धांवडावंक वाटागती कर्चे आदीं, जी मागणी नाकार्पांत आयली. पुर्तुगेज आर्मारीन उपरांत शाराचेर दऱ्यादेगेर रावून बळिश्ट करुंक नासलल्या शाराचेर दन दीस बंब घातले.ताणें जायत्योच तांदळाच्यो बटी ताब्यांत घेतल्यो, बटिंतल्या लकांचे हात आनी नाकां कातरलीं आनी एका अपमानाची चीट जामरिनाक पाठयली.[२८] [[फायल:Gama_squadron_of_1502_Armada_(Livro_das_Armadas).jpg|thumb|दा गामाच्या आर्मारिचो एक देखावो (''लिवरो दास आर्मादास'' पुसतका वेल्यान)<br />]] [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_(Livro_de_Lisuarte_de_Abreu).jpg|right|thumb|266x266px|एक पिराय्ेन वाडललो, भारताचो राजियोधिकारी आनी विदिगुेइराचो चवंत ( लिसुार्ते दे आबरेव पुसतका वेल्यान)<br />]] [[फायल:St-Francis-Church.jpg|right|thumb|कचिंतली.स्त. फ्रांचीस च्सी इगर्ज, वासचो दा गामा कचिंत १५२४ संपलो जेन्ना तो भारताचे तिस्रे भेटेर आयललो.ताची कूड पयलीं ह्या इगर्जेंत निकिपिलली.<br />]] दा गामान केलल्या हिंवसेचो प्रकार भारताच्या मालाबार दऱ्यादेगेर, जाचेर चालिचूत अवलुंबून आसलें, ताका खनड पडलो. पूण जामरिनान कसलेच पुर्तुगेजाच्या अटिंक मान दिना जालो, आनी ताणें दा गामाच्या आर्माराक आव्हान दिवंक एक मजबूत झुजाबटिंचो आर्मार भाड्यान पासून केलो (जें दा गामा चालिचूत बंद्रा सांकार एका नवदलाच्या झुजांत हारवंक पावलो). दा गामान चचीन आनी चाणानरे हांगा मसाले भरले, धाकट्यो लागसरल्यो राज्वट्यो, अर्देवास्साल आनी थडे जामरिना कडे अर्दे झुजांत, जांच्यो ईवती सुरक्षीत केलल्यो आदल्या पुर्तुगेज आर्मारांनी ४तो आर्मार भारतांतलो सुर्वातेच्या १५०३ भायर सरलो. दा गामा फाटीं चारावेल्सांची एक धाकटी तुकदी ताच्या तिवाच्या ,विचेंते सद्रé, फुडारिपणा खाल भारती दऱ्यादेगेचेर चालिचूत बटिंक सतावुंक, आनी पुर्तुगेज कार्खाने चचिनांतले आनी चाणानरे चे सुरक्षीत दवरुंक जामरिंच्या अपरिाय्ाच्या बदल्या पासून पारो करुंक दवरली. वासचो दा गामा, आपल्या मिसांवांत जामरिनाक सुवादीन कर्पांत पुर्ण्पणी अपियेस येवून सेतेंबर १५०३ पुर्तुगालाक पर्तलो.हें अपियेस आनी उपरांत आनिकूय अपियेस ताच्या तीव विचेंते सद्रé हाचें चचिंचो कार्खानो सुरक्षीक ना कर्पांत, हें सगळें फुडले इनामा विरूध गेलें.जेन्ना पुर्तुगेज राजाक पुर्तुगालाचो मानुेली पयलो पुर्तुगेज भारताचो राजियोपाल आनी राजियोधिकारी नेंपाची पाळी १५०५ वर्सा आयली, दा गामाक जाणवता असलें दुरलक्ष कर्पांत आयलें आनी ती जुटी फ्रांचिसचो दे आल्मेइदाक दिवपांत आयली. === तिर्थियात्रेच्या बटिची घडणी === ताचे दुस्रे वियाजिंत, वासचो दा गामान निश्टूर घडन्यो स्पर्धा कर्पी वेपाऱ्यांचेर आनी थळाव्या रावप्यांचेर केल्यो, जाची ताची भारतांत फांक तडून पावली.[२९][३०] चालिचुतच्या दूसऱ्या वियाजे वेळार, दा गामान एक मुसल्मानाच्या तिर्थियात्रेक वचपी बटी आडायली मादायी जी चालिचूत सावन मेच्चा वेताली. प्रतियोशांत गवाय दिवपी थंé लपेस आनी जंत्रेकार गास्पार चर्रेइया बारिक्साण दिता त्या पर्मणें, दा गामान ४०० तिर्थ्कारांची बट जांतुंत ५० असतऱ्यो आसल्यो ती लुटली, प्रवाश्यांक बंद केले, आनी मालक आनी एक एग्य्प्ताच्या राजदुताक जिवे हुल्पायले. ताणीं आपली दवलत, जी " फेजच्या राज्वटकेंत सगळ्या क्रिसती गुलामांची खनडणी आनी बरेंच जायतें कर्ता आसली” पूण तरूय तांकां सडुंक नांत. असतऱ्यो आपलें भांगार आनी रत्ना घेवन आपल्या ल्हान बाळांक घट धरून चुर्चुरे कर म्हण मागून येताल्यो तें दा गामान बुराकांत्यान पळेलें.'[३१] चालिचुतांतल्या मुसल्मानांक धांवडावन हिंदू जामरिना कडे वचुंक मागणें कर्तच, निमाण्यान व्हडल्या भटाक तालाप्पाना नांबथिरी हाका (तच मनीस जाणें दा गामाक जामरिनाचे कुडिंत पाठयलो ताचे चड सत्कार कर्पी पयल्या चालिचुतचे भेटेर माय १४९८ वर्सा) उलवपां करुंक पाठयलो. दा गामान ताका गुप्त हेर पाचारलो, आनी त्या भटाचे वनठ आनी कान कातर्पाक हुकूं दिलो आनी सुण्याचे कान ताचे तकलेक शिवून ताका पाठयलो. [२९] == मदलो काळ == दन फुदळीं दसकां, वासचो दा गामा एक शांत जिवीत जियेलो, ताका राजदरबारांत येवकार नासलो आनी भारती घडणुका विशीं ताका पयस दवरललो.ताचे प्रय्योत्न मानुेली हाचे कडेन बरो आसुंक (जांतुंत अर्देर अफ च्रिसत कडेन १५०७ वर्सा वचपाचो समावेश आसा), कायंच करुंक पावुंक ना.. आल्मेइदा, आनी खडेगांत आफन्सो दे आलबुकुेर्कूे आनी उपरांत आलबेर्गारिया आनी सेकुेइरा हे राजाचे पसंतिचे मनीस भारता खातीर आसले. फेर्दिनांद मागेळान हाणें चासतिलेचे राज्वटकेक १५१८ वर्सा हारयल्या उपरांत, वासचो दा गामान तशें करुंक धंकी दिली, जें राजाक ताका पुर्तुगालांत दवरुंक आनी आपलो खास "इंदियेसचो नवसेनाधिपती" एस्पान्हाक ताळचे खातीर पावलां मार्चीं पडलीं.[३२] १५१९ वर्सा, मागण्याचेर दुरलक्ष केल्या उपरांत. राजा मानुेल ई हाणें शेवटीं वासचो दा गामा हाका एक सामंतशायचो किताब दिवंक ताक्तीक केली, आनी ताका पयलो विदिगुेइराचो चवंत नेंलो, एक चवंताचो किताब जो राज्याचे हुकुमेन एवरांत काडपांत आयलो २९ देजेंबरांत, एका गुस्पणेच्या कबलातेंत जांय्े, दुके अफ ब्रागांजा हाच्या कडेन, गांव विदिगुेइरा आनी विला दस फ्रादेस फारीक केल्या उपरांत जाणें अधिकार सडले. ह्या हुकुमान वासचो दा गामा आनी ताच्या दायजांक सगळो म्हसूल आनी संबंदीत फायदे दिवपांत आयले,[३३] ज्या वर्वीं दा गामांक पयलो पुर्तुगेज चवंत कसो केलो जरूय तो राज्याच्या वंशांतलो नासलो.[३४] == तिस्री वियाज आनी मरण == [[फायल:St_Francis_Church,_Fort_Kochi_001_(14).jpg|thumb|गामाचो आदलो फनड स्त. फ्रांचीस इगर्जेंत, कची<br />]] [[फायल:St_Francis_Church,_Fort_Kochi_001_(17).jpg|left|thumb|311x311px|स्त फ्रांचिसाचे इगर्जेंत फनडा लागसर कांतयलली नांवांची पाटी]] १५२१ च्या उस्रां राजा मानुेल ई च्या मर्णा उपरांत, ताचो पूत आनी हेर्देरी, राजा पुर्तुगालाचजहन इीि ,पुर्तुगेज सर्काराचे दऱ्यापल्तडचे भाग नियाळ कर्पाक लागलो. आदल्या आलबुकुेर्कूे चवकडी कडल्यान कडसरन (आतां दियोगो लपेस दे सेकुेइरा केललें प्रतिनिधिपण), जहन इीि एक ताजी सुर्वात करुंक सदी. वासचो दा गामा आपल्या राजकी वंवासांतलो एक म्हत्वाचो सल्लागार कसो नव्या राजाच्या नेंणुकांक आनी हिक्मतिंक पर्तून उपजलो.नव्या एस्पानिसहाचें संकट मालुकू जुंव्या विशीं पळवन आपली पयलिताय कशी, वासचो दा गामान अरबी विरूध नाद सडुंक सल्लो दिलो जो मानुेलिने काळांत आसलो, आनी तो एक सत्तेची काळजी दुार्ते दे मेनेजेस हाची चालू आसलो,जो तेन्नाचो- पुर्तुगेज भाराताचो राजियोपाल आसलो. मेनेजेसूय अकुशळ आनी भ्रश्ट उतरलो, आनी ताच्या विशीं साबार कागाळी आयल्यो. ह्या वर्वीं, जहन इीि हाणें, ताच्या नांवांचो जादू आनी ताच्या कर्तुबांचो उगडास घडियेक पुर्तुगेज भारताच्या अधिकाऱ्याक छाप मारुंक पावत आंद एक नव्या सर्काराक आनी नवे येवजणेन बदल जावंक पावतलो म्हण खात्री आसून वासचो दा गामाक ताच्या जाग्यार घालुंक निर्णय घेतलो.. ताच्या नेंणुकेचे चिटिंत फेवरेर १५२४, जहन इीि हाणें वासचो दा गामाक खाशेलो किताब "राजियोधिकारी" दिलो,जो दुस्रो पुर्तुगेज राजियोपाल दुशयतालो (पयलो किताब मेळवपी फ्रांचिसचो दे आल्मेइदा १५०५ वर्सा आसलो).[३५] ताच्या दूसऱ्या पुताक, एसतêवãओ दा गामा हाका त्याच वेळार चापीतãओमर दो मार दा í_ंदिया ('भारती दऱ्याचो व्हड- दल्पती ',भारती संदिराच्या नवदल पारो कर्पी आर्माराचो सेनापती) दुार्ते-आच्या भावाच्या लूíस दे मेनेजेस बदलेक नेंल,. एके निमाणे अटीन, गामान पर्तुगालाच्या जहन इीि कडल्यान आपल्या सगळ्या पुतांक वळीन मालाच्चाचे कपीत करुंक एक वायदो घेतलो. आबरील १५२४ वर्सा, चवदा बटिंचो आर्मार घेवन भायर सरून, वासचो दा गामान आपल्या दल्पती सांगाताक आसून, बट फामाद व्हड चार्राचक सांता चातारिना दो मंते सिनाय आपल्या दन पुतां सांगाता, एसतêवãओ आनी पावलो भारताच्या निमाण्या वियाजीक व्हेली. एक त्रासांच्या वियाजेन (चार वो पांच बटी वाटेर शेनडल्यो), तो भारतांत सेेंबरांत पावलो. वासचो दा गामान आपले उंचल्या संराटाच्या हुकुमेन एक नवो हुकूं पुर्तुगेज भारताक पर्गट केलो जांतुंत सगळ्या आदल्या अधिकाऱ्यां जाग्यार आपले खास मंशांक नेंले. पूण गामांक कुडकुड्यांचो जर थंय पावतच आयलो आनी तो चचीन शारांत, थंय पावच्या तीन म्हयन्या उपरांत नातालांच्या आदल्या दिसा १५२४ संपलो. राज्याचे सुचवणे पर्मणें, दा गामा उपरांत भारताचो राजियोपाल कसो ताच्या सांगाता आयल्या कपितां मदल्याक एकल्याक ती जुटी हेनरिकूे दे मेनेजेस ( दुार्ते विशीं सयरिगत ना) दिली. दा गामाचे पूत एसतêवãओ आनी पावलो हांकां तांच्यो जुटियो ना जाल्यो आनी ते परत येतल्या आर्मारिंत सुर्वातेच्या १५२५ पर्तले (काडून उडयलल्या दुार्ते दे मेनेजेस आनी लूíस दे मेनेजेस हांच्या सांगाता).[३६] वासचो दा गामाची कूड पयली स्त. फ्रांचीस इगर्जेंत,निकिपिली जी फर्त कचिंत कची शारांत आसा, पूण ताच्यो असती पुर्तुगालांत १५३९ वर्सा व्हेल्यो. वासचो दा गामाची कूड विदिगुेइरा एका पेतुलांत भांगार आनी रत्नांनी सजवन परत निकिपिली. [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_Jerónimos_2008-1.jpg|thumb|बेलें, लिसबांत वासचो दा गामाचो जेरóनिमस मठांत फनड<br />]] बेलें हांतुंतलो हियेरन्य्मितेस मठ जो पुर्तुगेज राज्याशायच्या आवीज आची शिमितेर जांवचो आसलो, ती सुर्वातेच्या १५०० जी वासचो दा गामाच्या पयली वियाज भायर सरली थंय लागसर आसा उबार्पांत आयली, आनी तिची बांदावळीक दुडू एक पुर्तुगेज भारतांतल्या आर्मारिच्या फायद्याचेर कर घालून कर्पांत आयली. १८८० वर्सा , दा गामाच्यो असती आनी तशेंच कवी लूíस दे चामोंेस (जाणें दा गामाच्या पयले वियाजेचें सजवप आपल्या १५७२ वर्सांतल्या कवितेंत, थे लुसियाद हांतुंत केलां), हाच्यो असती नव्या कांतयलल्या फनडार मठाच्या इगर्जेच्या गाभारांत, राजा मानुेल ई आनी जहन इीि थडे मेत्र पयस, हांच्या फनडां सावन हालवपांत आयल्यो, जाची ताणें सेवा केलली. == काजार आनी भुर्गीं == वासचो दा गामा आनी ताचे घर्कान्नीक, चातारिना दे आताíदे, हांकां सो पूत आनी एक धूव आसली:[३७] # दं फ्रांचिसचो दा गामा, जाणें विदिगुेइराचो २रो चवंत आनी २रो "भारती अरबी आनी फार्सी दरियांचो नवसेनाधिपती," आपल्या बापायचे किताबांचें हेर्देर्पण घेतलें. तो पुर्तुगालांत रावलो. # दं एसतेवãओ दा गामा, एक निर्फळ प्रय्योत्नांत १५२४ वर्साच्या काळांत भारती पारो कर्पी दल्पती कसो, ताका तीन वर्सांच्या काळाक मालाच्चाचो दल्पती नेंपांत आयलो आनी ताणें, १५३४ तें १५३९ सेवा केली (जांतुंत ताच्या भाव पावलुच्या काळाचो दन वर्सांचो काळ समावेश आसा. त्या उपरांत ताका भारताचो ११वो राजियोपाल १५४० तें १५४२ परियांत नेंलो. # दं पावलो दा गामा, मालाच्चाचो दल्पती १५३३–३४, हाका मालाच्चा लागीं एका नवदल कारियांत मार्पांत आयलो. # दं च्रिसतवãओ दा गामा, मालाच्चाच्या आर्मारिचो दल्पती १५३८ तें १५४०; हाका मालाच्चांत पद घेवपाक नेंलो, पूण ताका आह्माद इब्न इबराहीं हाणें एथियोपियान-आदाल झुजांत १५४२ वर्सा मारलो. # दं पेद्रो दा सिलवा दा गामा, मालाच्चाचो दल्पती १५४८ तें १५५२ नेंलो. # दं áल्वारो द'आतायदे दा गामा मालाच्चाच्या आर्माराचो कपीत १५४० नेंलो, मालाच्चाचो दल्पती १५५२ तें १५५४ आसलो. # दना इसाबेल द'आतायदे दा गामा, एकूच धूव, ती इग्नाचियो दे नरन्हा कडेन काजार जाली,जो पयल्या लिन्हारेसाच्या चयंताचो पूत आसलो.<ब्र /> ताचो दादल्याचो वंश १७४७ वर्सा संपुंक पावलो, जरूय किताब असतऱ्यांच्या वळिंत गेलो.{{what?|date=February 2018}} == किताब, प्रकार आनी भवमान == पुर्तुगेज राज्वटकेची सेवा साबार वर्सां करून, दा गामाक जायते इनां वेगळे किताब, प्रतिश्टा आनी सर्कारी खातीं दिवपांत आयलीं: * अरबी,पेर्सिया, भारत दऱ्यांचे आनी सर्व उदेंतिचो नवसेनाधिपती –पुर्तुगेज भारतांतल्या आर्मारिचो मुखेल कसो किताब (आद्मिराल अफ थे स्यास अफ आराबिया, पेर्सिया, इंदिया आंद आळ थे अरियेंत – तितले आस चियेफ अफ थे पर्तुगुेसे इंदिया आर्मादास) * भारताचो २रय राजियोधिकारी – पुर्तुगेज भारतांतलो वसणुकेचो मुखेली (२ंद विचेरय अफ इंदिया – तितले अफ अफ्फिचे आस चलनियाल ह्याद अफ पर्तुगुेसे इंदिया) * विदिगुेइराचो १लो चवंत –पुर्तुगुेसे कुळवंतिचो किताब (१सत चवंत अफ विदिगुेइरा – तितले अफ पर्तुगुेसे नबिलित्य) == पुर्वज == == दायज == [[फायल:Vasco_da_Gama_-_1838.png|thumb|आंतóनियो मानुेल दा फन्सेचा (१८३८)हाणें काडललें वासचो दा गामाचें रुपचित्र <br />]] वासचो दा गामा एक चड फामाद आनी सजयललो सदाच्या काळांतलो प्रवास्सदपी.हेनऱ्य थे नाविगातर, उपरांत सुर्वातेच्या वसणुकेच्या बळाचो तो पुर्तुगालाच्या येसाक जबाब्दार. हाच्या शिवाय पयली वियाज धरून, ताचें राजकारण आनी झूज दूसऱ्या संवसाराच्या बाजुचें मिश्रण करप हें पुर्तुगालाक एका मुखेल जाग्यार पावयलें भारताच्या दऱ्याच्या वेपारांत दा गामाची सुर्वातेचे वियाजिचो पाटलाव करून, पुर्तुगेज राज्वटकेन चिंतलें की उदेंत आफ्रिकेच्या दऱ्यादेगेर जागे मेळवप चड गर्जेचें राश्ट्रियो वेपाराक पयशिल्या उदेंते खातीर चड गर्जेचें . पूण, ही ताची फांक कांय घडण्यां आनी आवस्थेक लागून जशें नश्ट्या तिर्थियात्रेच्या बटिच्या घडनेक लागून आदीं भासाभास केल्या; धिलावंक पावली. पुर्तुगेज राश्ट्रियो म्हाकावियो लूíस वाज दे चामोंेस हाचें लूसíआदास , हाचे चड विशय वासचो दा गामाच्या वियाजिचे आसात.[३८] १८६५ वर्सांतलो व्हड संगितिका ल'आफ्रिचायने: अपéरा एन चिंक आचतेस, जाचो घडपी गियाचमो मेयेरबेेर आसा जें एवगèने स्चरिबे हाचें संगिताचें बरवप आसा, तें मुखेल्पणी वासचो दा गामा हाचें पात्र समावेश कर्ता. घडण्याचें दाखवप, जरूय कल्पनीक जावन आसा, मेयेरबेेर हाच्या संगितिकेचो माथाळो वासचो दा गामा आसलो. १९८९ वर्सांतल्या प्रसतुती संगितेची सान फ्रांचिसचो संगितिकेचीि हांतुंत फामाद तेनर प्लáचिदो दमिंगो दा गामाच्या पात्रांत आसलो.[३९] १९व्याशेकड्याचो रचपी लव्ीस-आलबेर्त बवर्गावल्त-दुचवद्राय हाणें एक नांव दिवपी संगितिका १८७२ वर्सा दा गामाच्या जिविताचेर आनी दऱ्याच्या पराक्रमाचेर आदारीत आसली गयांतल्या वासचो दा गामाच्या बंद्राच्या शाराक ताचें नांव दिलां जशे परीं चंद्राचेर एक वासचो दा गामा वाटकुळो फनड आसा,ब्राजिलांत ( च्लूब दे रेगातास वासचो दा गामा हाचो समावेश करून) तीन फुटबल एकवट आनी वासचो स्पर्त्स च्लूब गयांत आसात जांकां ताचें नांव दिवपांत आयलां.एक इगर्ज केरळाचे कचिंत आसा, केरळांत वासचो दा गामा इगर्ज, आनी एक खासगी इमारत सायंत हेलेना जुंव्यार आसा.चापे तवनांतलें वासचो उपनगर ताका भवमान दिता. [[फायल:Panteão_Nacional_-_Cenotáfio_de_Vasco_da_Gama_-_Jul_2008.jpg|left|thumb|सांता एंग्रáचिया इगर्जेंत वासचो दा गामाक मर्णाची इयादसतिका <br />]] थड्या जाग्यांक लिसबाच्या पार्कूे दास नाçओंेस तांकां सदपरवासाचें नांव दिलां जशे परीं वासचो दा गामा पूल, वासचो दा गामा गुंटी आनी चेंत्रो चमेर्चियाल वासचो दा गामा वेपाऱ्याचो केंद्र.[४०] अच्यानáरियो पार्कूे दास नाçओंेस हांतुंतल्या एक तावीज एका वेवंगचित्र बुडी मार्प्याचें आसा जाचें नांव "वासचो" आसा जाका ह्या सदपरवास कर्प्याचें नांव दिलां,[४१] वासचो दा गामा एकटच सदपरवाय शेवटाच्या अस ग्रांदेस पर्तुगुेसेस पलांत आसलो. जरूय शेवटाचे वळेरिंत हेर आगे अफ दिसचवेऱ्य संबंदीत लक आसले, ते खरेपणी कसल्याच कारणांक सदपरवास कर्पी न्हय म्हण तार्वटी == हेंवूय पळय == * च्रनलग्य अफ एवरप्यान एश्प्लरातियोन अफ आसिया / एवरपी लकाच्या आसियाच्या सदप्रवासाची जंत्री * चवंत अफ विदिगुेइरा / विदिगुेइराचो चवंत * पर्तुगुेसे इंदिया आर्मादास / पुर्तुगेज भारताच्यो आर्मारी * पर्तुगुेसे इंदिया / पुर्तुगेज भारत * स्पिचे त्रादे / मसाल्याचो वेपार * ''उरुमी'', आ फिलं व्हीच पर्त्रायस वासचो दा गामा / उरुमी, एक फिलं जें वासचो दा गामाक वर्णन कर्ता == संदरब == ; तिपण्यो {{Reflist}} ; झरी * {{Cite book|title=Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamarenai0000ames|last=Ames|first=Glenn J.|publisher=Longman|year=2004|isbn=0-321-09282-1}} * {{Cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|last=Ames|first=Glenn J.|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2007|isbn=978-0-13-193388-0}} * Castanhoso, M. de (1898) ''Dos feitos de D. Christovam da Gama em Ethiopia'' Lisbon: Imprensa nacional. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MiFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3 online] * {{Cite book|title=The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama, and His Viceroyalty|last=Corrêa|first=Gaspar|publisher=Adamant Media Corporation|year=2001|isbn=1-4021-9543-5|author-link=Gaspar Correia}} Facsimile reprint of an 1869 edition by the Hakluyt Society, London. * {{Cite book|title=The Indian Ocean in World History|last=Disney|first=Anthony|last2=Booth|first2=Emily|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|location=New Delhi and New York}} * {{Cite book|title=Civilizations|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|publisher=Macmillan|year=2001|isbn=0-7432-0248-1|location=Basingstoke and Oxford, U.K.|author-link=Felipe Fernández-Armesto}} * {{Cite book|title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration|last=Fernández-Armesto|first=Felipe|publisher=W. W. Norton|year=2006|isbn=978-0-393-06259-5|pages=177–181}} * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamahissu00jaynuoft|title=Vasco Da Gama and His Successors 1460 to 1580|last=Jayne|first=Kingsley Garland|publisher=Meuthen & Co.Ltd.|year=1910|isbn=978-0-548-00895-9|location=London, England}} * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/asiaandwesterndo009963mbp|title=Asia and Western Dominance: A Survey of the Vasco da Gama Epoch of Asian History, 1498–1945|last=Panikkar|first=K. M.|publisher=Allen & Unwin|year=1959|edition=new|location=London|asin=B000Q5T6X6|author-link=Kavalam Madhava Panikkar}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13stAAAAMAAJ|title=A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497–1499|last=Ravenstein|first=E. G.|last2=ed. and trans.|publisher=Hakluyt Society|year=1898|location=London|author-link=Ernst Georg Ravenstein}}CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list ([[:वर्ग:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list|link]]) <templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1-108-01296-6}}ISBN{{ISBN|978-1-108-01296-6}}978-1-108-01296-6) * {{Cite book|title=A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808|url=https://archive.org/details/worldonmoveportu0000russ|last=Russell-Wood|first=A. J. R.|publisher=Macmillan|year=1993|isbn=978-0-312-09427-0}} * {{Cite book|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama|url=https://archive.org/details/careerlegendofva0000subr|last=Subrahmanyam|first=Sanjay|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-47072-8}} * Teixeira de Aragão, A.C. (1887) ''Vasco da Gama e a Vidigueira: um estudo historico''. Lisbon: Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa [https://books.google.com/books?id=cBAoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7 online] * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vascodagamahisvo00towl|title=Vasco da Gama, his voyages and adventures|last=Towle|first=George Makepeace|publisher=Lothrop, Lee & Shepard|year=c. 1878|location=Boston}} == फुडलें वाचप == * Vasco da Gama (Ernst Georg Ravenstein, Gaspar Corrêa, Alvaro Velho) [2011] Viartis {{ISBN|978-1-906421-04-5}}ISBN{{ISBN|978-1-906421-04-5}}978-1-906421-04-5 * Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader (Glen J.Ames) [2004] Longman {{ISBN|0-321-09282-1}}ISBN{{ISBN|0-321-09282-1}}0-321-09282-1 * The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Sanjay Subrahmanyam) [1997] Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|978-0-521-47072-8}}ISBN{{ISBN|978-0-521-47072-8}}978-0-521-47072-8 == भायल्यो जुळवण्यो == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110828160915/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html Vasco da Gama's ''Round Africa to India''], fordham.edu * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131213003604/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/vasco.html Vasco da Gama web tutorial with animated maps], ucalgary.ca * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1095-9270.12175/pdf A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502–1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an interim report], IJNA {| class="wikitable succession-box" style="margin: 0.5em auto 10px; font-size: 95%; clear: both;" | id="1151" rowspan="1" style="width:30%;" |Preceded&nbsp;by<br />Duarte de Menezes | id="1154" rowspan="1" style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" |''' Governor of Portuguese India'''<br />September−December 1524 | id="1157" rowspan="1" style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" |Succeeded&nbsp;by<br />Henrique de Menezes, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio |} [[वर्ग:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list]] [[वर्ग:देवनागरी पानां]] ahsqn6xo4hbuv3swmbpr1otphm89e9e 0 10076 217177 199374 2026-08-19T20:00:26Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217177 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Goudd Sarosvot Bamonn''' ho [[Bharot]]antlo [[Hindu]] [[Bamonn]] somaz ani ek vhoddlea [[Sarosvot Bamonn]] somazacho ek bhag zavn asa. Te [[Panch Govdd]] [[Bamonn]]achea pongddantle zavn asat. Tankam famad zalolea mottvea [[GSB]] nanvan vollkhotat. Te prothom [[Konknni]] tanche maibhaxent uloitat. ==Itihas== [[File:Parshuramsaraswats.jpg|thumb|left|Parshurama Sarosvot Bamonn rabito korpi aslole je Varunak Konkonn bhag rochunk doreak fattim sorunk hukum ditana]] ''[[Skanda Purana]]''chea ''[[Sahyadrikhanda]]'' pormonnem, xeannov Sarosvot Bamonn dha gotranchim kuttumbam ostompt [[Bharot]]ant savn [[Goea]]nt stholantor, [[Parashurama]] sangatak zalim.<ref name="skanda">''Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha)'' -Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajanan shastri Gaytonde, published by Shree Katyani Publication, Mumbai</ref><ref> ''Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti'' Part-1, p. 206, B. D. Satoskar, Shubhada Publication</ref>   Shilaharas toxench  Kadamb tambeachea pott’ttiechea korantopant Sarosvot nanvanche sondorbh sampoddttat. Goeant sampoddlolea korantopant Konkonn bhagant ailolea Bamonn kuttumbanchi govai sampoddtta.<ref name="trade" /> Shilahara razamni nivoll Aryan Bamonnank ani Kshatriyas ut’torek aslolea Bharoti-Gangechea ghollantlean Konknnant rabito korunk apovnnem kelolem.Heo zati Goudd Sarosvot Bamonn ani CKP asat.<ref> {{cite book |title = Religions And Faiths In India | publisher = Mangal Deep Publications | year = 2004 | page = 204 | author = Raj Pruthi, Rameshwari Devi | quote = There was a craze in the southern and eastern countries for the importation of the supposed pure Aryan Brahmins and Kshatriyas from the indo-gangetic valley in the north. The silhara kings of Konkan also seem to have invited both brahmins and kshatriyas from the north for settling in the south about this time.They are the Gauda Sarasvata Brahmins and the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus of Konkan. }}</ref> Sahyadrikhanda ani Mangesh Mahatmya  hea Sarosvot Bamnnachea stholantoracho, zantunt sasoxtt kuttumba aslim, jim Goenchea atth ganvamni rabito korunk pavlim,hacho oprotiokx ul’lekh kortat. Sarosvotam modem zagea pormonnem veglleponn, zoxe porim Bardezkar, Pednnekar ani Saxttikar aslem. Konkana mahatmya, 17vea xekddeant savn, Sarosvotanchi ani tanchea pongddantlea tann asloleachi, bhitorlea kijilanchi khobor korta..[citation needed] Kalhanachea Rajatarangini (12vea xekddeant), Sarosvotancho Pancha Govdda Bamonn somazantlo je Vindheachea ut’torek ravtale tacho ul’lekh korpant ieta.<ref> {{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lXyWE6KbG8oC&pg=PA168 | title = Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities | publisher = Pearson Education India | year = 2011 | isbn = 9788131754399 | page = 168 | editor = D. Shyam Babu and [[R. S. Khare|Ravindra S. Khare]] }}</ref> GSBchea purvozamni ut’tor Goudd vibhagant apunn Sarosvot mhonn vollokh dilea zachi Mharaxttr ani Kornatokantlea Bamonn xezari dokxinn vibhagant sor korunk zata. Zaitech Sarosvotamni Malik Kafur hache ghurie uprant Goem soddlem ani tannim xezarchea bhagant apnnem pennem kelem, tech porimi Purtugezanchea dhormik agllikui lagun kelem jen’na te Ut’tor Kannood, Dokxin Konnodd ani Ut’tor Konknnant ravpak gele. Sarosvott Bamonn chodd xe Proxasoki ganvcho mosul ektthavpi (Kulkarni), bhandvol divpi, bhott, xikovpi ani bhitorlea Asiai veparant ani rajki vevhari asle. Zaitich sorkari iennavol Goem, Konkonn ani her kodden, tantunt jinosacher xulk tanchea hatant urunk pavlo.<ref name="trade"> {{cite book | last1=Pinto | first1=Celsa | title=Trade and Finance in Portuguese India: A Study of the Portuguese Country Trade, 1770–1840 | url=https://archive.org/details/tradefinanceinpo0000pint | date=1994 | publisher=Concept Publishing Company | isbn=9788170225072 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/tradefinanceinpo0000pint/page/53 53]–56 | edition=Volume 5 of Xavier Centre of Historical Research Porvorim: XCHR studies series }}</ref> ==Henvui polloi== *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswat_Brahmin Sarosvotanchi volleri] *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_River Sarasvati River] *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswat_cuisine Saraswat cuisine] *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajapur_Saraswat_Brahmin Rajapur Sarovot Bamonn] *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitrapur_Saraswat_Brahmin Chitrapur Sarosvot Bamonn] ==Sondorbh== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== *{{Cite book |last= Suryanath U Kamath |first= |year=1992 |title=The origin and spread of Gauda Saraswats |isbn= }} *{{Cite book |last=Venkataraya Narayan Kudva |first= |year=1972 |title=History of the Dakshinatya Saraswats |url=https://archive.org/details/hhistoryofdakshi0000vnku |publisher=Samyukta Gauda Saraswata Sabha |isbn=}} *{{Cite journal |last=Ramachandra Shyama Nayak |first= |url= |title= Saraswath Sudha |year= |publisher= |location= |isbn=}} *{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMM-xRVr5qgC&pg=PA35 |title=Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future |first=M. K. |last=Kawl}} * {{cite book | first=Edwin | last=Bryant | authorlink=Edwin Bryant (author) | title=[[The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | isbn=0-19-513777-9}} *Hock, Hans (1999) "Through a Glass Darkly: Modern "Racial" Interpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in Vedic Indo-Aryan Society." in ''Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia'', ed. Bronkhorst & Deshpande, Ann Arbor. *{{cite book | author=Shaffer, Jim G. | chapter=Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology | title=Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia| url=https://archive.org/details/indoaryansofanci0001geor |editor= George Erdosy | year=1995 | isbn=3-11-014447-6}} *{{cite journal |title=Caste by Association: The Gauda Sarasvata Brahmana Unification Movement |first=Frank F. |last=Conlon |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=33 |issue=3 |year=1974 |pages=351–365 |jstor=2052936 |subscription=yes |doi=10.2307/2052936}} [[वर्ग:Gaud Saraswat Brahmin]] [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] etehq6ct5tfdvfkamdte5dlsj8dgvem 0 10098 217178 217125 2026-08-19T20:02:01Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217178 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language|name=Portuguese|ethnicity=[[Lusophones]] *[[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] *[[Brazilians]] *[[Luso-Asians]] *[[Luso-Africans]]|nativename=''{{lang|pt|português}}'', ''{{lang|pt|língua portuguesa}}''|pronunciation={{IPA-pt|puɾtuˈɣeʃ|}}, {{IPA-pt|poʁtuˈɡes|}}|states=Primarily [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]];<br> other [[Lusophone]] countries|speakers={{sigfig|216.7|2}} million<!--Published figure of 222.7M assumes 40% of Angola, but that's the rate in the cities. Actual figure is half that, which takes off 6M, though rounding off the figure means both display as 220M.-->|date=2012–2016|ref=e21|speakers2=20 million [[Second language|L2]] speakers<ref name=e21/>|familycolor=Indo-European|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]|fam4=[[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]|fam5=[[Ibero-Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]]|fam6=[[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]]|fam7=[[Galician-Portuguese]]|ancestor=[[Old Portuguese]] (Galician-Portuguese)|script=[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Portuguese alphabet]])<br />[[Portuguese Braille]]|nation={{Collapsible list | titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title=[[Geographic distribution of Portuguese|9 countries]] | {{flag|Angola}} | {{flag|Brazil}} | {{flag|Cape Verde}} | {{flag|East Timor}} | {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=7775 |title=Acts continue to mark Portuguese Language and Portuguese Culture Day|author=Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea}}</ref> | {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} | {{flag|Mozambique}} | {{flag|Portugal}} | {{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}} | | }}<br /> {{Collapsible list | titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title=[[Geographic distribution of Portuguese|1 dependency]] |{{flag|Macau}} }}<br />|minority={{Collapsible list | titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title=[[Geographic distribution of Portuguese|Cultural language]] |[[File:Flag of Goa.svg|24px]] [[Goa]] ([[India]]) |[[File:..Daman and Diu Flag(INDIA).png|24px]] [[Daman and Diu]] ([[India]]) |{{flag|Galicia}} ([[Spain]]) |{{flag|Malacca}} ([[Malaysia]]) |[[File:Flag of East Nusa Tenggara.svg|24px]] [[Flores]] ([[Indonesia]]) |{{flag|Senegal}} |{{flag|Namibia}} |{{flag|Andorra}} |{{flag|Luxembourg}} |{{flag|South Africa}} |{{flag|Japan}} |{{flag|Uruguay}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |title=El portugués uruguayo y las marcas de la oralidad en la poesía del escritor uruguayo Agustín R. Bisio |access-date=2018-11-28 |archive-date=2019-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812061109/http://www.hispanistas.org.br/arquivos/revistas/sumario/revista6/109-129.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historiadelaslenguasenuruguay.edu.uy/|title=Historia lingüística del Uruguay|website=www.historiadelaslenguasenuruguay.edu.uy|access-date=2018-11-28|archive-date=2019-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405013655/http://www.historiadelaslenguasenuruguay.edu.uy/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.colibri.udelar.edu.uy/jspui/bitstream/123456789/10776/1/XVI%20JICS_Fern%C3%A1ndez%20Aguerre_Gonz%C3%A1lez%20Bruzzese_Rodriguez%20Ingold.pdf |title=Algunas notas teórico metodológicas sobre la relación entre regiones y aprendizajes en Uruguay |last1=Bruzzese |first1=Mahira González |last2=Ingold |first2=Cecilia Rodriguez |pages=11–15 |access-date=2018-11-28 |archive-date=2018-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113080655/https://www.colibri.udelar.edu.uy/jspui/bitstream/123456789/10776/1/XVI%20JICS_Fern%C3%A1ndez%20Aguerre_Gonz%C3%A1lez%20Bruzzese_Rodriguez%20Ingold.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |{{flag|Paraguay}} }}<br /> [[List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official language|Numerous international organisations]]|agency=[[International Portuguese Language Institute]]<br /> [[Academia Brasileira de Letras]]&nbsp;(Brazil)<br /> [[Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Classe de Letras]]&nbsp;(Portugal)<br /> [[Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language|Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa]]&nbsp;(Galicia)<br />[[CPLP]]|iso1=pt|iso2=por|iso3=por|lingua=51-AAA-a|map=Map_of_the_portuguese_language_in_the_world.png|mapcaption={{legend|#015A01|Native language}} {{legend|#339900|Official and administrative language}} {{legend|#98FC66|Cultural or secondary language}} {{legend|#00FF00|Portuguese speaking minorities}} {{legend|#FFFF40|[[Portuguese-based creole languages]]}}|notice=IPA|sign=Manually coded Portuguese|glotto=port1283|glottorefname=Portuguese }} [[file:Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg|frameless|right|upright=2]] '''Purtugez''' (português vo, purem, língua portuguesa) ek Ostomptechi Romance bhas jicho oromb Iberian dvipkolpant zalo.. Ti ekmev Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, ani São Tomé ani Príncipe.hanchi odhikrut bhas zavn asa[7] Tika ek soho-odhikrut bhaxecho dorzo Udent Timor, Equatorial Guinea ani Macau hanga dila.Vosnnukechea vellachea vistarachea porinnamant, ek Purtugez sonskruticho aspav ani Purtugez creole ulovpi Bharotachea Goeant, Damanv ani Diu hanga pollovnk melltta.;[8] Batticaloa hea udentichea Sri Lankachea doreadeger, Flores hea Indonesian zunvear; ani Malaysia desachea Malaccant; ani ABC zunvear Caribbeanachea zoim Papiamento uloilolem melltta, zorui Cape Verdean Creole hangasor chodd promannant Purtugez adarit Creole uloiloli sampoddtta. Purtugez ulovpi monxak vo desak "Lusofon" donui Inglix ani Purtugezint pacharpant ietat. Purtugez ek Ibero-Romance pongddacho bhag zo sabar Osobheo Latim tlea pott bhasancho asa zo modlea iugantlea Galiciachea rajvottkecho ani County of Portugal,hacho ani tantunt thoddi Celtic bhaxechi avazachi pod’dot ani sobdkox disun ietat.[9][10] Sumar 215 to 220 milhanv thollave ulovpi ani 250 milhanv ekunn ulovpi, Purtugezachi volleri chodd thollave lok ulovpi bhas koxi sonvsarant sovea zagear urta, ji Evropi bhasam modem sonvsarant tisrea zagear asa ek thollavi lok uloiloli bhas koxi.,[11] ani chodd uloiloli bhas Dokxinn prithvi golant. Ti ek chodd uloiloli bhas Dokxinn Amerikentli ani Latin Amerikent Espanisha uprant dusrea zagear ieta, ani Afrikent[12] dha modli chodd ulovpi bhas zavn asa  ani ti European Union, Mercosur, OAS, ECOWAS ani African Union hachi odhikrut bhas zavn asa, == Itihas == Jen’na Romi lok Iberian Dvikolpant 216 B.C. aile,, tannim tanchea sangata Latim bhas haddli zachea pasun soglleo Romance bhaso denvun aileat. Bhas Romi soinikamni, stholantor zavpi ani veapearamni posraili, zannim Romi xaram adlea Celtic vo Celtiberian sonskrutai bandli jem Romi ienvche adim zalem. Tea karonnak lagun, bhaxen ek sombondit thor chodd adlea Atlantic European Megalithic Culture[13] ani Celtic culture dovorla[14]. 409 A.D. ani 711 A.D.hachea modem, jen’na Romi Somraj OstomptEvropant konsoll’llem Iberian Devikolp Germani lokan Stholantor Kallant tabeant ghetlem. Jago ghevpi, choddxe Suebi[15][16], Visigoths ani Buri[17] asle je mullacheo Germani bhaso, uloitale zannim rokhddench uxirachi Romi sonskrutai potkorli toxench dvikolpacheo Osobheo Latim pottbhaso ani fuddle 300 vorsamni thollavea lokvostint misoll zale. Moorish hanche ghure udexim ji survatechea 711 vorsa zali, Orbi bhas proxasoki ani sadharonn bhas tabeant ghetoleanchea zageanchi zali punn choddxe urololi Kristi lokvosti ek Romance bhaxecho prokar ulovpak lagle zaka sadharonnponni Mozarabic mhonn vollkhopant ieta ji tin odik xekdde Esphanant ravli. Purtugez modheovorti kallachi bhas koxi utpon zali zaka aiz bhasxasti Galician-Purtugez pachartat. Adli Purtugez vo Adli Galician ut’tor ostomptechea modheovorti Galicia Rajvott ani County of Portugal. Latimchea proxasoki dostavezant 9vea xekddeantle boroiloli Galician-Purtugez utram ani vakiam poilim nond korpant aileant oxem melltta. Hea vakeank Proto-Purtugez, mhonn vollkhotat jim 9vea xekddea pasun 12vea xekddeant poriant urlmi je meren County of Portugal Leonchea rajvottke poriant, jem ten’na Galiciacher raj kortalem Galician-Purtugez kallachea poilea bhagant (12vo tem14vo xekddo poriant), bhas choddant chodd dostavezam ani her borovpant vaporant ietali. Thoddea vellar, ti ek posontichi bhas kaveachi Kristi Hispaniachi asli, zoxe porim Occitan Fransachea troubadoursanchea kovitachi bhas asli. Occitan zodd okxoram lh ani nh, jim tanchea xastrio xudhlekhonant vaportale tim Purtugez, xudhlekhonant vaportale. Gerald of Braga,[18] Moissac hacho ek motthvaxi aslo ani zo Purtugalachea Braga cho Bisp 1047 aslo, tacho ek motto vantto Purtugez borovp adhunik korpant asa zannem xastrio Occitan nem vaporle..[19]. Purtugal 1139 vorsa, Purtugalchea Afonso I raza khal ek svotontr rajvott zali. 1290 vorsa, Portugachea Denis l razan poilem Purtugez videapitth Lisbonant sthaplem. ( Estudos Gerais, jem uprant Coimbra halovpant ailem ) ani Purtugezam khatir xason potr dilem, zaka sadeponni "sadharonn bhas", mhonn vollkhopant aili zaka magir Purtugez bhas pacharli ani odhikrut rupant vaporpant aili. Adle Purtugezachea dusrea kallant,15vea ani 16vea xekddeant, Purtugezanchea sodant, bhas zaitea Afrikechea, Asiechea ani Amerikechea bhagamni vhorpant aili..Modlea-16vea xekddeant, Purtugez ek lingua franca Asia ani Afrikent zavnk pavli, ani tacho vapor fokot vosnnukechea karbharant ani veaparantuch nhoi punn thollavea odhikaream ani Evropeam soglea torechea nagrikam modem potrvevharant korpant ailo. Tachi posravnni misoll kazaram vorvim Purtugez ani thollaveam lokam modem zavnk pavli ani tachea Romi Katolk misionaranchea sangatachea proiotnank lagun jea vorvim creole bhaso utpon zavnk pavleo zoxe porim Kristang zaiteach Asiechea bhagamni (cristão, "Christian"utra vorvim). Asiechea zaitea bhagant ti bhas famad zavnk pavli 19vea xekddea meren. Thodde Purtugez-ulovpi Kristi somaz Bharotant, SriLonkent, Molesia ani Indonesia hannim ti bhas Purtugala pasun eksure zalea uprantui samballun dovorli. Adlea Purtugezacho kall 1516 vorsa Garcia de Resende,hannem boroilolea Cancioneiro Geral hachi porgottni zalea uprant sompunk pavlo. Adhunik Purtugezicho survatecho kall zo 16vea xekddeant tem atam poriantlo tantunt zaitim xiklolim utram jim Classical Latin and Classical Greek hantuntlim usnnim ghevpant ailim kiteak Renaissance haka lagun (Latim bhaxentlim-i utram Renaissance Latin koddlean tea kallar usnnim ghevpant aileant), zache vorvim sobdkox girest zavnk pavlo. Chodd xikxit Purtugez ulovpi te Latim bhaxentui xikxit asle, ani hea vorvim tannim sompeponnim Latim utram - ani xevttim Purtugez ulovpant aplea borovpant pottkorlim. [ul'lekh zai]{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} Espanish borovpi Miguel de Cervantes hannem ek favtt Purtugezik "ek godd ani gunnest bhas" mhollea, ani Brazili kovi Olavo Bilac tika ek a última flor do Lácio, inculta e bela ("Latium,bhaxechem nimannem ful, ganvgiri ani sundor"). Purtugezik " Camõesachi bhas mhonnpant ieta ", Luís Vaz de Camões hachea fattlean, Purtugez bhaxecho ek vhodd sahitik veokti ani Purtugez mhakovita Os Lusíadas.hacho rochpi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Miguel de Cervantes: His Life & Works|year=1895|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027675788|last=[[Henry Edward Watts]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofli01ship|last=Shipley|first=Joseph T.|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1946|page=1188}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: continental Europe and its empires|last=Poddar|first=Prem|last2=Patke|first2=Rajeev S.|last3=Jensen|first3=Lars|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7486-2394-5|page=431|chapter=Introduction: The Myths and Realities of Portuguese (Post) Colonial Society|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ghah5S3usnsC&pg=PA431&lpg=PA431&dq=%22language+of+Cam%C3%B5es%22#v=onepage&q=%22language%20of%20Cam%C3%B5es%22&f=false}}</ref>{{lang|pt|a última flor do Lácio, inculta e bela}} 2006 vorsantlea Marsant, Purtugez Bhaxecho Songrahloi, ek Purtugez bhaxecho probhavit songrahloi, São Paulo, Brazil,hanga sthap’pant ailo jea xarant jogantle choddant chodd Purtugez ulovpi asat..[23] Jogant to ekmev torecho songrahloi asa..[23] 2015 vorsa to songrahloi eka ujeant nas zalo, punn to porot bandpachi ievzonn asa...<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/brazil-fire-engulfs-portuguese-language-museum-sao-paulo-one-killed-1534447|title=Brazil: Fire engulfs Portuguese language museum in Sao Paulo, one killed|date=22 December 2015|work=International Business Times}}</ref> == Bhugolik vanttnniGeographic distribution == [[फायल:Multilingual_Emergency_Assembly_Area_Sign_in_Oizumi.JPG|thumb|Bhovbhaxik nomuno Japani, Purtugez ani Inglix bhasamni, Oizumi, Japanantf Japani Brazili lokanchem porot stholantor zavop xarak ek vixall Purtugez-ulovpi somaz xarant zavpak pavlam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=7nlxybOVae8C&pg=PT150&lpg=PT150&dq=oizumi+brazilians|title=Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin|last=Carvalho|first=Daniela de|date=1 February 2013|isbn=978-1-135-78765-3}}</ref>]] Brazilachi ani Purtugalachi chodd lokachi Purtugez thollavii bhas zavn asa. [26] ,[27] ani São Tomé che 99.8% lok ani Príncipe hannim apli bhas Purtugez mhonn 1991 lokgonttent ghoxit kelem.[citation needed] Ghoddiek Angolachi 75% lokvosti Purtugez ganvtti lok uloitat.,[28] ani 85% choddxe suddsuddit uloitat..[29] of Mozambikachi 40% odik lokvosti ( ani bhorpur vaddot asa) thollavi Purtugez ulovpi asat ani tantuntle 60% ti suddsuddit uloitat, hem 2007 vorsache lokgonttent dista.[30] Purtugez 30% Guinea-Bissauchi lokvosti uloita , ani ek Purtugez adarit creole soglleank somzota.[31] Cape Verde, khatir mhaiti mellna punn tachi soglli lokvosti don bhasanchi asa, ani ekuch bhas ulovpi lokvosti Cape Verdean Creole uloitat.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Mhotvache Purtugez ulovpi pordexi somaz asat zaiteach desamni zantunt Andorra (15.4%),[32] Bermuda,[33]Canada (400,275 lok 2006 vorsachea lokgonttent) hancho aspav asa,[34] Frans (900,000 lok),[35] Japan (400,000 lok),[36] Jersey,[37] Namibia (sumar 4–5% lokvosti chodd korun Anglolache nirvaxit desachea ut’torek),[38] Paraguay (10.7% vo 636,000 lok),[39] Macau (0.6% vo12,000 lok),[40] Switzerland (196,000 nagrik in 2008), [41] Venezuela (554,000).[42] ani United States(lokvostiche 0.35% vo 1,228,126 lok 2007 Amerik Somazachea Sorvekxonn)..<ref>{{Cite book|title=Language Diversity in the USA|url=https://archive.org/details/languagediversit0000unse|last=Carvalho|first=Ana Maria|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-74533-8|editor-last=Potowski|editor-first=Kim|page=346|chapter=Portuguese in the USA|ref=harv}}</ref> Adlea Purtugez Bharotantle thoddea zageancher, mhonnche Goeant[44] ani Damanv ani Diu,[45] bhas sumar 10,000 lok uloitat.2014 vorsa, odmasan 1,500 Purtugez bhas Goeant xiktale.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.revistamacau.com/2014/06/02/1-500-pessoas-estudam-portugues-em-goa/|title=1.500 pessoas estudam português em Goa|date=2 June 2014|publisher=Revistamacau.com|access-date=10 July 2015}}</ref> === Odhikrut sthan === [[फायल:Lusophone_World.svg|thumb|Des ani zage zoim Purtugez bhaxek odhikrut sthan asa.]] Purtugez bhaxechea desancho somaz s[8] (Portuguese Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa, sangata asun Purtugez sonkxep CPLP) hantunt atth svotontr des asat zantunt Purtugez ek odhikrut bhas asa: Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal ani São Tomé ani Príncipe] Equatorial Guinea hannem CPLP haka Junh 2010 kelo purnn vangddiponn mellovpak ek upcharik orz, ek sthan jem fokot desank ditat zoim Purtugez ek odhikrut bhas asta..[47] 2011 vorsa, Purtugez tanchi tisri odhikrut bhas zali (Espanish ani French soddun)[48] ani, Juhy 2014, tea desak ek CPLP cho vangddi zavpak svikarpant ailem..<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=5434|title=Equatorial Guinea, member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries|last=Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea}}</ref> Purtugez ek odhikrut bhas Khas Karbhareachea Zageachi Chinachea Porjerajant Macau ( Chini sangata) ani sabar ontoraxttrio sonsthanchi zantunt Mercosur,[50] the Organization of Ibero-American States,[51] the Union of South American Nations,[52] the Organization of American States,[53] the African Union,[54] the Economic Community of West African States,[54] Southern African Development Community[54] ani European Union hancho somavex asa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm|title=Languages in Europe&nbsp;– Official EU Languages|publisher=EUROPA web portal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm|archive-date=2 February 2009|dead-url=yes|access-date=12 October 2009}}</ref> === Lusofon des ===  The World Factbook pormonnem lokvosticho odmas 2017 vorsa khatir dor dha zageam khatir oso asa: (denvtea kroman): {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: right; margin-bottom: 10px;" !Country !Population<br />(July 2017 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|title=The World Factbook – Field Listing – Population – CIA|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-date=2018-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004113653/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> !More information !Native language<br />of the majority !Status |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg|link=Brazil|alt=Brazil|border|22x22px]] [[ब्राझील|Brazil]] |207,353,391 |Portuguese in Brazil||{{ya}} |Spoken by vast majority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Angola.svg|link=Angola|alt=Angola|border|23x23px]] [[आंगोला|Angola]] |29,310,273 |Portuguese in Angola||{{ya}} |Spoken by a majority (70%) as a native language;<br />spoken by majority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Mozambique.svg|link=Mozambique|alt=Mozambique|border|23x23px]] Mozambique |26,573,706 |Portuguese in Mozambique||{{na}} |Spoken by a significant minority as a native language;<br />spoken by majority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg|link=Portugal|alt=Portugal|border|23x23px]] [[पोर्तुगाल|Portugal]] |10,839,514 |Portuguese in Portugal¹||{{ya}} |Spoken by vast majority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg|link=Guinea-Bissau|alt=Guinea-Bissau|border|23x23px]] Guinea-Bissau |1,792,338 |Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau||{{na}} |Spoken by a significant minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_East_Timor.svg|link=East Timor|alt=East Timor|border|23x23px]] [[उदेंत तिमोर|East Timor]] |1,291,358 |Portuguese in East Timor||{{na}} |Spoken by a small minority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg|link=Equatorial Guinea|alt=Equatorial Guinea|border|23x23px]] Equatorial Guinea³ |778,358 |Portuguese in Equatorial Guinea||{{na}} |Spoken by a significant minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag_of_Macau.svg|link=Macau|alt=Macau|border|23x23px]] Macau² |601,969 |Portuguese in Macau||{{na}} |Spoken by a small minority as a native language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag of Cape Verde (10-17).svg|link=Cape Verde|alt=Cape Verde|border|23x23px]] Cape Verde |560,899 |Portuguese in Cape Verde||{{na}} |Spoken by majority as a second language |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg|link=São Tomé and Príncipe|alt=São Tomé and Príncipe|border|23x23px]] São Tomé and Príncipe |201,025 |Portuguese in São Tomé and Príncipe||{{ya}} |Spoken by vast majority as a native language |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:left;" |'''Total''' |{{circa}} '''279 million''' |Community of Portuguese Language Countries |} <small>Ttipnneo:</small> # <small>Some linguists argue that Galician, spoken in Galicia, is merely a dialect of Portuguese rather than an independent language; this would make northwestern [[स्पेन|Spain]] a part of the Portuguese-speaking world.</small> # <small>Macau is not a sovereign nation. It is one of the two semi-autonomous Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China (the other being [[Inglez|Anglophone]] Hong Kong, a former [[युनायटेड किंगडम|British]] colony).</small> # <small> Equatorial Guinea adopted Portuguese as one of its official languages in 2007, being admitted to CPLP in 2014. The use of the Portuguese language in this country is limited. However, a Portuguese-based creole language, Annobonese Creole, is used, mainly on the islands of Annobon and Bioko.</small> The combined population of the entire Lusophone area was estimated at 279 million in July 2017. This number does not include the Lusophone diaspora, estimated at approximately 10 million people (including 4.5 million Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians, and half a million Cape Verdeans, among others), although it is hard to obtain official accurate numbers of diasporic Portuguese speakers because a significant portion of these citizens are naturalized citizens born outside of Lusophone territory or are children of immigrants, and may have only a basic command of the language. Additionally, a large part of the diaspora is a part of the already-counted population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, such as the high number of Brazilian and PALOP emigrant citizens in Portugal or the high number of Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP and Brazil. == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] buzv26we84fu11z1t6lqwew1ygn0d41 0 10170 217181 214347 2026-08-19T20:03:23Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer|name=Shanta Gokhale|image=Shanta Gokhale.jpg|image_size=|image_upright=0.80|alt=Shanta Gokhale at the Goa Arts and Literature Festival (GALF), 2018|caption=Shanta Gokhale in 2018|birth_name=|birth_date={{Birth date and age|df=yes|1939|08|14}}|birth_place=[[Dahanu]], [[Thane district]], [[British India]]|death_date=<!-- {{Death date and age|df=yes|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} or {{Death-date and age|Month DD, YYYY|Month DD, YYYY}} (death date then birth date) -->|death_place=|nationality=Indian|other_names=|known_for=|occupation={{flatlist| * Writer * translator * journalist * theatre critic * playwright }}|notableworks={{flatlist| * ''Rita Welinkar'' * ''Tya Varshi'' / ''Crowfall'' }}|awards=|spouses={{plainlist| * {{marriage|Lt. Cdr. Vijaykumar Shahane}} * {{marriage|Arun Khopkar}} }}|children=Girish Shahane<br>[[Renuka Shahane]]|website={{URL|http://shantagokhale.com/}}}}'''<small>Shanta Gokhale (zolm 14 Agost 1939) ek Bharoti borovpi, bhaxantor korpi, potrkar ani thiettor somikxok Gokhale</small>''' == Survatechem jivit ani xikxonn == Ti Mharaxttrachea Thane jil’leantlea Dahanunt zolmoli.Uprant 1941 vorsa Gokhale-nchem kuttumb  Shivaji Parkchea xezareak halovpant ailem jen’na tichea pain eka Searchlight ortomanpotrant proves kelo. Tinnem iskolachem xikop Bombay Scottish School, Mahimant kelem. Piraiechea 15 vea vorsa ti Inglanddak geli zoim tinnem sahitent Bristol Vixvvideapitthant. B. A. (Hons) Inglixint  bhaxent keli.Bharotant ti 21 vorsanche piraier portoli ani tinnem M. A. (Hons) podvi Mumboichea vixvideapitthant Inglix sahitent ghetli  . Tea uprant Xavier's Institute of Communication, Mumbai, hantunt tinnem Sompork ani Video Prostutichem xikop kelem..^[1] == Karkird == Shanta Gokhale adim  Elphinstone Collegeint ordo vell ek xikovpi koxi vavurlea ,^[2] ani Glaxo Laboratories hantunt ek  Jon sompork karbhari koxi  ti asli .^[3] === Borovp ani potrkarita === Gokhalen survatek kannio,sabar porgottnnent donui Inglixint ani Moratthint uzvaddaileat ani xevttim 1970 vorsa ti apleo novol kannio uzvaddavnk lagli. Tichem poilem uzvaddailolem pustok ''Rita Welinkar'', Moratthint (ani uprant Inglixint 1995 vorsa) asa. Moratthint borovpak ut’tejon dilem dekhun ti xroi  Nissim Ezekielak dita.^[4]Tichem dusrem pustok, ''Tya Varshi'', sotra vorsam uprant 2008 vorsa uzvaddailam..^[5] Upant tem bhaxanor korun Inglixint Crowfall nanvant 2013 vorsant uzvaddailem..^[6][7]  2018 vorsa,tinnem aplea doskanchea  borovpancho songroh porgott kela zachem nanv ''The Engaged Observer'', zachem sompadon tichea lagxilea ixttan Jerry Pinton kelam.^[8]Ti apleo iadi tatpurto mathallo ''Here’s Looking at You, Body'' hea nanvan porgottunk sodta''.''^[9] Tinnem sabar filmank ani mhaitipottank zaiteoch pottkotha boroileat. Tinnnem Hindi film ''Haathi Ka Anda''(2002)pottkotha boroilea zachem digdorxon  Arun Khopkar hannem kelam zache khatir tinnem zaitem mhaitipottanchem borovp kelam.Tinnem 2011 vorsantlea Moratthi film ''Ti Ani Itarr'' haka boroilam ,jem  Manjula Padmanabhanachea 1986 nattkacher, ''Lights Out''.hachem bhaxantor asa^[10] Ek kolakar koxi ti  parallel cinema classic, film, ''Ardh Satya'' (1983) hantunt dislea, zachem digdorxon   Govind Nihalan hannem kelam ani eka  13-bhaganchea TV malikent zachem digdorxon  Amol Palekar hannem kelam.^[11] Tichi dhuv, Renuka Shahane, hinnem digdorxonant poilem pavl  Gokhalechi kadombori ''Rita Welinkar'' (Moratthi filmant , ''Rita''(2009). kelam zantunt ti (Shahane), Pallavi Joshi ani Jackie Shroff kolakaram modim aspavta.^[12][13] Gokhale adim ''The Times of India,'' Mumboichi Kolechi sompadok ani Feminachi upsompadok asli. Mukt potrkar  asunk tika zai aslem kiteak ti dusrea monxanchea khasgi jivitant nak ghalunk sodi nasli vo apleavoir lokx voddunk tika naka aslem..^[4] Ti adim sthomb lekhok koxi ''The Sunday Times of India'' ani ''The Independent'',hanga vavurtali toxench  lhan akaranchea potrank ''Mid-Day'' ani ''Mumbai Mirror''and  ani mhazaleank ''Scroll.in'' hankam boroitali.^[2][5] === Nattok ani tachi ttika === Gokhalenchi viaj tichea Inglix sahitio ani nattkam vixim xikpa vorvim nattkant suru zali jem tichea Londonnant xikxonn kariokromant aslem.Mumboi portolea uprant, tichi ixttagot Satyadev Dubey. kodden zali. Ti tancheo  nattkancheo ensaio polltali ani to koxem digdorxon korta tem monant dhortali, zantunt nove borovpi zoxe porim Girish Karnad asle. He tiche viaint ti nattkanchi ghoddnneo somzupak lagli...^[5]Uprant, ti nattkam boronvk lagli zoxe porim ''Avinash'' 1988 (zachem digdorxon  Dubeyn kelolem),^[2] ''Dip and Dop'' ani ''Rosemary for Remembrance'' (zacho poilo khell Kala Ghoda Arts Festivalant 2016 vorsa zala).^[3]  2000 vorsa, tinnem Moratthi Nattka voir ek ttikatmok obheas   , ''Playwright at the Centre: Marathi Drama from 1843 to the Present''. porgottlo.^[14] Tinnem ''The Scenes We Made: An Oral History of Experimental Theatre in Mumbai hachem sompadon kelam..''^[3 Tinnem   ''The Scene We Made'', pustok sompadlam jem  modlea-70 ani survatechea 90 vorsancho dekhavo dakhoita jem tinnemChabildas School  Dadar, Mumboint kelam.^[15] === Bhaxantor === Ek bhaxantor korpi koxi tinnem famad notti Durga Khote hanche voir vavr kela ani sabar nattkanchem bhaxantor kelam zanche borovpi nanvadik Moratthi nattokar zanchim nanvam Mahesh Elkunchwar, Vijay Tendulkar, G.P. Deshpande, ani Satish Alekar asat.^[4]Moratthi sahitiechem bhanddar bhaxantor korunk ti tiche avoik xroi dita jinnem toxem korunk tika sfurti dili. .^[2] Ticho bhaxantoracho vavr C.T. Khanolkar’achea ''Avadhya nattkant'', tichea Satyadev Dubeychea suchovnnent suru zalo jen’na ti  Visakhapatnam ravtali.^[4] Tichea bhaxantoram modlim thoddim ''Em Ani Hoomrao'' (Jerry Pintochi novol kanni, ''Em And The Big Hoom'' Moratthint bhaxantor kelolem), ''Begum Barve'' (Satish Alekarachem teach nanvanchem nattok Inglixint bhaxantor kelam), ''I, Durga Khote'' (Durga Khotechi Jivitkotha Moratthint, zachem Inglixint bhaxantor kelam) ani ''Guru Dutt: A Tragedy in Three Acts'' (tichea adlea ghorkar Arun Khopkarachem Moratthi pustok  Guru Duttachea voir zachem nanv ''Guru Dutt: Teen Anki Shokantika'', jem Inglixint bhasantor kelam).^[5]  2018 vorsa, tinnem ''Smritichitre: The Memoirs of a Spirited Wife,'' uzvaddailam jem Moratthi avrutechem bhaxantor asa jem Lakshmibai Tilak hinnem char bhagant 1931 ani 1936 modim uzvaddailam..^[16] == Vavr == * "The Theatre of Veenapani Chawla. Theory, Practice, Performance", Publisher: Oxford University Press, New Delhi 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-19-809703-7}}. * {{Cite book|title=Playwright at the Centre: Marathi drama from 1843 to the present|last=[[National School of Drama]]|publisher=Seagull Books|year=2000|isbn=817046157X|page=|author-link=}} * ''Tyā varshī'' (Marathi). Mauja Prakashan. Griha, 2008.  [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/8174867139|8174867139]]. ; '''Novol kannio''' * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mM8WBXYDugC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Shanta+Gokhale%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=f65qT_WeGIvJrAeQk_WSAg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=inauthor%3A%22Shanta%20Gokhale%22&f=false|title=Rita Welinkar|last=|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=1995|isbn=812500324X}} ; '''Nattkam''' * {{Cite book|url=|title=Avinash: the indestructible|last=|publisher=Seagull Books|year=1994|isbn=8170461073|author-link=}} ; '''Bhaxantoravpi koxi''' * {{Cite book|title=Begum Barve|url=https://archive.org/details/begumbarve0000alek|last=Satish Alekar|last2=Shanta Gokhale (translator)|publisher=Seagull Books|year=2003|isbn=8170462088|page=|author-link=Satish Alekar}} * {{Cite book|title=City plays (Playscript)|last=Mahesh Elkunchwar|last2=Shanta Gokhale & Manjula Padmanabhan (translation)|publisher=Seagull Books|year=2004|isbn=8170462304|author-link=}} * {{Cite book|title=I, Durga Khote: An autobiography|last=Durga Khote|last2=Shanta Gokhale (translator)|publisher=|year=2006|isbn=0195674758|author-link=Durga Khote}} * {{Cite book|title=Collected plays of Mahesh Elkunchwar: Garbo, Desire in the rocks, Old stone mansion, Reflection, Sonata, An actor exits|last=Mahesh Elkunchwar|last2=Shanta Gokhale, Supantha Bhattacharya (translation)|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=0195697979|author-link=Mahesh Elkunchwar}} * {{Cite book|title=Collected Plays of Satish Alekar: The Dread Departure, Deluge, the Terrorist, Dynasts, Begum Barve, Mickey and the Memsahib|url=https://archive.org/details/liang.collectedplaysof0000sati|last=Satish Alekar|last2=Gauri Deshpande, Urmila Bhirdikar, Alok Bhalla, Jayant Dhupkar, Pramod Kale, Shanta Gokhale (translation)|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=019806988X|page=|author-link=}} == Khasgi jivit == Shanta Gokhale hichm logn Lt. Cdr. Vijaykumar Shahane, kodden zalolem zanche pasun tika don bhurgim asat,Girish Shahane, ani famad film ani TV kolakar, Renuka Shahane. Tanchea soddchitti uprant, thoddea kallak famad film nirmovpi Arun Khopkar hache kodden tinnem logn zoddlem. Ti sodheak Lalit Estate, Shivaji Park, Mumboi, jieta tichea don mozot korpeam sangata zanchim nanvam Alka Dhulap ani Sanjay Pashte, ani ticho xezari Jerry Pinto asa.^[2][17] Vorsam pormonnim, Gokhale hinnem zaiteank margdorxon dilam zantunt kovi Arundhathi Subramaniam hicho aspav asa.^[18] == Tosripam ani bhovman == * Don Raxttrio Puroskar (mhaitipottachea filmanchea borovpank)^[19] Don Mharaxttr rajio puroskar tichea novol kanniechea sahitek   (zantjnt ''Crowfall'' 2008 vorsa hacho aspav asa)^[19][20] Sangeet Natak Akademi Award 2015 (tichea ekandor  iogdan/ xixiovruti kola prodorxonank)^[21] Ooty Literary Festival Lifetime Achievement Award (2018)^[10] == Sondorbh == <references group=""></references> == Fuddlem vachop == * {{Cite book|url=http://scmsophia.com/docs/scmsophia-lives-of-the-women-vol1.pdf|title=Lives of the Women|publisher=Sophia Institute of Social Communications Media|location=Mumbai|pages=1-38|access-date=2019-01-14|archive-date=2018-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728211046/http://scmsophia.com/docs/scmsophia-lives-of-the-women-vol1.pdf|url-status=dead}} == Bhaileo Zullovnneo == * Official website * Shanta Gokhale on IMDb [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] fzk1x2kdebp6yzmyuuj6ewc1lj5f4eo 0 11248 217176 215487 2026-08-19T19:58:43Z InternetArchiveBot 7422 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260819)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 217176 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gõychi Mukti Chollvoll''' [[Bharot]]antlea [[Gõy]]chi Purtugez rajvott sompovnk ek chollvoll asli. He chollvollichem ghoddop lhan promannachem bondd ani utthav ekunnisvea xekddeantlo aslem, ani 1940-1961 vorsam modem ti chodd bollixtt zali. Hi chollvoll donui Goeam bhitor ani bhair ghoddpant aili ani tantunt vegvegllea prokarchea rochnnukechem khaxeleponn aslem zantunt ovhinseche nixedh, bonddache prokar ani cholakheche proiotn asle.<ref name="mapsoi">{{cite web|url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/goa/geography-and-history/liberation-of-goa.html|title=Liberation of Goa|accessdate=2009-06-01|quote=The struggle for Goa’s liberty was two fold – from within Goa and from the outside Goa – which was conducted by the Indian Government.}}</ref><ref name="goa2udotcom">{{cite web|url=http://www.goa2u.com/history.htm|title=History Of Goa – Goa's Past|accessdate=2009-06-01|quote=The success of the post independence Goans struggle for freedom from Portugal owed as much to the efforts of the Indian Government who cut off diplomatic ties with Portugal as to the work of freedom fighters ...|archive-date=2009-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420100432/http://www.goa2u.com/history.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Punn, Bharotichea vosnnukancho fokot 1961 vorsa jen’na Bharotant Goencher ghuri ghatli ten’na [[Portugal|Purtugezancho]] tabo somplo<ref name="gpp">{{cite web|url=http://gpp.nic.in/Liberation.html|title=Liberation of Goa|accessdate=2009-06-01|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928203647/http://gpp.nic.in/Liberation.html|archivedate=28 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ani he zage Bharoti Songhrajeant zoddle. ==Bharotant Purtugez vosnnuko== {{main|Purtugezachi Goencher jikh}} 1510 vorsa Purtugezan Bharotant vosnnuko ani zaitech ostomptechea doreadegeche zage tabeant ghevn zaiteoch vosnnuko udentik sthapleo. 19vo xekddo somptana, Purtugezacheo vosnnuko Bharotant Goem, [[Damanv ani Diu]], [[Dadra ani Nagar Haveli]] ani [[Anjediva]] zunvo meren ximit asleo. ==Purtugez rajvottkecher bondd== Zaitech Goenkar je Purtugezanche rajvottkent jietale tannim Purtugez rajvott nakarli kiteak tanchim dhoronna chodd nirdoi aslim ani tanche hukum ani doia nasloleo sorkari mohimo nanvadik Hindu Goenkarank [[Kristanvponn]]ant dhormantor korunk asleo.<ref>{{cite book|author=Amelia Thomas|title=Goa and Mumbai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxY69WvM5o0C|year=2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74104-894-0|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxY69WvM5o0C&pg=PA45 45]}}</ref> Purtugez rajvottkecher add (nimannem 1912 vorsa kelolem) 14 bonddam,<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa">{{cite book|last=Harding|first=Paul|title=Lonely Planet|url=https://archive.org/details/goa0000hard|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2003|pages=224|isbn=978-1-74059-139-3 }}</ref> vosnnukechea kallachi rajvott sompovnk ekui utthav iesvont zavnk na. Hea utthavachea upiesan orthadik bodol haddunk pavunk na ani tanchi vixal, kriaxil palov divpi manddavoll ani thollavea soimachim karonna aslim. ==Svotontraiechi chollvoll== === 18vo xekddo === Purtugezam virud'dh 1787 ant Goenkar [[Pintonchem Karosthan]] yotn kelea. ===Survatecho 20vo xekddo=== 1910 vorsa Purtugez somratt raj kaddun uddovpant, tem vosnnukenk svaiototai ditole mhonn somzun ek bhorvonso nirmann kelo, punn jen’na Purtugez vosnnukvadachim dhoronna bodlunk nant, ek manddavollichi ani vosnnukvadachea add orponn keloli chollvoll uprasli.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> [[Luis de Menezes Braganza|Luís de Menezes Bragança]] hannem O Heraldo, potr sthaplem, jem Goenchem Purtugez bhaxentlem poilem vortomanpotr aslem, jem Purtugez vosnnukvadachea rajvottke virudh aslem. 1917vorsa, "Carta Organica" kaido pas kelo zantunt Goenchea nagrikanchea sovlotincher nodor dovorpant aili. Vaddttea motbhedachi protikria koxi, Purtugezachea Goenchea sorkaran oxim dhoronna lagu korpant haddlim zantunt nagrikancheo sovloti katorpant aileo, zantunt potrancher sensuracho aspav aslo. Koddok sensurachea dhoronnant kosleai chhaplolea utrank, zantunt amontronnachim karddancho aspav aslo, tim eka sensurache somitik topasnni korunk divnk zai aslim. Purtugez Goenchea Rajiopalak kosli-i porgottnni sthogit korunk, chhapkhannem bond korunk ani jim vortomanpotrank him dhoronna palli nant tancher khor dondd ghalunk; hukum aslo. Zaitea Goenkaramni hea vortomanpotrachea svotontraiechea kopat korpacher ttika keli, ani ti fokot vosnnuke vordan aslolea mozkurak vortomanpotrank ani nemalleank Purtugez porgottunk porvangi dita; oxem mhonnttlem.<ref name="Perera">Janaka Perera, Goa's Liberation and Sri Lanka's Crisis, Asian Tribune, 18 December 2006 [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214618/http://www.asiantribune.com/node/3709]</ref> Menezes Bragança hannem ho kaido nakarunk ek [[Moddganv]]ant ek sobhechi manddavoll keli ani thoddo kall je Purtugezan mukhel vattharant favo zatale tech hok Goenkarank favo zale.<ref name="Sakhsena">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kUE7TV3ZWEC&printsec=frontcover |title=Goa: Into the Mainstream |isbn=978-81-7017-005-1 |date=1 June 2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |accessdate=1 April 2014 |first=R.N. |last=Sakshena}}</ref> Punn, Purtugez [[Katolik firgoz|Katolk Igorz]] vosnnuke vordan aslolea dhoronnak palov ditali ani svotontrai virudh chollvoll korunk Goenkar Kristanvancher probhav ghalunk proiotn kortali. Goenchea Katolk Igorjechea Purtugez Patriarkan 60 voir odhikrut chitti dhormprantachea padrink patthoileo, zantunt aplea bhavartheank sermanv sangun ki tanchem salvasanv Purtugezancher ovlumbun asa ani tea khatir sonskrutik-rajki sombond her Bharotam koddlean pois ravunk; oxeo suchovnneo dileo.<ref>Teotonio R. de Souza, "The Church in Goa: Giving to Caesar What is Caesar's?" para 5 {{cite web |url=http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/church.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-11-09 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402200720/http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/church.html |archivedate=2 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ===1920–1940=== [[File:Tristão de Bragança Cunha 1998 stamp of India.jpg|150px|right]] 1928 vorsa, [[Tristao de Braganza Cunha|Tristão de Bragança Cunha]] hannem Goa National Congress sthaplo. [[Kolkata|Kolkotak]] zalolea Indian National Congress odhivexonant, Goa Congress Committee-k maniotai ani protitnidhiponn favo zalem. 1930 vorsachea Maiant, Purtugalan "Acto Colonial" (Vosnnukecho Kaido), zantunt rajki sobha ani zomati sogllea Purtugez vosnnukent allo ghalunk pas kelo. Ho kaido lagu korun Goencho bhes eka vosnnukecho korun soddlo. Purtugezan, Bhartachea Purtugez zageancher loskorant bhorti zavnk ek soktichem dhoronn bhitor kaddlem jea vorvim odik vaddtti tiddok vosnnukechea sorkara virudh zavnk pavli.<ref name="Sakhsena"/> Purtugez sorkaran National Congress (Goa) hankam maniotai dina zavnk dobav haddlo; punn 1938 vorsa, Mumboichea Goenkaramni tatpurti Goa Congress sthapli. ===1940ant=== 1940ant, Goenchea svotontr chollvollik goti aili zachi sfurt Bharoti Svotontraiechi chollvoll zavn asli ji eka chodd mhotvachea kallant aili, tech porim 1946 vorsachi Brittix- anchi Bharotak svotontrai divpachi kollovnni, zachea uprant Bharoti fuddareamni aplem Purtugez Bharotachea ani Fransez Bharotachea chollvollicher lokx voddlem zankam novea svotontr zalolea Bharoti rajeant vilin zavnk zai aslem. Jen’na Bragança Cunha haka 1946, vorsa ottok korpant ailo, Goa Kongresacho odheokx A.G. Tendulkar zalo ani tannem Londa (Goeam bhair) ek zomat ievjili. Dr Julião Menezes ho Goeant xiklo ani Lyceu, (Purtugez vhodd iskol) sompoitoch tannem 1920 vorsa Berlin Vixvvidheapittant proves ghetlo ani voizponnant MD podvi zoddli. Tannem Berlinant Indology-nt patthiokrom kelo. Thoim taka Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia bhettlo zo teach vixvvidheapittant xiktalo.<ref name="colaco.net">{{Cite web |url=http://www.colaco.net/1/leitaoDrJuliao.htm |title=Archive copy |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-date=2012-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313155846/http://www.colaco.net/1/leitaoDrJuliao.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[लोहिया, राममनोहर|Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia]] ani Dr Julião Menezes ekamekachea somporkant ravle ani Dr. Menezes hannem taka asro pasun dilo. ‘Kor vo Mor’ ho [[Mahatma Gandhi]] hannem ulo marlea uprant. Dr. Lohia, Goeant lipun ravnk sodtalo punn Dr. Menezes-an taka sol’lo ditoch tannem to vichar soddun dilo kiteak Brittixanche dolal Goeant kriaxil asle dekhun Dr. Menezes haka chinta zatali. Lahore-antlean zoim taka Mumboint ottok kortoch vhorpant ailolo, Dr. Lohiachea bondkhonnintlean suttka zatoch, he dogui portun 1946 vorsa bhettle. Eka voizuki topasnne khatir [[Bombaim|Mumboint]] Dr. Lohia, Dr. Menezesak bhettlo zoim nimannean poileak visov ghevnk sanglem ani tannem taka aplea ghora Goeant Osollnnem ievnk amontronn dilem.<ref name="colaco.net"/><ref name="heraldgoa.in">{{Cite web |url=http://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/The-forgotten-history-of-18th-June/89901.html |title=Archive copy |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-date=2017-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618185203/http://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/The-forgotten-history-of-18th-June/89901.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hem amontronn svikakrun, Dr. Lohia Goeant Junhache 10ver 1946 ailo ani Menezes-achea ghorant Osollnnem ravlo, zoim dogui danddgeamnim Goeant asolea tea vellachea vatavronnacher bhasabhas keli ani Purtugez sorkaran zomatincher bondi ghatlea taka avhan korpak tharailem. Hi 435-vorsanchea Purtugez sorkaracher poili nagrik adneabhong zavn asli. Lohiachea ienneachi khobor Goenkaram modem ximpoddli ani Osollnnechem Dr. Menezesa-chem ghor Goenkar vidvanachea ani rajki kariakortanche zomatichem thikann zavn pavlem zankam Dr.Lohia ani Dr. Menezes hancho sol’lo zai aslo.<ref name="heraldgoa.in"/> Junhache 15ver 1946 vorsa, Dr. Menezes and Dr. Lohia hannim Ponnje eka lokachea zomeak bhaxonn dilem punn zorui te zomat aslolea zagear pulis hajir asle, te modem poddun ti zomat bond korunk na. Hea zomatichea zoita vorvim tankam dhilaso mell’llo ani dogaimnim Moddganvchea chovkant eka ghoddeam gaddie vorvim proves kelo.<ref name="heraldgoa.in"/> Junhache 18ver hozaramni dadle ani bailamni tankam ievkar dilo ani tanchea nanvan oxim ghoxnna kelim: "Dr Lohia-ki Jai! Dr Julião Menezes-ki-Jai!". Dr. Lohia ani Dr.Menezes hankam ottok korpant aili. Vosnnukechea karbhareanchean, zankam hachi khobor nasli, tanchean zomeacho kollkoll thambovnk zavnk na. Julião ani Lohia hankam ottok keli ani modeanrati Ponnje Pulis kvartelar vhele. Tanchea ottkechi khobor akh’khea Goeant posorli, ani choddxea xaramni lokan aplim nidorxonna kelim. Moddganvant, dusre sokallim, nagrikamni pursanv kaddlem ani sanje Kamra fuddeant ektthaim zale. Zorui foujeche xipai thoim lokank ambddunk asle, te bosun ravle, ani ekvottan aplea vhoddlea tallean akh’khea xarant bobatt martale mhonnnun: Jai Hind!! Dr. Lohiako shodd do! Dr. Julião Menezesko shodd do! Disachea xevttak, Dr.Julião Menezes haka soddpant ailo ani Dr. Lohia haka Goeam bhair vhorun soddlo. Tanchi ottok, lokak svotontraiechea chollvollik vhodda promannant nidorxonna korunk prernna divnk pavli jea vorvim vhoddlea promannant ottok zali ani 1,500 lokachem bondkhonnint patthovp zalem.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> Goenche fuddari zoxe porim [[Tristao de Braganza Cunha|Bragança Cunha]], [[Purushottam Kakodkar]], ani Laxmikant Bhembre hankam tanchea svotontraiechea nidorxonnant bhag ghetla dekhun Purtugalak toddipar kele.<ref name="Sakhsena"/> Goem, Damanv ani Divchea sorkarachean Dr. Juliãochem hea tachea iogdanak to jivo astana maniotai divnk ghoddunk na, zorui taka Junhache 18 ver 1986 vorsa tachea mornna uprant man favo kelo, taka ek iadostik bandun tacho ugddas dovorpachi goroz asa.<ref name="colaco.net"/> Outubr tem Novembr 1946, zaitech soteagrah (ohinvseche nagrik adneabhongachi kruti) Goeant ghetleo; punn hea krutichea zaiteach fuddareank ottok korpant aile. Fuddareanchea ottkent, hea chollvollichi goti xenddpant aili ani hea uprant, Goa Congress, Mumboi savn aplem kario korpak lagli. Modlea 1940nt, zaitech nove rajki pokx Goeant, dor ekak ek ghusponnichi kariavoll ani kario asun, Goenchea svotontraiecher ani svaiototaicher zhuzpak; upzole. He rajki pokx vegvegllea dhoronnacho prochar kortale zantunt Goenchem [[Maharaxhttr|Mharaxttr]] rajeant vilin korpachoi prostav aslo toxench. Goenchem Bharotant aslolea dokxinn [[Kornattok|Kornatokachea]] rajeant vilin korop, svotontr Goenchem ghottok rajeo, ani Purtugez rajeant svaiototai hancho aspav aslo. Mahatma Gandhi hannim oslea vegllea kariavollichi svotontrai upegachi zavnchi na ani tem svotontraiechea loddaik faideachem zavnchem na mhonn vollkholem; veg vegllea svontontraiechea ghottokamni vixal pokxan ektthaim ievnk proiotn korunk zai, oxi tannem suchovnni keli. Gandhichea suchovnnek zobab koso, vegveglle pokx Mumboint 1947 vorsantle Junhant bhettle ani upcharikponni Purtugezamni “Bharot soddunk” ek mohim sador keli. Brittixamni vosnnukecho tabo soddttoch, Goenchea fuddareank, Purtugez, vosnnukecho tabo sompeponni soddttole, oxem somzotale. Punn Agostache 3rer 1947 vorsa Goenchem svotontrponn Bharotachea svotontraie sangata zavnchem na ani hea khatir Goenkaramni apli loddai chalu dovorchi poddttoli nhoich nagrik sovlote khatir punn “svotache svotontraiek” oxem Dr.Lohian porgottlem. Raxttrio svotontraiechea loddaient Goeank svotontrai mellpak opies ievop zachea sangata novea raxttrio Nove Delhint aslole Bharoti fudarponnachea mixreo ixare, ani koddok Purtugezancho chholl; Goenchea svotontrponnache chollvollint mondi haddunk pavlo. Tech porim Bharotachi fallnni ani Bharoti [[Pakistan]]i 1947 vorsantlem zhuz hannim raxttrio Bharoti fuddareancho kendr Purtugezanchea ani Fransezache vosnnuke add loddai dusrea vordan halovpant aili. Bharotachi svotontrai zatoch, Goem, Damanv ani Divchea svotrontraiechi ek veglli magnni Dr. Froilano de Mello hannem ubharli zo ek nanvadik microbiologist ani Purtugez Raxttrio Vidhansobhent khasdar aslo zannem tankam svaiototaiechim rajeam Brittix bhouraxttram asat toxim Purtugez bhouraxttrant korunk maglem.<ref>[http://www.goacom.com/culture/biographies/froil1.html Professor Froilano de Mello, MD (1887–1955): A short biography of his life and achievements] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/64AJJAqCX?url=http://www.goacom.com/culture/biographies/froil1.html |date=24 December 2011 }} – Goacom.com</ref> ===Svatotaiechi Magnni=== Goeant ani Purtugalant, kalla pormonnem magnneo Purtugez Bharotant aslolea prodesam khatir korpant aileo. Julhant 1946 vorsa, ek bhouxik zomat ghetli zantunt Estado da India, haka ek ugti svaiototaiechi magnni Salazarchea karbhareank keli. He zomatik José Inácio de Loyola hacho palov aslo ani tannem hi sfurt mellttoch [[Uday Bhembre]]chea odheokxponna khal ek somiti keli. He somitek favo to zobab Purtugez rajkarbhaream koddlean mellunk na ani xekim nimanni svaiototaiechi magnni Purushottam Kakodkaran survatechea 1961 vorsa keli.<ref name="Blood_Nemesis_review">{{cite web|url=http://goabooks2.blogspot.com/2005/12/blood-nemesis-and-misreading-quite.html|title=BLOOD, NEMESIS AND MISREADING QUITE WHAT MAKES GOAN SOCIETY TICK by Ben Antao, review by Lino Leitao|last=Leitao|first=Lino|date=23 December 2005|accessdate=2009-05-23}}</ref> ===Choturaieche proiotn=== 1947 vorsachea Dezembrant, svotontr Bharot ani Purtugal hannim dutavasacheo zullovneo sthapleo. 1948 vorsantlea Janerant, Bharoti Prodhan Montri [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]n Purtugez dutachi bhett ghetli ani Goenchem, Bharoti songh rajeant vilin korpacho prosn manddlo. Purtugez, zankam e Bharoti vosnnuko moladik asleo, tankam vannponn korpant posonti nasli ani 1948 vorsa Goenchea vosnnuke add chollvoll lagim lagim borkhast korpant aili. 1953 vorsa Janerant, Bharoti Purtugalachem xisttmonddol (Bharot sorkarachi protinidhi sonstha), hannim Purtugala kodde tichea Bharotant aslolea zageam vixim ulovnni korunk magnni keli. Bharot sorkar ek nitt bodlop zai aslem, punn Purtugezan taka nakar dilo ani dutavasachi ixttagot don desa bhitor ibaddot geli. Junhache 11 ver 1953 vorsa, [[Lisboa]]k aslolo dutavas bond korpant ailo ani dutavasacheo zullovnneo upcharik pod’dhotin kaddun uddoileo. Julh 1953 vorsa Bharotachi sthiti French ani Purtugez vosnnuko Bhartotatleo Bharoti songh Prodesat mellovnk zai; oxem Nehrun sanglem. Nivollponni Bharatichem dhoronn vosnnukamche sombond Nehrun sanglam astana, Purtugal ani Frans apleo vosnnuko soddunk kobul nasle. Hea uprant, Bharotan ek Ekvottit Raxttram-che torfen Purtugezank Bharotantle xantponni soddunk ek mohim sador keli.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> ===Krantikari pongoddam=== [[Azad Gomantak Dal]], ek krantikaricho pongodd hannem Purtugezanchea nitt kariacheo hikmotincher zoit vhorunk soput ghetlo. Azad Gomantak Dal hachi sthapnni Vishwanath Lawande, Narayan Hari Naik, Dattatraya Deshpande, Prabhakar Sinari zanchea sangata her tache mitr asle tannim eksarke Purtugez kvartelancher ani Benkencher akromonn kelem. Soglleank 28–29 vorsanchi bondkhonn Purtugezache niailoien dili. Narayan Naik ani Dattatraya Deshpande hankam 14 vorsanchi bondkhonn Portugal ani Angolachea bondkhonnint favo zali. Punn tankam Goenchi soddvonn zatoch soddle. Vishwanath Lawande ani Prabhakar Sinari he bondkhonnintle pollun gele ani tanchi xostranchi loddai Purtugez rajvottkecher vhodd loskorachem boll vosnnuke add zhuzpak keli zachi mukhealoi Goenchea-Bharotache ximer Vazarem ghoddli. Azad Gomantak Dal hannim iesiesvontponni pulis ani karkhanneanacher, kvartelancher, ieradarancher dhaddi ghatleo, addsak ravun soinacher ochkit ximer ghureo ghatleo ani darugulleacho santtho foddun uddoilo. Tannim Goencho ek bhag zaka "Dadra and Nagar Haveli" mhonn pachartat to soinachea kruten mekllo kelo. Soineacho fuddari Vishwanath Lawande hannem apnnak Dadra ani Nagarhavelicho Rajeopal ghoxit kelo. Punn, hea pongddachea krantikarichea manddnnek, Purtugezan aplem soineachem boll vaddoilem ani hem korunk tannim gore ani Afriki foujeche xipai hem bondd damun dovrunk haddle. Goa Liberation Army, zacho Shivajirao Desai ek Bharoti foujecho odhikari aslo. Tannem 1950ant sthapnni keli, tannem Purtugezancho vosnnukvadak avhan divnk krantikari ievzonneo ani nitt kruti vaprunk tharailem. Tannem Sesa Goachi Sonshi min foddun uddoilem jea vorvim tatpurtem minacho vavr sthogit zavnk pavlo. Goa Liberation Army haka zaiteach her foddpachem ani ghuri ghalpachem xroi favo zata ani tannem ek mhotvachi bhumika Bharoti ghuriecher vellar pul nas korpa virudh vanchovpachi keli.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> ===1953 fuddem Soteagrohache chollvollichi khorai=== 1953 vorsa, Tristão de Bragança Cunha hannem abar vosnnuke add aslole pongodd manddavollir ghalunk Goa Action Committee ghoddli je svotontrponnim Mumboint vavurtale. Mumbointi Goenkar ani on-Goenkar hannim hea zhuzant aplo ekvott dakhovnk Soteagroh kelo. Goeant, vosnnuke add don pongodd asle zantunt kherit vosnnuke add hikmoti asleo. National Congress Goa hi xanticheo soteagroh heo hikmoti vaportali, ani Azad Gomantak Dal krantikari pod’dhoti vapor kortali. Agostache 15ver 1954, ek vhodd soteagroh korpant ailo, punn ohinvsecho adneabhongacho vapor korunui, Purtugez zallvondaramni marpett kelo ani zaiteach bhagidarank ottok kele.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> P.D. Gaitonde haka Purtugez vosnnukvada add sobhemazar nidorxonna korta mhonn ottok kelo. Eka vorsa uprant, anik nidorxonna teach tarkher korpant ailim. Jon Songh fuddari, Karnataka Kesari Jagannathrao Joshi, hannem 3,000 nidorxokam sangata zantunt bailo, bhurgim ani Mharaxttrantle Bharoti asle tanchem fuddariponn korun Goenche ximer gele. Surokxa dollamni nidorxokancher latthi vaporli ani soteagrohcher far pettoile, zantunt zaiteach lokak moronn ievn xemboramni zokhmi zale.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> Purtugal atam NATO cho vangddi aslolean, Bharoti sorkar hea ghoddnnek mumkho ravlo. NATO chea vangddi desancho ek koblat asli jea vorvim khoinchea ghoddnnent khoincheai desak bhailem akromonn zait zalear tannim eka mekak surokxit korunk zai aslem. Zorui NATOchi koblar vosnnukank lagu zai nasli, Purtugalan tanchea doreapoltoddcheo hitsombondh vosnnuko nasun teo Portugal desacheo purai bhag asat mhonn agro kelo. Hea khatir, NATOchem ghusop tallunk, Bharot sorkarachean Purtugalache soteagrohachea nixedachea kariache zapek zobab divnk ghoddunk na. 1954vorsa, Goa Vimochan Sahayak Samiti (All-Party Goa Liberation Committee), ghoddpant aili zachi mokh adneabhongachi mohim chalu dovorpachi ani soteagrohank duddvancho ani rajki mozot divnk asli. Praja Socialist Party hanche Mharaxttr ani [[Gujrat]] pongodd hannim soddvonnechea somitik mozot keli ani svotontr Goeank Mharaxttrant vilin korpak protsahon dilem. Soddvonnechi somiti ani Praja Socialist Party hannim sangatan zaitech soteagroh 1954–55 aiojit kele. Purtugez sorkaran zaiteach ontoraxttrio bollank ulo marun Bharot sorkar Purtugezachea zageanchi probhutv add vavurta mhonn tokrar keli kiteak soteagrohani Purtugezanchea Goenchi xim uploli. Nehruk tea khatri dobav haddlo jea vorvim Bharotan soteagrohak maniotai dili na. Nehru'chem soteagroh nakarpak lagun svotontraichea chollvollik mar boslo. Nehrucho soteagrohank palov naslolean, eka soteagrohean Goenchi xim Terekhol kotta lagim up’pachea kamank bhov thoddeancho palov mell’llo. Zorui bhov thodde lok asle, ek dhaktto zomo Goenchi xim upun Terekhol kottant ratik pennem korunk pavlo. Thoddea soteagrohank soddlear, ani All-Goa Political Party Committeechem kario pollelear, toxench raxttrio Bharoti sorkaracho palov naslolean, vosnnuke add chollvollichi goti dhilavli. Svotontraichem kario viroll aslem ani bhov thodde he chollvollint misoll zavnk itsa dakhoitale. Junhache 18ver 1954 vorsa, soteagrohi Goeant bhitor sorle ani Bharotacho bavtto uboilo, punn nidorxonna korpi ani dubhavi bhuzvonnkarank ottok korpant aili ani vosnnuke add kariakorte Dr. Gaitonde ani Shriyut Deshpande hankam Purtugalak toddipar kele.<ref name="Sakhsena"/> ==Dadra ani Nagar Haveli hanchem samilikoronn== Julhache 21ver 1954, Goenkaranchea United Front (zachem fuddariponn Francis Mascarenhas hannem choloilem) hannem Purtugezank aplo vosnnukecho Dadra prodes zo ek sorvbhonvtim zomin aslolo zago Nagar Havelichea ximer aslo; fattim ghevnk boll kelem, National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO) hacho ek pongodd Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh krantikari pongodd ani Azad Gomantak Dal, hannim Nagar Haveli hacher Julhache 28ver 1954, ani Agostache 2 rer iesiesponnim tabo ghetlo.<ref name =lele>P S Lele, Dadra and Nagar Haveli: past and present, Published by Usha P. Lele, 1987,</ref> Zorui iesvontponnim he zage tabeant ghetle, Bharotan te zage rokhddech Songh Prodesant vilin korunk nant. Thoddo kall teo de facto svotontr des koxe asle zancho karbhar Svotontr Dadra ani Nagar Havelichi Varishta Panchayat choloitali. Dadra ani Nagar Haveli hachem iesvont samilikoronn, xellmoddea Goenchea vosnnuke add chollvollik novean zolm divnk ani protsohan divnk pavlem. Agostache 15ver 1954, xemboramni lokamni Purtugezachea Goencheo ximo hupleo zorui Bharoti sorkaracho hukum soteagrohan bhag ghena zavnk mona kelolem. Purtugezamni haka aplo zobab sabar zonnak ghaiall korun ani zaiteank jive marunk portipall kelo.<ref name="Sakhsena"/> Purtugezamni Soteagroheank hech porim sobondh 1955 vorsa portipall kelo. Tannim he chollvollik vaddtto palov asa tem pollovn tancheo ximo bond keleo. 1955 vorsa meren Bharoti sorkaran ek nivoll dhoronn toiar kelem zannem vosnnuke add chollvollik palov dilo. 1955 ani 1961 vorsa modem, ho Purtugez vosnnukvadachi rajvott sompovnk, so rajki pokx ghoddpant aile Hea pokxam modem Azad Gomantak Dal, Rancour Patriota, United Front of Goans, Goan People's Party, Goa Liberation Army ani Quit Goa Organisation hancho aspav aslo. Purtugez mudom ontoraxttrio somazak goirsomoz korta, Goenkarank Luso-Bharoti vo Purtugez mhonn pacharun oxem zaitea Goenkarank dislem. P.D. Gaitondechi bonddkhonnintlean suttka zatoch, P.D. Gaitonden hea vicharak avhan korun sabar ontoraxttrio bhaxonna kelim. Vaddtto palov ontoraxttrio somaza koddlean toxench Purtugez Afriki vosnnukam koddlean mellun, Bharoti sorkarachea dhoronn odik koddok zavnk pavlem. 1961 vorsa, Goeank Bharotant zoddunk zai "ek xantin na tor bollan" Oxem Bharotan sanglem. Agostant 1961, Bharotan soineachi toiari keli ani Nehruchea Bharot atam Goenchea poristhiticher ogi ravchona, sangnnea uprant Dezembrache 1ler 1961, Bharoti soin Goenchea ximer ubem ravlem. ==Goenchem samilikoronn== Purtugezam kodde choturaiechi chalik upies ietoch, Nehrun Bharoti Foujek Goeank forsan ghevpak hukum dilo. Eka soineachea karian jem 18 ani 19 Dezembr 1961 vorsa korpant ailem, Bharoti foujen Goeank aplea tabean ghetlem zaka bhov thoddo virodh aslo. Purtugez Bharotachea Rajeopalan ek xoronnachem kagod soi kelem.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> == Uprantleo ghoddnneo == Major General Kunhiraman Palat Candeth haka Goencho Rajeopal nempant ailo jem pod poilem Brittix sorkaran 1934 vorsa poilem rochlolem. 1963 vorsa, Bharotachea Sonsoden Bharotachea Ghottnechi 12vi durusti kaido pas kelo, ani upcharikponnim tabeant ghetlole zage Bharotachea Songhrajeant misoll kele.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> Goem, Damanv ani Div Songh Prodes zale. Dadra ani Nagar Haveli, je adim Estado da India hache asle, punn 1954 ani 1961 vorsam modem svotontr, te kherit Songh Prodes zale. 1962 vorsachea Outubrant, Ponchaiot venchnnuko Goeant ghevpant aileo zachea uprant Dezembr 1962 vorsa Vidhan Sobhecheo. Janerache 16ver 1967 vorsa ek lokmot ghevpant ailem zantunt Goenchea lokamni Mharaxttrant vilin zavpa virudh mot dilem. Purtugalan fokot 1974 vorsa Goenchi odhikarprapti Bharot Songhachi manun ghetli. 1987 vorsa, Goeank, Damanv ani Diu koddlean vegllim korun ek purnnponni vegllo prant kelo. Damanv ani Div ek novo songh prodes koso chalu urlo.<ref name="Lonely_Planet_Goa"/> Thambonaslolo lokacho lott Bharotachea her zageantlo Goeam ieta dekhun osmitaiek ani sonskrutaieek dhoko bospachi. thollavea lokak bhirant poddlea. Goeank Vegllo Dorzo divpak vaddtti magnni Bharot sorkarak asa jea vorvim sorkarachean stholantoracher tabo dovrunk zatolo ani aplo zago on-Goenkarank divpacho thambovnk zatolem. ==Filmam== Sat Hindustani (bhaxantor: Sat Bharoti) ek 1969 vorsantlem film jem Khwaja Ahmad Abbas hannem borovn digdorxit kelam. Hea filmant sat Bharoteank Purtugezantlea vosnnukvadachea rajvottkentle Goeank soddoitat tem dakhoitat. == Chitr Prodorxon == <gallery class="center" caption="Goenchea svotontraieche kariakorte" widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Key Figures in Goa Independence Anthony D'Souza.jpg|Anthony D'Souza File:Key Figures in Goa Independence Mark Fernandes.jpg|Mark Fernandes File:Key Figures in Goa Independence Alfred Afonso.jpg|Alfred Afonso File:Key Figures in Goa Independence Mitra Bir.jpg|Mitra Bir </gallery> == Henvui polloi == * [[Azad Gomantak Dal]] * [[गोंयचो इतिहास|Goencho Itihas]] == Sondorbh == {{Reflist}} [[वर्ग:Gõychi itihas]] [[वर्ग:Romi panam]] byfgd8g35irdhaqscxnpqgm5mztr8sg