Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.4 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 6354 99348 48397 2026-05-31T18:51:43Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 99348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Madda Walabu University''', one of de public universities insyd [[Ethiopia]], na dem establish am insyd 2006.<ref>[https://mwu.gov.et/ "madda walabu university"]. ''mwu.gov.et''.</ref> De university dey locate insyd Bale Zone, insyd de town of Robe, about 430 km (270 mi) from de capital city, Addis Ababa. De university get 46 undergraduate den 28 postgraduate programs.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150706175927/http://www.mwu.edu.et/about-mwu "About MWU"]. Archived from [http://www.mwu.edu.et/about-mwu the original] on 6 July 2015.</ref> == History == De name "'''Madda Walabu'''" be historical place, wey be 227 km (141 mi) from de zonal town Bale Robe to de south west.<ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20230610154315/http://www.mwu.edu.et/?q=node%2F283 "Historical Background"]. ''mwu.edu.et''.</ref> Historically de place dey closely relate to de Oromo people. E be de cradle of Oromo civilization den de birthplace of de [[Gadaa]] system.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20250222075850/https://www.opride.com/2017/11/17/heroic-send-off-aliyi-cirri-pioneer-oromo-freedom-fighter/ "A heroic send-off for Aliyi Cirri, a pioneer Oromo freedom fighter whose courage and bravery inspired generations"]. ''www.opride.com''. 17 November 2017.</ref> E sanso produce numerous Oromo heroes.<ref name=":2" /> Secof ein deep rooted value give Oromo people, dem commonly dey use de name Madda Walabu by Madda Walabu Stadium, Madda Walabu Cultural band, Madda Walabu University ein self den oda smaller business centers dem name after dis unique place.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/afaanoromoo/oduu-47797086 "Mana Muuziqaa Madda Walaabuu: Manni muuziqaa Afaan Oromoo 'jalqabaa' eessa jira?"]. ''www.bbc.com''.</ref> == Schools den colleges == De university get ten schools, one institute den one college.<ref name=":0" /> De schools den colleges be: === College of Agriculture === * Animal den Range Science * Plant Science * Rural Development * Agricultural Extension === College of Social Science === * History den Heritage Management * Geography den Environmental Studies * Civics den Ethical Studies * Journalism den Communication * Afan Oromo Language den Literature * English Language den Literature * Amharic Language den Literature * Sociology === College of Business den Economics === * Department of Economics * Department of Accounting * Department of Business Management * Department of Marketing Management * Department of Tourism Management === School of Language Studies === * English Language den Literature * Amharic Language den Literature * Afan Oromo den Literature * Journalism den Communication === College of Natural science === * Physics * Chemistry * Biology === Institute of Technology === E get two colleges College of Engineering * Civil Engineering Department * Mechanical Engineering Department * Electrical Engineering Department * Construction Technology den Management * Surveying Engineering Department * Water Resource den Irrigation Engineering Department * Architecture College of Computing * Information Systems * Computer Science * Information Science * Information Technology === School of Mathematical Science === * Mathematics * Statistics === College of Education & Behavioral Studies === * Psychology * Early Childcare Education * Educational Planning * Adult Education === School of Biodiversity den Natural Resource === * Natural Resource Management (NRM) * Forestry * Ecotourism den Biodiversity Conservation (ETBC) === School of Agriculture === * Animal den Range Science * Plant Science * Rural Development * Agricultural Extension === College of Medicine === * Medicine * Public Health/Health Officer * Nursing * Midwifery === Institute of Pedagogical Science === === Graduate Studies === * Environmental Science * Teaching English as foreign Language (TEFL) * Applied Micro Biology * Master of Business Administration (MBA) * Biodiversity == References == <references /> [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 2006]] [[Category:2006 establishments insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Education insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Oromia Region]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 2006]] asxijm0iswd99wm43udjkggeb2fv269 3 20936 99432 77877 2026-06-01T09:41:36Z BA Ocansey 2486 /* afrocreative hashtag */ Reply 99432 wikitext text/x-wiki == afrocreative hashtag == kindly remeber to use the afrocreative hashtag when editing [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 15:25, 11 September 2025 (GMT) :Thanks, boss [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 02:59, 12 September 2025 (GMT) ::Hello Emmanuel, please, we do not have your contact details, so reaching out to you is really hard. ::Can you kindly share your contact details with us or can you quickly text me n whatsapp using this number 0549793896 [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 09:41, 1 June 2026 (GMT) c32piss09e7f6pvaihkgdfiattysv18 99456 99432 2026-06-01T10:01:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 /* afrocreative hashtag */ Reply 99456 wikitext text/x-wiki == afrocreative hashtag == kindly remeber to use the afrocreative hashtag when editing [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 15:25, 11 September 2025 (GMT) :Thanks, boss [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 02:59, 12 September 2025 (GMT) ::Hello Emmanuel, please, we do not have your contact details, so reaching out to you is really hard. ::Can you kindly share your contact details with us or can you quickly text me n whatsapp using this number 0549793896 [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 09:41, 1 June 2026 (GMT) :::Okay please. [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 10:01, 1 June 2026 (GMT) ktzffnmj97nij9t7p189l37tf1ui961 0 27007 99322 98718 2026-05-31T14:23:21Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 99322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gulf of Guinea''' (French: ''Golfe de Guinée''; Spanish: ''Golfo de Guinea''; Portuguese: ''Golfo da Guiné'') be de northeasternmost part of de tropical Atlantic Ocean from Cape Lopez insyd [[Gabon]], north den west to Cape Palmas insyd [[Liberia]].<ref name="iho2">{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, Draft 4th Edition: North Atlantic Ocean and its Sub-Divisions |url=https://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/S-23_Draft_2002_NORTH_ATLANTIC.doc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035046/http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/S-23_Draft_2002_NORTH_ATLANTIC.doc |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=5 April 2017 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization}}</ref> Null Island, dem define as de intersection of de Equator den Prime Meridian (zero degrees latitude den longitude), dey insyd de gulf.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rosenberg |first=Matt |date=30 January 2020 |title=Where Do the Prime Meridian and the Equator Intersect? |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/prime-meridian-and-the-equator-intersect-4070819 |access-date=7 July 2022 |website=ThoughtCo}}</ref> Among de chaw rivers wey drain into de Gulf of Guinea be de Niger den de Volta. De coastline on de gulf dey include de Bight of Benin den de Bight of Bonny. == Name == Dem think "Guinea" originate from a local name for an area insyd de region, although de specifics be disputed. Bovill (1995) dey give a thorough description:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hale |first=Thomas A. |title=From the Griot of Roots to the Roots of Griot: A New Look at the Origins of a Controversial African Term for Bard |url=http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/12ii/2_Hale.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202101752/http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/12ii/2_Hale.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-02 |access-date=2008-03-26 |website=Oral Tradition}}</ref> De name "Guinea" sanso previously be applied to de south coast of [[West Africa]] (north of de Gulf of Guinea), wich cam be known as "Upper Guinea", den to de west coast of Southern Africa (to de east), wich cam be known as "Lower Guinea". Today, de word "Guinea" be found insyd de names of three countries insyd Africa ([[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], den [[Equatorial Guinea]]), den insyd one country insyd Melanesia (Papua New Guinea). == Geography == De main river wey dey dispense ein waters insyd de gulf be de Niger River. Dem dey give different definitions of de geographic limits of de Gulf of Guinea; de International Hydrographic Organization dey define de southwest extent of de Gulf of Guinea as "B line from Cap Lopez (0°37′S 8°43′E / 0.617°S 8.717°E / -0.617; 8.717), insyd Gabon, northwestward to Ihléu Gago Coutinho (Ilhéu das Rôlas) (0°01′S 6°32′E / 0.017°S 6.533°E / -0.017; 6.533); den thence a line from Ihléu Gago Coutinho northwestward to Cape Palmas (4°22′N 7°44′W / 4.367°N 7.733°W / 4.367; -7.733), insyd Liberia.<ref name="iho2" /><gallery heights="250" mode="packed"> File:Carte_du_golfe_de_Guinée-18e_s..jpg|Old French map of de Gulf of Guinea File:Limites_du_golfe_de_Guinée-fr.svg|Different limits of de Gulf of Guinea File:Gulf_of_Guinea_5.24136E_2.58756N.jpg|Satellite imagery of de Gulf of Guinea wey dey show borders of states on ein shores </gallery> === Islands insyd de Gulf of Guinea === De Gulf of Guinea dey contain a number of islands, de largest of wich dey insyd a southwest-northeast chain, wey dey form part of de Cameroon line of volcanoes. * Annobón, dem sanso know as Pagalu anaa Pigalua, be an island wey be part of [[Equatorial Guinea]]. * Bobowasi Island be an island off de west coast of Africa insyd de Gulf of Guinea wey be part of de [[Western Region (Ghana)|Western Region]] of Ghana. * Bioko be an island off de Ambazonian region of Cameroon insyd de Gulf of Guinea under de sovereignty of Equatorial Guinea. * Corisco be an island wey dey belong to Equatorial Guinea, as be de two small islands of Elobey Grande den Elobey Chico. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235418/http://cggrps.org/en/the-gulf-of-guinea-commission/ The Gulf of Guinea Commission – CGG – GGC] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923235418/http://cggrps.org/en/the-gulf-of-guinea-commission/ |date=2018-09-23 }}) {{Authority control}} [[Category:Gulf of Guinea| ]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Benin]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Cameroon]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Equatorial Guinea]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Gabon]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Ghana]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Nigeria]] [[Category:Bodies of water of Togo]] [[Category:Gulfs of Africa|Guinea]] [[Category:Gulfs of de Atlantic Ocean|Guinea]] [[Category:Tropical Atlantic]] 6sor974owq5an4rr8t0nocup0i3p3lr 0 27034 99284 98915 2026-05-31T13:14:29Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Chad''' (Arabic: بحيرة تشاد, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', French: ''Lac Tchad'') be endorheic fresh water lake wey dey for where four kontris meet: [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]] den [[Cameroon]], for western den central Africa. Ein catchment area pass 1,000,000 km². De lake be important wetland ecosystem for West-Central Africa. De land near de lake get plenti reeds den swamps, den de plain around de lake be fertile, so people dey use am for irrigated farming. De lake get plenti aquatic resources too, so e be one of Africa ein important fresh water fish-producing areas. Lake Chad get deeper southern parts den shallower northern parts. De main water source be rivers like Chari River wey enter de lake. De water level dey change plenti by season, so de lake area too dey change strongly. During de African humid period, de lake ein area reach about 400,000 km². As climate turn drier, de lake surface reduce slow-slow. For de 19th century, de lake still cover about 28,000 km². From de mid-1970s come, climate change den human water diversion make de lake shrink well, and ein area dey move between about 2,000 den 5,000 km². == Prehistory den history == De Chad Basin form through depression of de African Shield. De basin floor dey made of Precambrian bedrock, and more than 3,600 m of sedimentary deposits cover am.<ref name="Obaje2009">Obaje, Nuhu George (2009). ''Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria''. Springer. p. 69. ISBN 978-3-540-92684-9.</ref> For most of de Quaternary period, de basin get plenti water sources. Near de end of dis period, de climate become drier. Around 20,000-40,000 years ago, eolianite sand dunes start to form for de northern side of de basin.<ref name="Wright1985">Wright, J. B. (1985). ''Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa''. Springer. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-04-556001-1.</ref> Lake Chad area get four major wet phases between 39,000 BC den 300 BC. Dis left thick diatomaceous earth den lacustrine deposits for de strata. People dey call dis large ancient lake '''Mega-Chad'''. Mega-Chad ein maximum depth pass 180 m, and e cover about 400,000 km². E flow enter [[Benue River]] through de Mayo Kebbi, and de water later drain enter de Atlantic Ocean through de Niger River.<ref name="Leblanc2006">Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Maley, J.; Nazoumou, Y.; Leduc, C.; Stagnitti, F.; van Oevelen, P. J.; Delclaux, F.; Lemoalle, J. (2006). "Reconstruction of Megalake Chad using Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission data". ''Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology''. 239 (1-2): 16-27. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.003.</ref><ref name="Schuster2005">Mathieu Schuster; Claude Roquin; Philippe Duringer; Michel Brunet; Matthieu Caugy; Michel Fontugne; Hassan Taisso Mackaye; Patrick Vignaud; Jean-Francois Ghienne (2005). "Holocene Lake Mega-Chad palaeoshorelines from space". ''Quaternary Science Reviews''. 24 (16-17): 1821-1827. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.001.</ref> De large waters wey form during de African humid period give chance for lakeside fisher settlements to come up. Nilo-Saharan ethnic groups too migrate go Lake Chad during dat time. Farming also start for de Sahel around dis period.<ref name="Shillington2018a">Kevin Shillington (2018). ''History of Africa''. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 19-31. ISBN 9781137524812.</ref> By 1800 BC, one pottery culture wey people know as Gajiganna had appear. At first de people be pastoralists, but from around 1500 BC, dem start to live for settled hamlets near de lake.<ref name="Ogundiran2005">Ogundiran, Akinwumi (2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.-A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". ''Journal of World Prehistory''. 19 (2): 138. doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y.</ref> Archaeological discoveries show wild grasses, mainly from de tribe Paniceae, and wild rice, together with de earliest domesticated pearl millet for de Lake Chad region. Dem date dis to about 1200-1000 cal BC. One of de oldest domesticated pearl millet finds for West Africa come from de Chad Basin, charred together with wild grasses, and dem date am to 800-1000 cal BC.<ref name="KleeZach1999">Marlies Klee; Barbara Zach (1999). "The Exploitation of Wild and Domesticated Food Plants at Settlement Mounds in North-East Nigeria (1800 cal BC to Today)". ''The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa''. pp. 81-88. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_8.</ref> Permanent villages dey established south of de lake by 500 BC, and major archaeological discoveries include de Sao civilization.<ref name="Britannica">Gritzner, J. A. "Lake Chad". ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved 13 June 2023.</ref> According to Claudius Ptolemy ein records from de middle of de 2nd century AD, Romans from de 1st century AD had already get contact with Lake Chad through connections with Tunisia, Tripolitania den Fezzan.<ref name="Johnston1910">Johnston, H. H. (1910). "Lake Chad". ''Nature''. 84 (2130): 244-245. doi:10.1038/084244a0.</ref> By de 5th century AD, people dey use camels for trans-Saharan trade through Fezzan, or eastward through Darfur.<ref name="AppiahGates2010">Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2010). ''Encyclopaedia of Africa''. Oxford University Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.</ref> After Arabs conquered North Africa for de 7th den 8th centuries, de Chad Basin become more connected to Muslim kontris.<ref name="Decorse2001">Decorse, Christopher R. (2001). ''West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives''. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7185-0247-8.</ref> Trade den better farming techniques help more complex societies to grow.<ref name="AppiahGates2010" /> Around 900 AD, de Kanem people, wey speak Kanuri language, bring plenti nomadic tribes together and establish de Kanem Empire for northeast of Lake Chad. For de early years, Kanem people continue demma nomadic life until de 11th century, when dem accept Islam and settle for Njimi. Through trans-Saharan trade, Kanem Empire ein power reach ein peak for de 13th century. As de empire decline for de 14th century, ein southwestern vassal state, Bornu, begin rise. Dis make de power centre shift to Bornu around 1400. For 1574, de [[Ottoman Empire]] invade Fezzan and de Oasis, and reach as far as Lake Chad.<ref name="Lange2004">Lange, Dierk (2004). ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa: African-centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives''. J. H. Roll Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89754-115-3.</ref> Dis be one of de deepest Ottoman movements into Africa ein interior before de nineteenth century. During Sultan Murad III ein reign, Ottoman influence stretch into de central Sahel area, and Lake Chad enter Ottoman sphere of influence.<ref name="Flynn2016">Flynn, Sebastien (2016). "The Relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Kanem-Bornu during the Reign of Sultan Murad III". Bilkent Master's Thesis.</ref> For de second half of de 16th century, Bornu Empire begin import firearms from de Ottoman Empire, and dis help am strengthen ein military power. Bornu Empire decline for de 18th century, and later lose ein western area to de Sokoto Caliphate for de early 19th century. Later, European powers colonise de region for de 20th century.<ref name="Shillington2018b">Kevin Shillington (2018). ''History of Africa''. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 101-103, 188-190, 249-256. ISBN 9781137524812.</ref> As European academic den business groups grow interest in Africa, Europeans describe Lake Chad area plenti during de 19th century. Three scientific expeditions happen between 1898 and 1909.<ref name="Britannica" /> During de Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, European colonial powers divide Africa among demma selves.<ref name="Harlow2003">Harlow, Barbara (2003). "Conference of Berlin (1884-1885)". In ''Colonialism''. ABC-CLIO. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.</ref> By de second decade of de 20th century, Britain, France den Germany had colonised and occupied areas around Lake Chad, creating boundaries wey mostly remain with de present post-colonial states.<ref name="ChinaWater2021">Xiong Zhengkun; Zhang Jin (2021). "Lake Chad: From 'Cradle of Civilization' to 'Heart of Death'". ''China Water Resources News''. Retrieved 1 January 2024.</ref> At independence time, de kontris around Lake Chad no get strong economic foundation. Dem also get complex ethnic, religious den political conflicts. Nigeria den Niger, wey just gain independence, experience repeated coups, while Chad also experience continuing civil war. Because de lake-side kontris no fit work together strongly to protect Lake Chad, plenti environmental problems come up.<ref name="ChinaWater2021" /> == Geography == De Chad Basin include Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Sudan den de Central African Republic.<ref name="LCBCMap">"about-map". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 26 March 2024.</ref> E be extensional fault-depression type rift basin. People fit divide am into four secondary structural units: southern depression, northern depression, central uplift den eastern slope. De southern depression get asymmetric fault-depression composite rift, with steep slopes for de east and gentle slopes for de west. For plan view, e dey distributed in NNW direction. Two large basin-bounding normal faults develop on both sides of de basin, with graben-style fault den depression for de middle. De east and west sides be outward-dipping low-angle gentle slope areas. De eastern boundary fault be steep, with dip angle about 55 degrees, while de western fault get dip angle about 45 degrees. De inner-layer thickness for de slope area be relatively thin. For de central area of de basin, sedimentary strata be thick, and de sedimentary centre zone reach more than 10,000 m. De northern part of de basin look steep for west and gentle for east. Five fault structural zones wey dey parallel to de basin-bounding faults develop from west to east.<ref name="Huang2008">Huang Xianxiong; Xia Bin; Wan Zhifeng; Lu Baofeng; Cai Zhourong (2008). "A preliminary study on the tectonic characteristics and hydrocarbon accumulation law of the Lake Chad Basin". ''Geotectonica et Metallogenia'' (3): 326-331. doi:10.16539/j.ddgzyckx.2008.03.013.</ref> Lake Chad dey divided into north den south parts by one shallow sill wey dem call de Great Barrier. De bottom of de northern basin dey at altitude 275.3 m, and de bottom of de southern basin dey at 278.2 m. When water level for de south pass 279 m above sea level, e go flow enter de north.<ref name="Liu2013">Liu Tiantian; Liu Ronggao; Ge Quansheng (2013). "Monitoring of water surface change in Lake Chad in Africa based on multi-source remote sensing data". ''Progress in Geography''. 32 (6): 906-912. doi:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.007.</ref> For de south, continuous open water dey at de mouth of de Chari River. De western water area dey covered by reed swamps, and sand dunes wey no submerge fully for de eastern waters form an archipelago.<ref name="SarchBirkett2000">Marie-Therese Sarch; Charon Birkett (2000). "Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: Responses to lake-level fluctuations". ''The Geographical Journal''. 166 (2): 156-172. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00015.x.</ref><ref name="WenLakeChad">Wen Yunzhao. "Lake Chad". ''Encyclopedia of China'' (03 ed.). Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. Retrieved 11 June 2023.</ref> De average depth of de southern lake basin dey between 0.5 and 2 m. De northern lake basin dey between 0 and 1.8 m, and de eastern archipelago dey between 0 and 2 m.<ref name="Lemoalle2012">Jacques Lemoalle; Jean-Claude Bader; Marc Leblanc; Ahmed Sedick (2012). "Recent changes in Lake Chad: Observations, simulations and management options (1973-2011)". ''Global and Planetary Change''. 80-81: 247-254. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.07.004.</ref> De climate of Lake Chad region dey strongly influenced by continental and maritime air masses. Maritime air mass dey move north during summer, and dis bring seasonal rainfall. Near late summer, continental air mass dominate again.<ref name="Britannica" /> Average annual rainfall for de Lake Chad area be about 330 mm. De south bank get average of about 560 mm, while de north bank get about 250 mm. Highest rainy-season temperature be about 30 °C, and highest temperature pass 32 °C when October den November enter de dry season. Day-night temperature difference be almost two times bigger than wet-season difference, and night temperature sometimes fall to 8 °C for December den January. April normally be de hottest month, and temperature can reach 40 °C. Lowest water levels dey appear in June to July, while highest water levels dey appear in November to December. Surface water temperature dey range from 19 to 32 °C.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="WenLakeChad" /> == Hydrology == De Chad Basin cover about 1 x 10⁶ km², and Chari, Logone den Yobe Rivers dey flow enter am.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Hughes1992">Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). ''A Directory of African Wetlands''. IUCN / UNEP / WCMC. pp. 329-330. ISBN 2-88032-949-3.</ref> De lake ein water supply be seasonal. Most of de rainfall come from de Adamawa Plateau for south of de basin, and Chari River den Logone River carry am to de lake basin. Chari den Logone together give about 95% of Lake Chad ein total inflow, while Yobe River give less than 2.5%.<ref name="Hughes1992" /> De lake dey seep underground go de lowest point of de Chad Basin, de Bodele Depression, about 480 km northeast of Lake Chad. De deepest point of dat depression reach only 155 m above sea level. Dis underground loss remove most salinity and help Lake Chad stay low in salinity. De southwestern waters of Lake Chad be fresh water, while de northeast water be only slightly salty.<ref name="Yuan2016">Yuan Xuanmin (2016). "The environment, security and vulnerability of Lake Chad". ''World Science'' (7): 21-23.</ref><ref name="Hughes1992" /> De water volume of most large African lakes depend on rainfall den evaporation. Dis means temperature den rainfall be very important for controlling water balance, and any change fit make big changes in water level den surface area.<ref name="Ogutu2016">Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo; Vianny Natugonza; Laban Musinguzi; Mark Olokotum; Shamim Naigaga (2016). "Implications of climate variability and change for African lake ecosystems, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods". ''Journal of Great Lakes Research''. 42 (3): 498-510. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.03.004.</ref> Lake Chad be shallow inland lake, and rainfall in de Chad Basin be very sensitive to small changes in atmospheric circulation. Because of dis, climate change strongly affects Lake Chad ein surface area.<ref name="Evans1996">Evans, T. (1996). "The effects of changes in the world hydrological cycle on availability of water resources". In Bazzaz, F.; Sombroek, W. (eds.). ''Global climate change and agricultural production''. FAO / John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 92-5-103987-9.</ref><ref name="Leblanc2007">Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Tweed, S. (2007). "Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas: Lake Chad Basin, Africa". ''Hydrogeology Journal''. 15 (1): 97-100. doi:10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0.</ref> Dry climate linked to vegetation loss from overgrazing and deforestation, plus large irrigation projects wey divert water from rivers feeding de lake, be major reasons why Lake Chad shrink.<ref name="UNEPAlmostGone">"Lake Chad: almost gone". United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Retrieved 5 December 2015.</ref> Atlantic multidecadal oscillation and El Nino-Southern Oscillation affect rainfall for de Sahel region. From de early 1960s to de mid-1980s, de lake water level fall by 3 m when compared with de average level from 1900 to 2010.<ref name="Okonkwo2015">Churchill Okonkwo; Belay Demoz; Ricardo Sakai; Charles Ichoku; Chigozie Anarado; Jimmy Adegoke; Angelina Amadou; Sanusi Imran Abdullahi; Nir Krakauer (2015). "Combined effect of El Nino southern oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation on Lake Chad level variability". ''Cogent Geoscience''. 1 (1). doi:10.1080/23312041.2015.1117829.</ref> For 1870, Lake Chad ein area be about 28,000 km². During rainy season, de lake fit flow out through Bahr el-Ghazal. Around de turn of de 20th century, de lake shrink briefly, then reach new high for de middle of de 20th century and overflow from Bahr el-Ghazal again.<ref name="Britannica" /> Major drought start for Sahel in de late 1960s and cause severe damage in 1972 and 1984. People link dis drought to vegetation loss, global warming and sea-surface temperature anomalies.<ref name="Evans1996" /> During dis period, Lake Chad shrink strongly and later fluctuate between about 2,000 and 5,000 km².<ref name="Liu2013" /> From June 1966 to January 1973, Lake Chad ein area shrink from 22,772 to 15,400 km².<ref name="UNEPAlmostGone" /> It reduce further to 4,398 km² in 1975, and only 1,756 km² in February 1994.<ref name="Liu2013" /><ref name="UNEPAlmostGone" /> Since then, Lake Chad ein area enter more stable stage with small increase.<ref name="Zhu2017">Wengbin Zhu; Jiabao Yan; Shaofeng Jia (2017). "Monitoring Recent Fluctuations of the Southern Pool of Lake Chad Using Multiple Remote Sensing Data: Implications for Water Balance Analysis". ''Remote Sensing''. 9 (10): 1032. doi:10.3390/rs9101032.</ref> From 1995 to 1998, e move within 1,200 to 4,500 km². De area reach 5,075 km² in 2000, and average surface-water area from 2013 to 2016 be about 1,876 km². De largest area during dat period be 2,231 km² in July 2015.<ref name="Buma2018">Willibroad Gabila Buma; Sang-Il Lee; Jae Young Seo (2018). "Recent surface water extent of Lake Chad from multispectral sensors and GRACE". ''Sensors''. 18 (7): 2082. doi:10.3390/s18072082.</ref> === Quaternary aquifer den groundwater resilience === Under de lake, one unconfined Quaternary phreatic aquifer dey. E be large transboundary water resource wey stretch about 500,000 km² across Chad, Niger, Nigeria den Cameroon.<ref name="Nour2022">Mahamat Nour, A.; Huneau, F.; Mahamat Ali, A.; Vystavna, Y. (2022). "Shallow Quaternary groundwater in the Lake Chad basin is resilient to climate change but requires sustainable management strategy: Results of isotopic investigation". ''Science of The Total Environment''. 848: 158152. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158152.</ref> Although de lake lose about 2,200 mm of water every year through potential evapotranspiration, isotopic studies using stable isotopes den tritium show say de groundwater system under am remain highly resilient to climate change.<ref name="Nour2022" /><ref name="Goni2021">Goni, I. B.; Sherif, A. M.; Taylor, R. G. (2021). "Groundwater recharge from heavy rainfall in the southwestern Lake Chad Basin: evidence from isotopic observations". ''Hydrological Sciences Journal''. 66 (10): 1521-1534. doi:10.1080/02626667.2021.1937630.</ref> De Quaternary aquifer dey recharge through two main processes: direct infiltration from intense seasonal rainfall, and lateral seepage from de lake plus temporary river channels.<ref name="Goni2021" /> Isotopic data show say heavy rainfall events above de 60th percentile of monthly rainfall intensity drive most of de diffuse recharge. Dis means projected stronger tropical downpours under global warming can support groundwater replenishment within de basin.<ref name="Goni2021" /> Dis wide underground reservoir be important hydrological buffer, because e helps provide permanent water access for municipal den agricultural pumping, even when surface water dey change extremely.<ref name="Nour2022" /> == Ecology == Part of de Chad Basin dey inside Chad Basin National Park in Nigeria. Nigeria and Cameroon have also established Lake Chad Ramsar Wetland, with total area of 8,225 km².<ref name="OneEarth2021">Emma Martin; Neil Burgess (2021). "Lake Chad Flooded Savanna". One Earth. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</ref> === Plant life === Wetland plants for de south mainly include ''Cyperus papyrus'' and related plants. Reeds mainly grow for de north, where salinity be high. De floating plant ''Pistia'' sometimes cover large open-water areas. Plants like ''Hyparrhenia rufa'' grow on lake shores wey get long floods for de south.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> Permanent vegetation area increase from about 3,800 km² in 2000 to about 5,200 km² in 2020 as water levels drop and temperatures rise.<ref name="PhamDuc2020">Binh Pham-Duc; Florence Sylvestre; Fabrice Papa; Frederic Frappart; Camille Bouchez; Jean-Francois Cretaux (2020). "The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change". ''Scientific Reports''. 10: 5498. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62417-w.</ref> De dense woodland around de lake has changed to open forest with acacias, baobabs, palms den Indian jujube.<ref name="Britannica" /> === Birds === BirdLife International designate de lake as an Important Bird Area (IBA).<ref name="BirdLife2024">"Lake Chad". BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International. Retrieved 30 October 2024.</ref> Hundreds of bird species live there permanently or seasonally, including northern shoveler, Egyptian goose and marabou stork.<ref name="Britannica" /> De lake be important wintering ground for European ducks and wading birds. Raptors like steppe eagle and booted eagle dey around de lakeshore.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> More than one million ruffs fit dey observed on de lake at one time.<ref name="KeithPlowes1997">Keith, J. O.; Plowes, D. C. H. (1997). ''Considerations of Wildlife Resources and Land Use in Chad''. Office of Sustainable Development, Africa Bureau, USAID. SD Technical Paper No. 45.</ref> === Mammals === Large mammals wey used to be common include red-fronted gazelle, dama gazelle, patas monkey, striped hyena, cheetah and caracal. African elephant, otter, hippopotamus, sitatunga and kob dey found for de wetlands. At present, hunters have removed most of de large mammals, and large numbers of cattle replace dem.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> === Fish === De whole Chad Basin get 179 fish species. Out of dis number, 127 also dey de Niger River Basin, 85 also dey de Nile River Basin, 47 also dey de Congo River Basin, and 84 fish species dey inside de lake itself.<ref name="Hughes1992" /> Dis make de lake rich fishing ground for communities across Nigeria, Niger, Chad den Cameroon. Seasonal floods plus seasonal increases in air temperature reduce salinity, increase turbidity and raise trophic levels. Dis support increase in phytoplankton and zooplankton, and help large fish migrate seasonally within de watershed to feed and breed for fertile floodplains when floods come.<ref name="SarchBirkett2000" /> == Human activities == More than 30 million people dey live inside de Lake Chad Basin. More than 70 ethnic groups dey around de lake, most of dem for de south bank, where population density pass 100 people per km². Dem depend on Lake Chad ein water for irrigation, breeding, animal husbandry and drinking water.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Local self-sufficient crops include sorghum, maize, finger millet, beans and vegetables. People plant gourd plenti to make utensils. Collection of forest products like gum arabic, honey, beeswax and firewood also be important for de region. Reduction in forest area has affected these products negatively, and rapid growth of cattle herds has made de effect worse. Cattle be de most important livestock, together with poultry, goats, sheep, camels, horses and donkeys. De droughts of de 1970s and 1980s badly affect animal husbandry.<ref name="Britannica" /> Fishing traditionally be de most important economic activity for people living around de lake. It almost stop during drought periods and only resume around de mid-1990s. People dry, pickle or smoke most fish products. Natron from de depression on de northeast bank of de lake has long been economically important. Traditionally, people dig am in blocks and carry am across de lake to enter Nigerian markets.<ref name="Britannica" /> Since de drought of de 1970s, land wey fit support farming without irrigation and fertilizer has appeared at de bottom of de lake. People reclaim some of dis land as polder for maize, cowpea, rice, sorghum and other crops.<ref name="Luxereau2011">Luxereau, A.; Genthon, P.; Ambouta, J.-M. K. (2011). "Fluctuations in the Size of Lake Chad: Consequences on the Livelihoods of the Riverain Peoples in Eastern Niger". ''Regional Environmental Change''. 12 (3): 507-521. doi:10.1007/s10113-011-0267-0.</ref> Farmers have shifted from mainly dry crops, like wheat, to rice, which needs more water. Dis has led to stronger soil salinisation and water eutrophication.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> De negative effects of reduced water sources on fishing, farming and herding are bigger than de benefits of new land from receding water. Residents who used to depend on lake water had to relocate, and dis has made de lake-area economy continue to shrink.<ref name="Zarate2023">Roman D. Zarate; Remi Jedwab; Federico Haslop; Carlos Rodriguez-Castelan (2023). "The Effects of Climate Change in the Poorest Countries: Evidence from the Permanent Shrinking of Lake Chad". World Bank. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</ref> Since 1970, five countries for de southern part of de basin have built plenti water-conservancy projects upstream of Chari River, Logone River and Yobe River to intercept river water. Dis cause sharp reduction in water entering de lake. Average annual inflow from Chari River and Logone River between 1970 and 1990 be only 55% of de inflow between 1950 and 1970. Since de 1980s, one-third of water from Chari River and Logone River has been diverted and intercepted by Central African Republic upstream for farming irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Dams built upstream of rivers entering de lake changed de timing and extent of seasonal floods. Dem also disrupt fish migration, reducing populations of ''Alestes baremoze'' and Nile perch, which be main catches of Lake Chad. Fish catch reduce strongly.<ref name="KeithPlowes1997" /><ref name="Hughes1992" /> At de same time, conflicts among countries and ethnic groups competing for water and land are growing. De four countries around de lake all face extreme poverty, and because livelihoods be difficult, some local residents have become involved in drug and arms trade.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Boko Haram insurgency has made de situation worse by displacing millions of people and disrupting development across de region.<ref name="Olowoyeye2023">Olowoyeye, Oluwatuyi S.; Kanwar, Rameshwar S. (2023). "Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa". ''Sustainability''. 15 (13): 10009. doi:10.3390/su151310009.</ref> Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad establish de Lake Chad Basin Commission on 22 May 1964. Central African Republic join in 1996, and Libya join in 2008. De commission ein headquarters dey N'Djamena, Chad. De commission ein work include managing Lake Chad and ein water resources, protecting de ecosystem, and promoting regional integration, peace, security and development for Lake Chad region.<ref name="LCBCAbout">"About us". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</ref> One water-replenishment plan for Lake Chad propose construction of a 2,400 km canal to carry 100 x 10⁹ m³ of water every year from Congo River Basin to Chari River Basin, while a series of dams along de route generate electricity.<ref name="BBC2018">Ross, Will (2018). "Can the vanishing lake be saved?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2019.</ref> == Ramsar wetland designations == Lake Chad and some of ein wetlands get Ramsar designations across different countries. ''Lac Tchad'' was designated on 17 June 2001 with reference number 1072.<ref name="Ramsar1072">"Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad'' was designated on 14 August 2001 with reference number 1134.<ref name="Ramsar1134">"Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria'' was designated on 30 April 2008 with reference number 1749.<ref name="Ramsar1749">"Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad'' was designated on 2 February 2010 with reference number 1903.<ref name="Ramsar1903">"Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Sanso spy == * [[Inner Niger Delta]], inland delta for Mali * [[Lake Ptolemy]], former lake for Sudan * [[List of drying lakes]] * [[Sudd]], large swamp for South Sudan * [[Wildlife of Chad]] * [[Lake Chad replenishment project]], proposed large water-diversion plan to stop Lake Chad from drying == References == <references /> == Further reading == * Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). ''A Directory of African Wetlands''. IUCN. ISBN 978-2-88032-949-5. * Beadle, L. C. (1974). ''The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa: An Introduction to Tropical Limnology''. Longman Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0582448520. * Chapman, Graham; Baker, Kathleen M. (1992). ''The changing geography of Africa and the Middle East''. Routledge. ISBN 9780203034507. * Caterina Batello; Marzio Marzot; Adamou Harouna Toure (2004). ''The Future is an Ancient Lake''. FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture. ISBN 92-5-105064-3. == External links == * [http://www.cblt.org/en/ Lake Chad Basin Commission] * [https://en.unesco.org/biopalt BIOsphere and Heritage of Lake Chad (BIOPALT) project] * [https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/91291/the-ups-and-downs-of-lake-chad The Ups and Downs of Lake Chad] * [https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake/AFR-02 Lake Chad in World Lake Database] * [https://news.un.org/en/tags/lake-chad Lake Chad | UN News] hsr91n6tdjapon1hqmvw5w0t160n7ly 99285 99284 2026-05-31T13:18:32Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Chad''' (Arabic: بحيرة تشاد, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', French: ''Lac Tchad'') be endorheic fresh water lake wey dey for where four kontris meet: [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]] den [[Cameroon]], for western den central Africa. Ein catchment area pass 1,000,000 km². De lake be important wetland ecosystem for West-Central Africa. De land near de lake get plenti reeds den swamps, den de plain around de lake be fertile, so people dey use am for irrigated farming. De lake get plenti aquatic resources too, so e be one of Africa ein important fresh water fish-producing areas. Lake Chad get deeper southern parts den shallower northern parts. De main water source be rivers like Chari River wey enter de lake. De water level dey change plenti by season, so de lake area too dey change strongly. During de African humid period, de lake ein area reach about 400,000 km². As climate turn drier, de lake surface reduce slow-slow. For de 19th century, de lake still cover about 28,000 km². From de mid-1970s come, climate change den human water diversion make de lake shrink well, and ein area dey move between about 2,000 den 5,000 km². == Prehistory den history == De Chad Basin form through depression of de African Shield. De basin floor dey made of Precambrian bedrock, and more than 3,600 m of sedimentary deposits cover am.<ref name="Obaje2009">Obaje, Nuhu George (2009). ''Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria''. Springer. p. 69. ISBN 978-3-540-92684-9.</ref> For most of de Quaternary period, de basin get plenti water sources. Near de end of dis period, de climate become drier. Around 20,000-40,000 years ago, eolianite sand dunes start to form for de northern side of de basin.<ref name="Wright1985">Wright, J. B. (1985). ''Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa''. Springer. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-04-556001-1.</ref> Lake Chad area get four major wet phases between 39,000 BC den 300 BC. Dis left thick diatomaceous earth den lacustrine deposits for de strata. People dey call dis large ancient lake '''Mega-Chad'''. Mega-Chad ein maximum depth pass 180 m, and e cover about 400,000 km². E flow enter [[Benue River]] through de Mayo Kebbi, and de water later drain enter de Atlantic Ocean through de Niger River.<ref name="Leblanc2006">Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Maley, J.; Nazoumou, Y.; Leduc, C.; Stagnitti, F.; van Oevelen, P. J.; Delclaux, F.; Lemoalle, J. (2006). "Reconstruction of Megalake Chad using Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission data". ''Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology''. 239 (1-2): 16-27. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.003.</ref><ref name="Schuster2005">Mathieu Schuster; Claude Roquin; Philippe Duringer; Michel Brunet; Matthieu Caugy; Michel Fontugne; Hassan Taisso Mackaye; Patrick Vignaud; Jean-Francois Ghienne (2005). "Holocene Lake Mega-Chad palaeoshorelines from space". ''Quaternary Science Reviews''. 24 (16-17): 1821-1827. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.001.</ref> De large waters wey form during de African humid period give chance for lakeside fisher settlements to come up. Nilo-Saharan ethnic groups too migrate go Lake Chad during dat time. Farming also start for de Sahel around dis period.<ref name="Shillington2018a">Kevin Shillington (2018). ''History of Africa''. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 19-31. ISBN 9781137524812.</ref> By 1800 BC, one pottery culture wey people know as Gajiganna had appear. At first de people be pastoralists, but from around 1500 BC, dem start to live for settled hamlets near de lake.<ref name="Ogundiran2005">Ogundiran, Akinwumi (2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.-A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". ''Journal of World Prehistory''. 19 (2): 138. doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y.</ref> Archaeological discoveries show wild grasses, mainly from de tribe Paniceae, and wild rice, together with de earliest domesticated pearl millet for de Lake Chad region. Dem date dis to about 1200-1000 cal BC. One of de oldest domesticated pearl millet finds for West Africa come from de Chad Basin, charred together with wild grasses, and dem date am to 800-1000 cal BC.<ref name="KleeZach1999">Marlies Klee; Barbara Zach (1999). "The Exploitation of Wild and Domesticated Food Plants at Settlement Mounds in North-East Nigeria (1800 cal BC to Today)". ''The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa''. pp. 81-88. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_8.</ref> Permanent villages dey established south of de lake by 500 BC, and major archaeological discoveries include de Sao civilization.<ref name="Britannica">Gritzner, J. A. "Lake Chad". ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved 13 June 2023.</ref> According to Claudius Ptolemy ein records from de middle of de 2nd century AD, Romans from de 1st century AD had already get contact with Lake Chad through connections with Tunisia, Tripolitania den Fezzan.<ref name="Johnston1910">Johnston, H. H. (1910). "Lake Chad". ''Nature''. 84 (2130): 244-245. doi:10.1038/084244a0.</ref> By de 5th century AD, people dey use camels for trans-Saharan trade through Fezzan, or eastward through Darfur.<ref name="AppiahGates2010">Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2010). ''Encyclopaedia of Africa''. Oxford University Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.</ref> After Arabs conquered North Africa for de 7th den 8th centuries, de Chad Basin become more connected to Muslim kontris.<ref name="Decorse2001">Decorse, Christopher R. (2001). ''West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives''. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7185-0247-8.</ref> Trade den better farming techniques help more complex societies to grow.<ref name="AppiahGates2010" /> Around 900 AD, de Kanem people, wey speak Kanuri language, bring plenti nomadic tribes together and establish de Kanem Empire for northeast of Lake Chad. For de early years, Kanem people continue demma nomadic life until de 11th century, when dem accept Islam and settle for Njimi. Through trans-Saharan trade, Kanem Empire ein power reach ein peak for de 13th century. As de empire decline for de 14th century, ein southwestern vassal state, Bornu, begin rise. Dis make de power centre shift to Bornu around 1400. For 1574, de [[Ottoman Empire]] invade Fezzan and de Oasis, and reach as far as Lake Chad.<ref name="Lange2004">Lange, Dierk (2004). ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa: African-centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives''. J. H. Roll Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89754-115-3.</ref> Dis be one of de deepest Ottoman movements into Africa ein interior before de nineteenth century. During Sultan Murad III ein reign, Ottoman influence stretch into de central Sahel area, and Lake Chad enter Ottoman sphere of influence.<ref name="Flynn2016">Flynn, Sebastien (2016). "The Relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Kanem-Bornu during the Reign of Sultan Murad III". Bilkent Master's Thesis.</ref> For de second half of de 16th century, Bornu Empire begin import firearms from de Ottoman Empire, and dis help am strengthen ein military power. Bornu Empire decline for de 18th century, and later lose ein western area to de Sokoto Caliphate for de early 19th century. Later, European powers colonise de region for de 20th century.<ref name="Shillington2018b">Kevin Shillington (2018). ''History of Africa''. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 101-103, 188-190, 249-256. ISBN 9781137524812.</ref> As European academic den business groups grow interest in Africa, Europeans describe Lake Chad area plenti during de 19th century. Three scientific expeditions happen between 1898 and 1909.<ref name="Britannica" /> During de Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, European colonial powers divide Africa among demma selves.<ref name="Harlow2003">Harlow, Barbara (2003). "Conference of Berlin (1884-1885)". In ''Colonialism''. ABC-CLIO. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.</ref> By de second decade of de 20th century, Britain, France den Germany had colonised and occupied areas around Lake Chad, creating boundaries wey mostly remain with de present post-colonial states.<ref name="ChinaWater2021">Xiong Zhengkun; Zhang Jin (2021). "Lake Chad: From 'Cradle of Civilization' to 'Heart of Death'". ''China Water Resources News''. Retrieved 1 January 2024.</ref> At independence time, de kontris around Lake Chad no get strong economic foundation. Dem also get complex ethnic, religious den political conflicts. Nigeria den Niger, wey just gain independence, experience repeated coups, while Chad also experience continuing civil war. Because de lake-side kontris no fit work together strongly to protect Lake Chad, plenti environmental problems come up.<ref name="ChinaWater2021" /> == Geography == De Chad Basin include Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Sudan den de Central African Republic.<ref name="LCBCMap">"about-map". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 26 March 2024.</ref> E be extensional fault-depression type rift basin. People fit divide am into four secondary structural units: southern depression, northern depression, central uplift den eastern slope. De southern depression get asymmetric fault-depression composite rift, with steep slopes for de east and gentle slopes for de west. For plan view, e dey distributed in NNW direction. Two large basin-bounding normal faults develop on both sides of de basin, with graben-style fault den depression for de middle. De east and west sides be outward-dipping low-angle gentle slope areas. De eastern boundary fault be steep, with dip angle about 55 degrees, while de western fault get dip angle about 45 degrees. De inner-layer thickness for de slope area be relatively thin. For de central area of de basin, sedimentary strata be thick, and de sedimentary centre zone reach more than 10,000 m. De northern part of de basin look steep for west and gentle for east. Five fault structural zones wey dey parallel to de basin-bounding faults develop from west to east.<ref name="Huang2008">Huang Xianxiong; Xia Bin; Wan Zhifeng; Lu Baofeng; Cai Zhourong (2008). "A preliminary study on the tectonic characteristics and hydrocarbon accumulation law of the Lake Chad Basin". ''Geotectonica et Metallogenia'' (3): 326-331. doi:10.16539/j.ddgzyckx.2008.03.013.</ref> Lake Chad dey divided into north den south parts by one shallow sill wey dem call de Great Barrier. De bottom of de northern basin dey at altitude 275.3 m, and de bottom of de southern basin dey at 278.2 m. When water level for de south pass 279 m above sea level, e go flow enter de north.<ref name="Liu2013">Liu Tiantian; Liu Ronggao; Ge Quansheng (2013). "Monitoring of water surface change in Lake Chad in Africa based on multi-source remote sensing data". ''Progress in Geography''. 32 (6): 906-912. doi:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.007.</ref> For de south, continuous open water dey at de mouth of de Chari River. De western water area dey covered by reed swamps, and sand dunes wey no submerge fully for de eastern waters form an archipelago.<ref name="SarchBirkett2000">Marie-Therese Sarch; Charon Birkett (2000). "Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: Responses to lake-level fluctuations". ''The Geographical Journal''. 166 (2): 156-172. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00015.x.</ref><ref name="WenLakeChad">Wen Yunzhao. "Lake Chad". ''Encyclopedia of China'' (03 ed.). Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. Retrieved 11 June 2023.</ref> De average depth of de southern lake basin dey between 0.5 and 2 m. De northern lake basin dey between 0 and 1.8 m, and de eastern archipelago dey between 0 and 2 m.<ref name="Lemoalle2012">Jacques Lemoalle; Jean-Claude Bader; Marc Leblanc; Ahmed Sedick (2012). "Recent changes in Lake Chad: Observations, simulations and management options (1973-2011)". ''Global and Planetary Change''. 80-81: 247-254. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.07.004.</ref> De climate of Lake Chad region dey strongly influenced by continental and maritime air masses. Maritime air mass dey move north during summer, and dis bring seasonal rainfall. Near late summer, continental air mass dominate again.<ref name="Britannica" /> Average annual rainfall for de Lake Chad area be about 330 mm. De south bank get average of about 560 mm, while de north bank get about 250 mm. Highest rainy-season temperature be about 30 °C, and highest temperature pass 32 °C when October den November enter de dry season. Day-night temperature difference be almost two times bigger than wet-season difference, and night temperature sometimes fall to 8 °C for December den January. April normally be de hottest month, and temperature can reach 40 °C. Lowest water levels dey appear in June to July, while highest water levels dey appear in November to December. Surface water temperature dey range from 19 to 32 °C.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="WenLakeChad" /> == Hydrology == De Chad Basin cover about 1 x 10⁶ km², and Chari, Logone den Yobe Rivers dey flow enter am.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Hughes1992">Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). ''A Directory of African Wetlands''. IUCN / UNEP / WCMC. pp. 329-330. ISBN 2-88032-949-3.</ref> De lake ein water supply be seasonal. Most of de rainfall come from de Adamawa Plateau for south of de basin, and Chari River den Logone River carry am to de lake basin. Chari den Logone together give about 95% of Lake Chad ein total inflow, while Yobe River give less than 2.5%.<ref name="Hughes1992" /> De lake dey seep underground go de lowest point of de Chad Basin, de Bodele Depression, about 480 km northeast of Lake Chad. De deepest point of dat depression reach only 155 m above sea level. Dis underground loss remove most salinity and help Lake Chad stay low in salinity. De southwestern waters of Lake Chad be fresh water, while de northeast water be only slightly salty.<ref name="Yuan2016">Yuan Xuanmin (2016). "The environment, security and vulnerability of Lake Chad". ''World Science'' (7): 21-23.</ref><ref name="Hughes1992" /> De water volume of most large African lakes depend on rainfall den evaporation. Dis means temperature den rainfall be very important for controlling water balance, and any change fit make big changes in water level den surface area.<ref name="Ogutu2016">Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo; Vianny Natugonza; Laban Musinguzi; Mark Olokotum; Shamim Naigaga (2016). "Implications of climate variability and change for African lake ecosystems, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods". ''Journal of Great Lakes Research''. 42 (3): 498-510. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.03.004.</ref> Lake Chad be shallow inland lake, and rainfall in de Chad Basin be very sensitive to small changes in atmospheric circulation. Because of dis, climate change strongly affects Lake Chad ein surface area.<ref name="Evans1996">Evans, T. (1996). "The effects of changes in the world hydrological cycle on availability of water resources". In Bazzaz, F.; Sombroek, W. (eds.). ''Global climate change and agricultural production''. FAO / John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 92-5-103987-9.</ref><ref name="Leblanc2007">Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Tweed, S. (2007). "Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas: Lake Chad Basin, Africa". ''Hydrogeology Journal''. 15 (1): 97-100. doi:10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0.</ref> Dry climate linked to vegetation loss from overgrazing and deforestation, plus large irrigation projects wey divert water from rivers feeding de lake, be major reasons why Lake Chad shrink.<ref name="UNEPAlmostGone">"Lake Chad: almost gone". United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Retrieved 5 December 2015.</ref> Atlantic multidecadal oscillation and El Nino-Southern Oscillation affect rainfall for de Sahel region. From de early 1960s to de mid-1980s, de lake water level fall by 3 m when compared with de average level from 1900 to 2010.<ref name="Okonkwo2015">Churchill Okonkwo; Belay Demoz; Ricardo Sakai; Charles Ichoku; Chigozie Anarado; Jimmy Adegoke; Angelina Amadou; Sanusi Imran Abdullahi; Nir Krakauer (2015). "Combined effect of El Nino southern oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation on Lake Chad level variability". ''Cogent Geoscience''. 1 (1). doi:10.1080/23312041.2015.1117829.</ref> For 1870, Lake Chad ein area be about 28,000 km². During rainy season, de lake fit flow out through Bahr el-Ghazal. Around de turn of de 20th century, de lake shrink briefly, then reach new high for de middle of de 20th century and overflow from Bahr el-Ghazal again.<ref name="Britannica" /> Major drought start for Sahel in de late 1960s and cause severe damage in 1972 and 1984. People link dis drought to vegetation loss, global warming and sea-surface temperature anomalies.<ref name="Evans1996" /> During dis period, Lake Chad shrink strongly and later fluctuate between about 2,000 and 5,000 km².<ref name="Liu2013" /> From June 1966 to January 1973, Lake Chad ein area shrink from 22,772 to 15,400 km².<ref name="UNEPAlmostGone" /> It reduce further to 4,398 km² in 1975, and only 1,756 km² in February 1994.<ref name="Liu2013" /><ref name="UNEPAlmostGone" /> Since then, Lake Chad ein area enter more stable stage with small increase.<ref name="Zhu2017">Wengbin Zhu; Jiabao Yan; Shaofeng Jia (2017). "Monitoring Recent Fluctuations of the Southern Pool of Lake Chad Using Multiple Remote Sensing Data: Implications for Water Balance Analysis". ''Remote Sensing''. 9 (10): 1032. doi:10.3390/rs9101032.</ref> From 1995 to 1998, e move within 1,200 to 4,500 km². De area reach 5,075 km² in 2000, and average surface-water area from 2013 to 2016 be about 1,876 km². De largest area during dat period be 2,231 km² in July 2015.<ref name="Buma2018">Willibroad Gabila Buma; Sang-Il Lee; Jae Young Seo (2018). "Recent surface water extent of Lake Chad from multispectral sensors and GRACE". ''Sensors''. 18 (7): 2082. doi:10.3390/s18072082.</ref> === Quaternary aquifer den groundwater resilience === Under de lake, one unconfined Quaternary phreatic aquifer dey. E be large transboundary water resource wey stretch about 500,000 km² across Chad, Niger, Nigeria den Cameroon.<ref name="Nour2022">Mahamat Nour, A.; Huneau, F.; Mahamat Ali, A.; Vystavna, Y. (2022). "Shallow Quaternary groundwater in the Lake Chad basin is resilient to climate change but requires sustainable management strategy: Results of isotopic investigation". ''Science of The Total Environment''. 848: 158152. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158152.</ref> Although de lake lose about 2,200 mm of water every year through potential evapotranspiration, isotopic studies using stable isotopes den tritium show say de groundwater system under am remain highly resilient to climate change.<ref name="Nour2022" /><ref name="Goni2021">Goni, I. B.; Sherif, A. M.; Taylor, R. G. (2021). "Groundwater recharge from heavy rainfall in the southwestern Lake Chad Basin: evidence from isotopic observations". ''Hydrological Sciences Journal''. 66 (10): 1521-1534. doi:10.1080/02626667.2021.1937630.</ref> De Quaternary aquifer dey recharge through two main processes: direct infiltration from intense seasonal rainfall, and lateral seepage from de lake plus temporary river channels.<ref name="Goni2021" /> Isotopic data show say heavy rainfall events above de 60th percentile of monthly rainfall intensity drive most of de diffuse recharge. Dis means projected stronger tropical downpours under global warming can support groundwater replenishment within de basin.<ref name="Goni2021" /> Dis wide underground reservoir be important hydrological buffer, because e helps provide permanent water access for municipal den agricultural pumping, even when surface water dey change extremely.<ref name="Nour2022" /> == Ecology == Part of de Chad Basin dey inside Chad Basin National Park in Nigeria. Nigeria and Cameroon have also established Lake Chad Ramsar Wetland, with total area of 8,225 km².<ref name="OneEarth2021">Emma Martin; Neil Burgess (2021). "Lake Chad Flooded Savanna". One Earth. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</ref> === Plant life === Wetland plants for de south mainly include ''Cyperus papyrus'' and related plants. Reeds mainly grow for de north, where salinity be high. De floating plant ''Pistia'' sometimes cover large open-water areas. Plants like ''Hyparrhenia rufa'' grow on lake shores wey get long floods for de south.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> Permanent vegetation area increase from about 3,800 km² in 2000 to about 5,200 km² in 2020 as water levels drop and temperatures rise.<ref name="PhamDuc2020">Binh Pham-Duc; Florence Sylvestre; Fabrice Papa; Frederic Frappart; Camille Bouchez; Jean-Francois Cretaux (2020). "The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change". ''Scientific Reports''. 10: 5498. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62417-w.</ref> De dense woodland around de lake has changed to open forest with acacias, baobabs, palms den Indian jujube.<ref name="Britannica" /> === Birds === BirdLife International designate de lake as an Important Bird Area (IBA).<ref name="BirdLife2024">"Lake Chad". BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International. Retrieved 30 October 2024.</ref> Hundreds of bird species live there permanently or seasonally, including northern shoveler, Egyptian goose and marabou stork.<ref name="Britannica" /> De lake be important wintering ground for European ducks and wading birds. Raptors like steppe eagle and booted eagle dey around de lakeshore.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> More than one million ruffs fit dey observed on de lake at one time.<ref name="KeithPlowes1997">Keith, J. O.; Plowes, D. C. H. (1997). ''Considerations of Wildlife Resources and Land Use in Chad''. Office of Sustainable Development, Africa Bureau, USAID. SD Technical Paper No. 45.</ref> === Mammals === Large mammals wey used to be common include red-fronted gazelle, dama gazelle, patas monkey, striped hyena, cheetah and caracal. African elephant, otter, hippopotamus, sitatunga and kob dey found for de wetlands. At present, hunters have removed most of de large mammals, and large numbers of cattle replace dem.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> === Fish === De whole Chad Basin get 179 fish species. Out of dis number, 127 also dey de Niger River Basin, 85 also dey de Nile River Basin, 47 also dey de Congo River Basin, and 84 fish species dey inside de lake itself.<ref name="Hughes1992" /> Dis make de lake rich fishing ground for communities across Nigeria, Niger, Chad den Cameroon. Seasonal floods plus seasonal increases in air temperature reduce salinity, increase turbidity and raise trophic levels. Dis support increase in phytoplankton and zooplankton, and help large fish migrate seasonally within de watershed to feed and breed for fertile floodplains when floods come.<ref name="SarchBirkett2000" /> == Human activities == More than 30 million people dey live inside de Lake Chad Basin. More than 70 ethnic groups dey around de lake, most of dem for de south bank, where population density pass 100 people per km². Dem depend on Lake Chad ein water for irrigation, breeding, animal husbandry and drinking water.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Local self-sufficient crops include sorghum, maize, finger millet, beans and vegetables. People plant gourd plenti to make utensils. Collection of forest products like gum arabic, honey, beeswax and firewood also be important for de region. Reduction in forest area has affected these products negatively, and rapid growth of cattle herds has made de effect worse. Cattle be de most important livestock, together with poultry, goats, sheep, camels, horses and donkeys. De droughts of de 1970s and 1980s badly affect animal husbandry.<ref name="Britannica" /> Fishing traditionally be de most important economic activity for people living around de lake. It almost stop during drought periods and only resume around de mid-1990s. People dry, pickle or smoke most fish products. Natron from de depression on de northeast bank of de lake has long been economically important. Traditionally, people dig am in blocks and carry am across de lake to enter Nigerian markets.<ref name="Britannica" /> Since de drought of de 1970s, land wey fit support farming without irrigation and fertilizer has appeared at de bottom of de lake. People reclaim some of dis land as polder for maize, cowpea, rice, sorghum and other crops.<ref name="Luxereau2011">Luxereau, A.; Genthon, P.; Ambouta, J.-M. K. (2011). "Fluctuations in the Size of Lake Chad: Consequences on the Livelihoods of the Riverain Peoples in Eastern Niger". ''Regional Environmental Change''. 12 (3): 507-521. doi:10.1007/s10113-011-0267-0.</ref> Farmers have shifted from mainly dry crops, like wheat, to rice, which needs more water. Dis has led to stronger soil salinisation and water eutrophication.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> De negative effects of reduced water sources on fishing, farming and herding are bigger than de benefits of new land from receding water. Residents who used to depend on lake water had to relocate, and dis has made de lake-area economy continue to shrink.<ref name="Zarate2023">Roman D. Zarate; Remi Jedwab; Federico Haslop; Carlos Rodriguez-Castelan (2023). "The Effects of Climate Change in the Poorest Countries: Evidence from the Permanent Shrinking of Lake Chad". World Bank. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</ref> Since 1970, five countries for de southern part of de basin have built plenti water-conservancy projects upstream of Chari River, Logone River and Yobe River to intercept river water. Dis cause sharp reduction in water entering de lake. Average annual inflow from Chari River and Logone River between 1970 and 1990 be only 55% of de inflow between 1950 and 1970. Since de 1980s, one-third of water from Chari River and Logone River has been diverted and intercepted by Central African Republic upstream for farming irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Dams built upstream of rivers entering de lake changed de timing and extent of seasonal floods. Dem also disrupt fish migration, reducing populations of ''Alestes baremoze'' and Nile perch, which be main catches of Lake Chad. Fish catch reduce strongly.<ref name="KeithPlowes1997" /><ref name="Hughes1992" /> At de same time, conflicts among countries and ethnic groups competing for water and land are growing. De four countries around de lake all face extreme poverty, and because livelihoods be difficult, some local residents have become involved in drug and arms trade.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Boko Haram insurgency has made de situation worse by displacing millions of people and disrupting development across de region.<ref name="Olowoyeye2023">Olowoyeye, Oluwatuyi S.; Kanwar, Rameshwar S. (2023). "Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa". ''Sustainability''. 15 (13): 10009. doi:10.3390/su151310009.</ref> Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad establish de Lake Chad Basin Commission on 22 May 1964. Central African Republic join in 1996, and Libya join in 2008. De commission ein headquarters dey N'Djamena, Chad. De commission ein work include managing Lake Chad and ein water resources, protecting de ecosystem, and promoting regional integration, peace, security and development for Lake Chad region.<ref name="LCBCAbout">"About us". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</ref> One water-replenishment plan for Lake Chad propose construction of a 2,400 km canal to carry 100 x 10⁹ m³ of water every year from Congo River Basin to Chari River Basin, while a series of dams along de route generate electricity.<ref name="BBC2018">Ross, Will (2018). "Can the vanishing lake be saved?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2019.</ref> == Ramsar wetland designations == Lake Chad and some of ein wetlands get Ramsar designations across different countries. ''Lac Tchad'' was designated on 17 June 2001 with reference number 1072.<ref name="Ramsar1072">"Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad'' was designated on 14 August 2001 with reference number 1134.<ref name="Ramsar1134">"Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria'' was designated on 30 April 2008 with reference number 1749.<ref name="Ramsar1749">"Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad'' was designated on 2 February 2010 with reference number 1903.<ref name="Ramsar1903">"Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Sanso spy == * [[Inner Niger Delta]], inland delta for Mali * [[Lake Ptolemy]], former lake for Sudan * [[List of drying lakes]] * [[Sudd]], large swamp for South Sudan * [[Wildlife of Chad]] * [[Lake Chad replenishment project]], proposed large water-diversion plan to stop Lake Chad from drying == References == <references /> == Further reading == * Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). ''A Directory of African Wetlands''. IUCN. ISBN 978-2-88032-949-5. * Beadle, L. C. (1974). ''The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa: An Introduction to Tropical Limnology''. Longman Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0582448520. * Chapman, Graham; Baker, Kathleen M. (1992). ''The changing geography of Africa and the Middle East''. Routledge. ISBN 9780203034507. * Caterina Batello; Marzio Marzot; Adamou Harouna Toure (2004). ''The Future is an Ancient Lake''. FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture. ISBN 92-5-105064-3. == External links == {{Commons}} *[http://www.cblt.org/en/ Lake Chad Basin Commission] *[https://en.unesco.org/biopalt BIOsphere and Heritage of Lake Chad (BIOPALT) project] *[https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/91291/the-ups-and-downs-of-lake-chad The Ups and Downs of Lake Chad] *[https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake/AFR-02 Lake Chad in World Lake Database] *[https://news.un.org/en/tags/lake-chad Lake Chad {{!}} UN News] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chad, Lake}} [[Category:Lake Chad| ]] [[Category:Endorheic lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Shrunken lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of Chad]] [[Category:Lakes of Niger]] [[Category:Lakes of Nigeria]] [[Category:Lakes of Cameroon]] [[Category:Flooded grasslands den savannas]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Geography of Central Africa|Lake Chad]] [[Category:Border tripoints]] [[Category:Chad–Niger border]] [[Category:Chad–Nigeria border]] [[Category:Niger–Nigeria border]] [[Category:Cameroon–Chad border]] [[Category:Cameroon–Nigeria border]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Chad]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Chad]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Cameroon]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Niger]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Lakes of Africa]] ofy2b2x00tyab1ce1ft8cig9opv8rp8 99346 99285 2026-05-31T18:01:30Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 99346 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Chad''' (Arabic: بحيرة تشاد, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', French: ''Lac Tchad'') be endorheic fresh water lake wey dey for where four kontris meet: [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]] den [[Cameroon]], for western den central Africa. Ein catchment area pass 1,000,000 km². De lake be important wetland ecosystem for West-Central Africa. De land near de lake get plenti reeds den swamps, den de plain around de lake be fertile, so people dey use am for irrigated farming. De lake get plenti aquatic resources too, so e be one of Africa ein important fresh water fish-producing areas. Lake Chad get deeper southern parts den shallower northern parts. De main water source be rivers like Chari River wey enter de lake. De water level dey change plenti by season, so de lake area too dey change strongly. During de African humid period, de lake ein area reach about 400,000 km². As climate turn drier, de lake surface reduce slow-slow. For de 19th century, de lake still cover about 28,000 km². From de mid-1970s come, climate change den human water diversion make de lake shrink well, and ein area dey move between about 2,000 den 5,000 km². == Prehistory den history == De Chad Basin form through depression of de African Shield. De basin floor dey made of Precambrian bedrock, and more than 3,600 m of sedimentary deposits cover am.<ref name="Obaje2009">Obaje, Nuhu George (2009). ''Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria''. Springer. p. 69. ISBN 978-3-540-92684-9.</ref> For most of de Quaternary period, de basin get plenti water sources. Near de end of dis period, de climate become drier. Around 20,000-40,000 years ago, eolianite sand dunes start to form for de northern side of de basin.<ref name="Wright1985">Wright, J. B. (1985). ''Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa''. Springer. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-04-556001-1.</ref> Lake Chad area get four major wet phases between 39,000 BC den 300 BC. Dis left thick diatomaceous earth den lacustrine deposits for de strata. People dey call dis large ancient lake '''Mega-Chad'''. Mega-Chad ein maximum depth pass 180 m, and e cover about 400,000 km². E flow enter [[Benue River]] through de Mayo Kebbi, and de water later drain enter de Atlantic Ocean through de Niger River.<ref name="Leblanc2006">Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Maley, J.; Nazoumou, Y.; Leduc, C.; Stagnitti, F.; van Oevelen, P. J.; Delclaux, F.; Lemoalle, J. (2006). "Reconstruction of Megalake Chad using Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission data". ''Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology''. 239 (1-2): 16-27. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.003.</ref><ref name="Schuster2005">Mathieu Schuster; Claude Roquin; Philippe Duringer; Michel Brunet; Matthieu Caugy; Michel Fontugne; Hassan Taisso Mackaye; Patrick Vignaud; Jean-Francois Ghienne (2005). "Holocene Lake Mega-Chad palaeoshorelines from space". ''Quaternary Science Reviews''. 24 (16-17): 1821-1827. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.001.</ref> De large waters wey form during de African humid period give chance for lakeside fisher settlements to come up. Nilo-Saharan ethnic groups too migrate go Lake Chad during dat time. Farming also start for de Sahel around dis period.<ref name="Shillington2018a">Kevin Shillington (2018). ''History of Africa''. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 19-31. ISBN 9781137524812.</ref> By 1800 BC, one pottery culture wey people know as Gajiganna had appear. At first de people be pastoralists, but from around 1500 BC, dem start to live for settled hamlets near de lake.<ref name="Ogundiran2005">Ogundiran, Akinwumi (2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.-A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". ''Journal of World Prehistory''. 19 (2): 138. doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y.</ref> Archaeological discoveries show wild grasses, mainly from de tribe Paniceae, and wild rice, together with de earliest domesticated pearl millet for de Lake Chad region. Dem date dis to about 1200-1000 cal BC. One of de oldest domesticated pearl millet finds for West Africa come from de Chad Basin, charred together with wild grasses, and dem date am to 800-1000 cal BC.<ref name="KleeZach1999">Marlies Klee; Barbara Zach (1999). "The Exploitation of Wild and Domesticated Food Plants at Settlement Mounds in North-East Nigeria (1800 cal BC to Today)". ''The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa''. pp. 81-88. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_8.</ref> Permanent villages dey established south of de lake by 500 BC, and major archaeological discoveries include de Sao civilization.<ref name="Britannica">Gritzner, J. A. "Lake Chad". ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved 13 June 2023.</ref> According to Claudius Ptolemy ein records from de middle of de 2nd century AD, Romans from de 1st century AD had already get contact with Lake Chad through connections with Tunisia, Tripolitania den Fezzan.<ref name="Johnston1910">Johnston, H. H. (1910). "Lake Chad". ''Nature''. 84 (2130): 244-245. doi:10.1038/084244a0.</ref> By de 5th century AD, people dey use camels for trans-Saharan trade through Fezzan, or eastward through Darfur.<ref name="AppiahGates2010">Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2010). ''Encyclopaedia of Africa''. Oxford University Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.</ref> After Arabs conquered North Africa for de 7th den 8th centuries, de Chad Basin become more connected to Muslim kontris.<ref name="Decorse2001">Decorse, Christopher R. (2001). ''West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives''. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7185-0247-8.</ref> Trade den better farming techniques help more complex societies to grow.<ref name="AppiahGates2010" /> Around 900 AD, de Kanem people, wey speak Kanuri language, bring plenti nomadic tribes together and establish de Kanem Empire for northeast of Lake Chad. For de early years, Kanem people continue demma nomadic life until de 11th century, when dem accept Islam and settle for Njimi. Through trans-Saharan trade, Kanem Empire ein power reach ein peak for de 13th century. As de empire decline for de 14th century, ein southwestern vassal state, Bornu, begin rise. Dis make de power centre shift to Bornu around 1400. For 1574, de [[Ottoman Empire]] invade Fezzan and de Oasis, and reach as far as Lake Chad.<ref name="Lange2004">Lange, Dierk (2004). ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa: African-centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives''. J. H. Roll Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89754-115-3.</ref> Dis be one of de deepest Ottoman movements into Africa ein interior before de nineteenth century. During Sultan Murad III ein reign, Ottoman influence stretch into de central Sahel area, and Lake Chad enter Ottoman sphere of influence.<ref name="Flynn2016">Flynn, Sebastien (2016). "The Relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Kanem-Bornu during the Reign of Sultan Murad III". Bilkent Master's Thesis.</ref> For de second half of de 16th century, Bornu Empire begin import firearms from de Ottoman Empire, and dis help am strengthen ein military power. Bornu Empire decline for de 18th century, and later lose ein western area to de Sokoto Caliphate for de early 19th century. Later, European powers colonise de region for de 20th century.<ref name="Shillington2018b">Kevin Shillington (2018). ''History of Africa''. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 101-103, 188-190, 249-256. ISBN 9781137524812.</ref> As European academic den business groups grow interest in Africa, Europeans describe Lake Chad area plenti during de 19th century. Three scientific expeditions happen between 1898 and 1909.<ref name="Britannica" /> During de Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, European colonial powers divide Africa among demma selves.<ref name="Harlow2003">Harlow, Barbara (2003). "Conference of Berlin (1884-1885)". In ''Colonialism''. ABC-CLIO. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.</ref> By de second decade of de 20th century, Britain, France den Germany had colonised and occupied areas around Lake Chad, creating boundaries wey mostly remain with de present post-colonial states.<ref name="ChinaWater2021">Xiong Zhengkun; Zhang Jin (2021). "Lake Chad: From 'Cradle of Civilization' to 'Heart of Death'". ''China Water Resources News''. Retrieved 1 January 2024.</ref> At independence time, de kontris around Lake Chad no get strong economic foundation. Dem also get complex ethnic, religious den political conflicts. Nigeria den Niger, wey just gain independence, experience repeated coups, while Chad also experience continuing civil war. Because de lake-side kontris no fit work together strongly to protect Lake Chad, plenti environmental problems come up.<ref name="ChinaWater2021" /> == Geography == De Chad Basin include Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Sudan den de Central African Republic.<ref name="LCBCMap">"about-map". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 26 March 2024.</ref> E be extensional fault-depression type rift basin. People fit divide am into four secondary structural units: southern depression, northern depression, central uplift den eastern slope. De southern depression get asymmetric fault-depression composite rift, with steep slopes for de east and gentle slopes for de west. For plan view, e dey distributed in NNW direction. Two large basin-bounding normal faults develop on both sides of de basin, with graben-style fault den depression for de middle. De east and west sides be outward-dipping low-angle gentle slope areas. De eastern boundary fault be steep, with dip angle about 55 degrees, while de western fault get dip angle about 45 degrees. De inner-layer thickness for de slope area be relatively thin. For de central area of de basin, sedimentary strata be thick, and de sedimentary centre zone reach more than 10,000 m. De northern part of de basin look steep for west and gentle for east. Five fault structural zones wey dey parallel to de basin-bounding faults develop from west to east.<ref name="Huang2008">Huang Xianxiong; Xia Bin; Wan Zhifeng; Lu Baofeng; Cai Zhourong (2008). "A preliminary study on the tectonic characteristics and hydrocarbon accumulation law of the Lake Chad Basin". ''Geotectonica et Metallogenia'' (3): 326-331. doi:10.16539/j.ddgzyckx.2008.03.013.</ref> Lake Chad dey divided into north den south parts by one shallow sill wey dem call de Great Barrier. De bottom of de northern basin dey at altitude 275.3 m, and de bottom of de southern basin dey at 278.2 m. When water level for de south pass 279 m above sea level, e go flow enter de north.<ref name="Liu2013">Liu Tiantian; Liu Ronggao; Ge Quansheng (2013). "Monitoring of water surface change in Lake Chad in Africa based on multi-source remote sensing data". ''Progress in Geography''. 32 (6): 906-912. doi:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.007.</ref> For de south, continuous open water dey at de mouth of de Chari River. De western water area dey covered by reed swamps, and sand dunes wey no submerge fully for de eastern waters form an archipelago.<ref name="SarchBirkett2000">Marie-Therese Sarch; Charon Birkett (2000). "Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: Responses to lake-level fluctuations". ''The Geographical Journal''. 166 (2): 156-172. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00015.x.</ref><ref name="WenLakeChad">Wen Yunzhao. "Lake Chad". ''Encyclopedia of China'' (03 ed.). Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. Retrieved 11 June 2023.</ref> De average depth of de southern lake basin dey between 0.5 and 2 m. De northern lake basin dey between 0 and 1.8 m, and de eastern archipelago dey between 0 and 2 m.<ref name="Lemoalle2012">Jacques Lemoalle; Jean-Claude Bader; Marc Leblanc; Ahmed Sedick (2012). "Recent changes in Lake Chad: Observations, simulations and management options (1973-2011)". ''Global and Planetary Change''. 80-81: 247-254. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.07.004.</ref> De climate of Lake Chad region dey strongly influenced by continental and maritime air masses. Maritime air mass dey move north during summer, and dis bring seasonal rainfall. Near late summer, continental air mass dominate again.<ref name="Britannica" /> Average annual rainfall for de Lake Chad area be about 330 mm. De south bank get average of about 560 mm, while de north bank get about 250 mm. Highest rainy-season temperature be about 30 °C, and highest temperature pass 32 °C when October den November enter de dry season. Day-night temperature difference be almost two times bigger than wet-season difference, and night temperature sometimes fall to 8 °C for December den January. April normally be de hottest month, and temperature can reach 40 °C. Lowest water levels dey appear in June to July, while highest water levels dey appear in November to December. Surface water temperature dey range from 19 to 32 °C.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="WenLakeChad" /> == Hydrology == De Chad Basin cover about 1 x 10⁶ km², and Chari, Logone den Yobe Rivers dey flow enter am.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Hughes1992">Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). ''A Directory of African Wetlands''. IUCN / UNEP / WCMC. pp. 329-330. ISBN 2-88032-949-3.</ref> De lake ein water supply be seasonal. Most of de rainfall come from de Adamawa Plateau for south of de basin, and Chari River den Logone River carry am to de lake basin. Chari den Logone together give about 95% of Lake Chad ein total inflow, while Yobe River give less than 2.5%.<ref name="Hughes1992" /> De lake dey seep underground go de lowest point of de Chad Basin, de Bodele Depression, about 480 km northeast of Lake Chad. De deepest point of dat depression reach only 155 m above sea level. Dis underground loss remove most salinity and help Lake Chad stay low in salinity. De southwestern waters of Lake Chad be fresh water, while de northeast water be only slightly salty.<ref name="Yuan2016">Yuan Xuanmin (2016). "The environment, security and vulnerability of Lake Chad". ''World Science'' (7): 21-23.</ref><ref name="Hughes1992" /> De water volume of most large African lakes depend on rainfall den evaporation. Dis means temperature den rainfall be very important for controlling water balance, and any change fit make big changes in water level den surface area.<ref name="Ogutu2016">Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo; Vianny Natugonza; Laban Musinguzi; Mark Olokotum; Shamim Naigaga (2016). "Implications of climate variability and change for African lake ecosystems, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods". ''Journal of Great Lakes Research''. 42 (3): 498-510. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.03.004.</ref> Lake Chad be shallow inland lake, and rainfall in de Chad Basin be very sensitive to small changes in atmospheric circulation. Because of dis, climate change strongly affects Lake Chad ein surface area.<ref name="Evans1996">Evans, T. (1996). "The effects of changes in the world hydrological cycle on availability of water resources". In Bazzaz, F.; Sombroek, W. (eds.). ''Global climate change and agricultural production''. FAO / John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 92-5-103987-9.</ref><ref name="Leblanc2007">Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Tweed, S. (2007). "Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas: Lake Chad Basin, Africa". ''Hydrogeology Journal''. 15 (1): 97-100. doi:10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0.</ref> Dry climate linked to vegetation loss from overgrazing and deforestation, plus large irrigation projects wey divert water from rivers feeding de lake, be major reasons why Lake Chad shrink.<ref name="UNEPAlmostGone">"Lake Chad: almost gone". United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Retrieved 5 December 2015.</ref> Atlantic multidecadal oscillation and El Nino-Southern Oscillation affect rainfall for de Sahel region. From de early 1960s to de mid-1980s, de lake water level fall by 3 m when compared with de average level from 1900 to 2010.<ref name="Okonkwo2015">Churchill Okonkwo; Belay Demoz; Ricardo Sakai; Charles Ichoku; Chigozie Anarado; Jimmy Adegoke; Angelina Amadou; Sanusi Imran Abdullahi; Nir Krakauer (2015). "Combined effect of El Nino southern oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation on Lake Chad level variability". ''Cogent Geoscience''. 1 (1). doi:10.1080/23312041.2015.1117829.</ref> For 1870, Lake Chad ein area be about 28,000 km². During rainy season, de lake fit flow out through Bahr el-Ghazal. Around de turn of de 20th century, de lake shrink briefly, then reach new high for de middle of de 20th century and overflow from Bahr el-Ghazal again.<ref name="Britannica" /> Major drought start for Sahel in de late 1960s and cause severe damage in 1972 and 1984. People link dis drought to vegetation loss, global warming and sea-surface temperature anomalies.<ref name="Evans1996" /> During dis period, Lake Chad shrink strongly and later fluctuate between about 2,000 and 5,000 km².<ref name="Liu2013" /> From June 1966 to January 1973, Lake Chad ein area shrink from 22,772 to 15,400 km².<ref name="UNEPAlmostGone" /> It reduce further to 4,398 km² in 1975, and only 1,756 km² in February 1994.<ref name="Liu2013" /><ref name="UNEPAlmostGone" /> Since then, Lake Chad ein area enter more stable stage with small increase.<ref name="Zhu2017">Wengbin Zhu; Jiabao Yan; Shaofeng Jia (2017). "Monitoring Recent Fluctuations of the Southern Pool of Lake Chad Using Multiple Remote Sensing Data: Implications for Water Balance Analysis". ''Remote Sensing''. 9 (10): 1032. doi:10.3390/rs9101032.</ref> From 1995 to 1998, e move within 1,200 to 4,500 km². De area reach 5,075 km² in 2000, and average surface-water area from 2013 to 2016 be about 1,876 km². De largest area during dat period be 2,231 km² in July 2015.<ref name="Buma2018">Willibroad Gabila Buma; Sang-Il Lee; Jae Young Seo (2018). "Recent surface water extent of Lake Chad from multispectral sensors and GRACE". ''Sensors''. 18 (7): 2082. doi:10.3390/s18072082.</ref> === Quaternary aquifer den groundwater resilience === Under de lake, one unconfined Quaternary phreatic aquifer dey. E be large transboundary water resource wey stretch about 500,000 km² across Chad, Niger, Nigeria den Cameroon.<ref name="Nour2022">Mahamat Nour, A.; Huneau, F.; Mahamat Ali, A.; Vystavna, Y. (2022). "Shallow Quaternary groundwater in the Lake Chad basin is resilient to climate change but requires sustainable management strategy: Results of isotopic investigation". ''Science of The Total Environment''. 848: 158152. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158152.</ref> Although de lake lose about 2,200 mm of water every year through potential evapotranspiration, isotopic studies using stable isotopes den tritium show say de groundwater system under am remain highly resilient to climate change.<ref name="Nour2022" /><ref name="Goni2021">Goni, I. B.; Sherif, A. M.; Taylor, R. G. (2021). "Groundwater recharge from heavy rainfall in the southwestern Lake Chad Basin: evidence from isotopic observations". ''Hydrological Sciences Journal''. 66 (10): 1521-1534. doi:10.1080/02626667.2021.1937630.</ref> De Quaternary aquifer dey recharge through two main processes: direct infiltration from intense seasonal rainfall, and lateral seepage from de lake plus temporary river channels.<ref name="Goni2021" /> Isotopic data show say heavy rainfall events above de 60th percentile of monthly rainfall intensity drive most of de diffuse recharge. Dis means projected stronger tropical downpours under global warming can support groundwater replenishment within de basin.<ref name="Goni2021" /> Dis wide underground reservoir be important hydrological buffer, because e helps provide permanent water access for municipal den agricultural pumping, even when surface water dey change extremely.<ref name="Nour2022" /> == Ecology == Part of de Chad Basin dey inside Chad Basin National Park in Nigeria. Nigeria and Cameroon have also established Lake Chad Ramsar Wetland, with total area of 8,225 km².<ref name="OneEarth2021">Emma Martin; Neil Burgess (2021). "Lake Chad Flooded Savanna". One Earth. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</ref> === Plant life === Wetland plants for de south mainly include ''Cyperus papyrus'' and related plants. Reeds mainly grow for de north, where salinity be high. De floating plant ''Pistia'' sometimes cover large open-water areas. Plants like ''Hyparrhenia rufa'' grow on lake shores wey get long floods for de south.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> Permanent vegetation area increase from about 3,800 km² in 2000 to about 5,200 km² in 2020 as water levels drop and temperatures rise.<ref name="PhamDuc2020">Binh Pham-Duc; Florence Sylvestre; Fabrice Papa; Frederic Frappart; Camille Bouchez; Jean-Francois Cretaux (2020). "The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change". ''Scientific Reports''. 10: 5498. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62417-w.</ref> De dense woodland around de lake has changed to open forest with acacias, baobabs, palms den Indian jujube.<ref name="Britannica" /> === Birds === BirdLife International designate de lake as an Important Bird Area (IBA).<ref name="BirdLife2024">"Lake Chad". BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International. Retrieved 30 October 2024.</ref> Hundreds of bird species live there permanently or seasonally, including northern shoveler, Egyptian goose and marabou stork.<ref name="Britannica" /> De lake be important wintering ground for European ducks and wading birds. Raptors like steppe eagle and booted eagle dey around de lakeshore.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> More than one million ruffs fit dey observed on de lake at one time.<ref name="KeithPlowes1997">Keith, J. O.; Plowes, D. C. H. (1997). ''Considerations of Wildlife Resources and Land Use in Chad''. Office of Sustainable Development, Africa Bureau, USAID. SD Technical Paper No. 45.</ref> === Mammals === Large mammals wey used to be common include red-fronted gazelle, dama gazelle, patas monkey, striped hyena, cheetah and caracal. African elephant, otter, hippopotamus, sitatunga and kob dey found for de wetlands. At present, hunters have removed most of de large mammals, and large numbers of cattle replace dem.<ref name="OneEarth2021" /> === Fish === De whole Chad Basin get 179 fish species. Out of dis number, 127 also dey de Niger River Basin, 85 also dey de Nile River Basin, 47 also dey de Congo River Basin, and 84 fish species dey inside de lake itself.<ref name="Hughes1992" /> Dis make de lake rich fishing ground for communities across Nigeria, Niger, Chad den Cameroon. Seasonal floods plus seasonal increases in air temperature reduce salinity, increase turbidity and raise trophic levels. Dis support increase in phytoplankton and zooplankton, and help large fish migrate seasonally within de watershed to feed and breed for fertile floodplains when floods come.<ref name="SarchBirkett2000" /> == Human activities == More than 30 million people dey live inside de Lake Chad Basin. More than 70 ethnic groups dey around de lake, most of dem for de south bank, where population density pass 100 people per km². Dem depend on Lake Chad ein water for irrigation, breeding, animal husbandry and drinking water.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Local self-sufficient crops include sorghum, maize, finger millet, beans and vegetables. People plant gourd plenti to make utensils. Collection of forest products like gum arabic, honey, beeswax and firewood also be important for de region. Reduction in forest area has affected these products negatively, and rapid growth of cattle herds has made de effect worse. Cattle be de most important livestock, together with poultry, goats, sheep, camels, horses and donkeys. De droughts of de 1970s and 1980s badly affect animal husbandry.<ref name="Britannica" /> Fishing traditionally be de most important economic activity for people living around de lake. It almost stop during drought periods and only resume around de mid-1990s. People dry, pickle or smoke most fish products. Natron from de depression on de northeast bank of de lake has long been economically important. Traditionally, people dig am in blocks and carry am across de lake to enter Nigerian markets.<ref name="Britannica" /> Since de drought of de 1970s, land wey fit support farming without irrigation and fertilizer has appeared at de bottom of de lake. People reclaim some of dis land as polder for maize, cowpea, rice, sorghum and other crops.<ref name="Luxereau2011">Luxereau, A.; Genthon, P.; Ambouta, J.-M. K. (2011). "Fluctuations in the Size of Lake Chad: Consequences on the Livelihoods of the Riverain Peoples in Eastern Niger". ''Regional Environmental Change''. 12 (3): 507-521. doi:10.1007/s10113-011-0267-0.</ref> Farmers have shifted from mainly dry crops, like wheat, to rice, which needs more water. Dis has led to stronger soil salinisation and water eutrophication.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> De negative effects of reduced water sources on fishing, farming and herding are bigger than de benefits of new land from receding water. Residents who used to depend on lake water had to relocate, and dis has made de lake-area economy continue to shrink.<ref name="Zarate2023">Roman D. Zarate; Remi Jedwab; Federico Haslop; Carlos Rodriguez-Castelan (2023). "The Effects of Climate Change in the Poorest Countries: Evidence from the Permanent Shrinking of Lake Chad". World Bank. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</ref> Since 1970, five countries for de southern part of de basin have built plenti water-conservancy projects upstream of Chari River, Logone River and Yobe River to intercept river water. Dis cause sharp reduction in water entering de lake. Average annual inflow from Chari River and Logone River between 1970 and 1990 be only 55% of de inflow between 1950 and 1970. Since de 1980s, one-third of water from Chari River and Logone River has been diverted and intercepted by Central African Republic upstream for farming irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Dams built upstream of rivers entering de lake changed de timing and extent of seasonal floods. Dem also disrupt fish migration, reducing populations of ''Alestes baremoze'' and Nile perch, which be main catches of Lake Chad. Fish catch reduce strongly.<ref name="KeithPlowes1997" /><ref name="Hughes1992" /> At de same time, conflicts among countries and ethnic groups competing for water and land are growing. De four countries around de lake all face extreme poverty, and because livelihoods be difficult, some local residents have become involved in drug and arms trade.<ref name="Yuan2016" /> Boko Haram insurgency has made de situation worse by displacing millions of people and disrupting development across de region.<ref name="Olowoyeye2023">Olowoyeye, Oluwatuyi S.; Kanwar, Rameshwar S. (2023). "Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa". ''Sustainability''. 15 (13): 10009. doi:10.3390/su151310009.</ref> Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad establish de Lake Chad Basin Commission on 22 May 1964. Central African Republic join in 1996, and Libya join in 2008. De commission ein headquarters dey N'Djamena, Chad. De commission ein work include managing Lake Chad and ein water resources, protecting de ecosystem, and promoting regional integration, peace, security and development for Lake Chad region.<ref name="LCBCAbout">"About us". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</ref> One water-replenishment plan for Lake Chad propose construction of a 2,400 km canal to carry 100 x 10⁹ m³ of water every year from Congo River Basin to Chari River Basin, while a series of dams along de route generate electricity.<ref name="BBC2018">Ross, Will (2018). "Can the vanishing lake be saved?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2019.</ref> == Ramsar wetland designations == Lake Chad and some of ein wetlands get Ramsar designations across different countries. ''Lac Tchad'' was designated on 17 June 2001 with reference number 1072.<ref name="Ramsar1072">"Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad'' was designated on 14 August 2001 with reference number 1134.<ref name="Ramsar1134">"Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria'' was designated on 30 April 2008 with reference number 1749.<ref name="Ramsar1749">"Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> ''Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad'' was designated on 2 February 2010 with reference number 1903.<ref name="Ramsar1903">"Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> == Sanso spy == * [[Inner Niger Delta]], inland delta for Mali * [[Lake Ptolemy]], former lake for Sudan * [[List of drying lakes]] * [[Sudd]], large swamp for South Sudan * [[Wildlife of Chad]] * [[Lake Chad replenishment project]], proposed large water-diversion plan to stop Lake Chad from drying == References == <references /> == Further reading == * Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). ''A Directory of African Wetlands''. IUCN. ISBN 978-2-88032-949-5. * Beadle, L. C. (1974). ''The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa: An Introduction to Tropical Limnology''. Longman Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0582448520. * Chapman, Graham; Baker, Kathleen M. (1992). ''The changing geography of Africa and the Middle East''. Routledge. ISBN 9780203034507. * Caterina Batello; Marzio Marzot; Adamou Harouna Toure (2004). ''The Future is an Ancient Lake''. FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture. ISBN 92-5-105064-3. == External links == {{Commons}} *[http://www.cblt.org/en/ Lake Chad Basin Commission] *[https://en.unesco.org/biopalt BIOsphere and Heritage of Lake Chad (BIOPALT) project] *[https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/91291/the-ups-and-downs-of-lake-chad The Ups and Downs of Lake Chad] *[https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake/AFR-02 Lake Chad in World Lake Database] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20250907042826/https://news.un.org/en/tags/lake-chad Lake Chad {{!}} UN News] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chad, Lake}} [[Category:Lake Chad| ]] [[Category:Endorheic lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Shrunken lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of Chad]] [[Category:Lakes of Niger]] [[Category:Lakes of Nigeria]] [[Category:Lakes of Cameroon]] [[Category:Flooded grasslands den savannas]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Geography of Central Africa|Lake Chad]] [[Category:Border tripoints]] [[Category:Chad–Niger border]] [[Category:Chad–Nigeria border]] [[Category:Niger–Nigeria border]] [[Category:Cameroon–Chad border]] [[Category:Cameroon–Nigeria border]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Chad]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Chad]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Cameroon]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Niger]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Lakes of Africa]] icdwdrkwdnp6fytscu54fovmih44ufq 0 27066 99307 98973 2026-05-31T13:39:36Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Red Volta''' anaa '''Nazinon''' (French: ''Volta rouge'') be a waterway wey locate insyd [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Red Volta River {{!}} river, Africa |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Red-Volta-River |access-date=2019-09-24 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Freshwater Ecoregions Of the World |url=http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/volta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116165735/http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/Volta |archive-date=2017-01-16 |access-date=2019-09-24 |website=www.feow.org}}</ref> E dey emerge near [[Ouagadougou]] insyd [[Burkina Faso]] wey e get a length of about 320&nbsp;km at de end of wich e dey join de [[White Volta]] insyd [[Ghana]]. De river primarily dey locate insyd Burkina Faso wey dey form part of de international border between Burkina Faso den Ghana. E dey flow into Ghana ein [[Upper East Region|Upper East region]] wey e dey empty into de [[White Volta]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ghana border]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Border rivers]] ttxqud11rgt15xzef9zldd0tolcbo21 0 27067 99309 98974 2026-05-31T13:44:54Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sumbrungu''' be a community insyd de Bolgatanga Municipality insyd de [[Upper East Region]] of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-09 |title=ARFAC donates 200 uniforms to underprivileged students in Sumbrungu - Adomonline.com |url=https://www.adomonline.com/arfac-donates-200-uniforms-to-underprivileged-students-in-sumbrungu/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Two NGOs register 2000 people onto NHIS |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/682380/two-ngos-register-2000-people-onto-nhis.html |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bolgatanga Airport: GACL inspects construction site at Anateem, to be completed by end of 2025 |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1391891/bolgatanga-airport-gacl-inspects-construction.html |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> De [[Bolgatanga Technical University|Bolgatanga Polytechnic]] dey locate insyd de town.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Students reject Bolgatanga Polytechnic admission |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Students-reject-Bolgatanga-Polytechnic-admission-585932?gallery=1 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250106050535/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Students-reject-Bolgatanga-Polytechnic-admission-585932?gallery=1 |archive-date=2025-01-06 |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=GhanaWeb |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-09-28|title=Students reject Bolgatanga Polytechnic admission|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Students-reject-Bolgatanga-Polytechnic-admission-585932|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241230223849/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Students-reject-Bolgatanga-Polytechnic-admission-585932|archive-date=2024-12-30|access-date=2026-05-29|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> As at 2012, de chief of de community be Naba Atogboyenge.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Upper East Region has few midwivies |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/419441/upper-east-region-has-few-midwivies.html |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> == History == Insyd de late 1970s den early 1980s, na dem release about 7051.44 acres anaa 2,8853.72 hectares of land insyd de community to de Government of Ghana by de people of de region.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Otchere |first=Gertrude Owireduwaah |date=2024-01-15 |title=Upper East chiefs remind Akufo-Addo of airport promise - Adomonline.com |url=https://www.adomonline.com/upper-east-chiefs-remind-akufo-addo-of-airport-promise/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-16 |title=U.S.-based son of Upper East’s Gabriel Agambila organizes grand durbar of Chiefs at UER Airport site - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/u-s-based-son-of-upper-easts-gabriel-agambila-organizes-grand-durbar-of-chiefs-at-uer-airport-site/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Institutions == De following institutions dey locate insyd de community: * Sumbrungu Health Centre.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-08 |title=Director leads construction of diagnostic laboratory, disease control unit - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/director-leads-construction-of-diagnostic-laboratory-disease-control-unit/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> * St. Francis of Assisi Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PURC encourages Ghanaians to report unsatisfactory service |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1186805/purc-encourages-ghanaians-to-report-unsatisfactory.html |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> * Mother & Child Hospital<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arthur |first=Benson |date=2024-11-22 |title=The Church of Jesus Christ, Engage Now Africa open 50-bed Mother & Child Hospital in Sumbrungu-Agusi in Upper East Region |url=https://thebftonline.com/2024/11/22/the-church-of-jesus-christ-engage-now-africa-open-50-bed-mother-child-hospital-in-sumbrungu-agusi-in-upper-east-region/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=The Business & Financial Times |language=en-GB}}</ref> == Notable natives == * Johnson Agolmah, a community leader<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sumbrungu Residents Demand Vice Chancellor's Removal Over Land Deal {{!}} NewsGhana |url=https://www.newsghana.com.gh/sumbrungu-residents-demand-vice-chancellors-removal-over-land-deal/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=www.newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref> * Jonas Acheampong, secretary of the Sumbrungu Taxi Drivers Association<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=24 October 2017 |title='Mahama Camboo' collapsing taxi business |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/Mahama-Camboo-collapsing-taxi-business-593760 |access-date=29 May 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> * John Asaah, chairman of the Sumbrungu Taxi Drivers Association<ref name=":0" /> * Elias Ayinbila Apasiya, founder of the Light of Hope Foundation in the town<ref>{{Cite web |title=Light Of Hope Supports Rural Women In Upper East |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/824762/light-of-hope-supports-rural-women-in-upper-east.html |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> * Gbenga Solomon George, headteacher of Asoegoom School<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abdul-Rahaman |first=Salifu |date=2019-06-17 |title=Bolgatanga schools embark on tree planting…but seedlings remain a challenge |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/bolgatanga-schools-embark-on-tree-plantingbut-seedlings-remain-a-challenge/ |access-date=2026-05-29 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Towns insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Towns insyd Upper East Region]] [[Category:Populated places for Upper East Region insyd]] jvmrv86c9aft8u0tw6vxz2pob6l09c2 0 27068 99310 99038 2026-05-31T13:53:10Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Kavango River view.jpg|thumb|Kavango river view at Hakusembe river lodge]] De '''Okavango River''' (dem formerly spell am ''Okovango'' anaa ''Okovanggo''), be a river for southwestern Africa insyd. Dem know am by dis name for [[Botswana]] insyd, as '''Cubango''' for [[Angola]] insyd, for '''Kavango''' for [[Namibia]] insyd.<ref name="mendelsohn">{{cite web |last=Mendelsohn |first=John |date=9 September 2021 |title=A River in Trouble |url=https://conservationnamibia.com/articles/cn2021-river-in-trouble.php |access-date=8 January 2024 |website=Conservation Namibia}}</ref> E be de fourth-longest river system for southern Africa insyd, wey dey run southeastward give {{convert|1,600|km|mi|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. E dey begin at an elevation of {{convert|1300|m|ft}} for de sandy highlands of Angola insyd. Farther south, e dey form part of de border between Angola den Namibia, den dey then flow into Botswana. De Okavango no get an outlet to de sea. Instead, e dey discharge into de Okavango Delta anaa Okavango Alluvial Fan, for an endorheic basin insyd for de Kalahari Desert insyd. De '''Cuito River''' be major tributary. == Flow == De Cubango den Cuito Rivers be de principal tributaries of de Okavango Delta, den dey affect ein health.<ref name="mendelsohn" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goyder |first1=David J. |last2=Barker |first2=Nigel |last3=Bester |first3=Stoffel P. |last4=Frisby |first4=Arnold |last5=Janks |first5=Matt |last6=Gonçalves |first6=Francisco M.P. |display-authors=2 |date=27 November 2018 |title=The Cuito catchment of the Okavango system: a vascular plant checklist for the Angolan headwaters |journal=PhytoKeys |publisher=Pensoft Publishers |issue=113 |pages=1–31 |bibcode=2018PhytK.113....1G |doi=10.3897/phytokeys.113.30439 |hdl=2263/71882 |issn=1314-2003 |pmc=6279898 |pmid=30524187 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> For Angola insyd, seasonal controlled burns of de vegetation dey clog de upper reaches of de Cuito den reduce water flow downstream as de accumulated water instead dey [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|flow into]] de sand.<ref name="into">{{cite web |last1=Society |first1=National Geographic |author-link=National Geographic |title=Okavango Wilderness Project |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/okavango/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108114019/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/okavango/ |archive-date=8 November 2020 |website=www.nationalgeographic.org |publisher=[[Into the Okavango]] |language=en}}</ref> Before e dey enter Botswana, de river dey drop 4 m (13 ft) for a series of rapids insyd wey dem know am as Popa Falls, wey dey visible wen de river dey low, as during de dry season.<ref>Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd, "Popa Falls | Okavango River | Botswana" webpage: [http://www.travel.za.net/africa_popa_falls.html TravelZA-PopaFalls]</ref> For de rainy season insyd, an outflow to de Boteti River for turn insyd seasonally dey discharge to de Makgadikgadi Pans, wey dey feature an expansive area of rainy-season wetland wey tens of thousands of flamingos congregate each summer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andy Burnham, Pete Evans (Layout), The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |title=Makgadikgadi |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&mode=&order=0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030065111/https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&mode=&order=0 |archive-date=2023-10-30 |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=The Megalithic Portal |language=en}}</ref> Part of de river ein flow dey fill Lake Ngami. == Flood == [[File:Popafälle (2018).jpg|thumb|Popa Falls (2018)]]Every wet season, Angola dey receive three times more rainfall dan Botswana, wey dey discharge a higher dan usual flow into de Okavango, wey dey turn swathes of outlying desert into a huge wetland. Although de summer rains dey fall for Angola insyd for January insyd, dem take a whole month to travel de first 1,000&#x20;km of de Okavango River, den then dem take a further four months to filter thru de plants den numerous channels of de final 250&#x20;km of de delta. As a result, de flood dey at ein biggest sometime between June den August, during Botswana ein dry winter months. De delta then dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of wildlife. At ein widest point for a big flood year insyd, de seasonal swamp dey stretch to 150&#x20;km across from east to west; one of de factors dat dey lead to de ever-changing nature of de delta be de flatness of de area. If one be say to take a cross section of de delta at ein widest point, one go find say de height variation from den mean ova dat 150&#x20;km dey less dan 2 m, wey dey mean say a minor sand deposition fi cause major changes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango Delta – Part 2 {{!}} |url=http://blog.africabespoke.com:80/okavango-delta-part-2/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20180621102937/http://blog.africabespoke.com:80/okavango-delta-part-2/ |archive-date=2018-06-21 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=blog.africabespoke.com |language=en-US}}</ref> For very wet years insyd, a part of de river ein flow fi extend along de Magweggana River (actually a northeastern distributary of de Okavango Delta) den enter de Zambezi River, wey e bypass de Kalahari. == Sediment transport == De river dey carry annually 28,000 tonnes of suspended sediment den a similar amount of bedload to de terminal swamps.<ref name="hani">{{cite journal |last1=Hanibal Lemma |first1=and colleagues |date=2019 |title=Bedload transport measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=577 |bibcode=2019JHyd..57723968L |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968 |s2cid=199099061 |article-number=123968}}</ref> Most of de particulate sediment wey de river carry be fine sand, plus sam silt den mud, thanks to de geological makeup of de Okavango River catchment wey dey largely underlain by Kalahari sand. Der dey low concentration of dissolved solids for de river water insyd - around 40&#x20;mg/L, make up mostly of silica, calcium den magnesium bicarbonates - but dem dissolved solids dey form de largest component of sediment wey dem carry into de delta sekof de annual water volume dey so large.<ref name="SafGeo">{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T S |date=October 2013 |title=The okavango delta and its place in the geomorphological evolution of Southern Africa |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=1–54 |bibcode=2013SAJG..116....1M |doi=10.2113/gssajg.116.1.1}}</ref> == History == During colder periods for Earth ein history insyd, a part of de Kalahari be a massive lake, wey dem know am as Lake Makgadikgadi. For this time insyd, de Okavango go fi be one of ein largest tributaries. [[File:Cuito and Okavango (2018).jpg|thumb|Confluence of Cuito (from top) den Okavango (wey dey flow from left to right) (2018)<br />{{Coord|18|01|40|S| 020|47|31|E|display=inline|dim:10000}}]] == Water conflict == Both Namibia den Botswana dey experience drought, den as a result, dem express concerns about possible conflict ova use of de river ein water. Namibia build a water canal, wey e measure about 300&#x20;km long, den dem propose a project to build a 250&#x20;km pipeline to divert water from de river into Namibia to help relieve de drought.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Basedau |first=Matthias |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWrEcl2ydzEC&pg=PA294 |title=Resource Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=GIGA-Hamburg |isbn=978-3-928049-91-7 |pages=294 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Varis |first1=Olli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3ilzosWx4wC&pg=PA96 |title=Management of Transboundary Rivers and Lakes |last2=Tortajada |first2=Cecilia |last3=Biswas |first3=Asit K. |date=2008-03-15 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-74928-8 |pages=96 |language=en}}</ref> Botswana, howeva, dey use de Okavango Delta give both tourism income den a water source. De Department of Water Affairs for Botswana insyd submit dat dem lose 97% of de water for de river insyd thru evaporation, so de country no fi afford to lose any extra water. Namibia, for turn insyd, argue say e go only divert half of one percent of de river ein flow, den say dem entitle am to any water dat dey flow thru ein territory. To deal plus such issues, for September 1994 insyd, Angola, Namibia, den Botswana sign a multilateral agreement to form de Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission, to provide advice to de three countries about de best ways to share de Okavango River ein resources.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> === Oil exploration === ReconAfrica, a petroleum exploration company wey dem headquarter am for [[Canada]] insyd, obtain exploration licenses give more dan 13,600 square miles of land for de former Kavango Region of Namibia insyd den for Botswana insyd. For January 2021 insyd, ReconAfrica announce de start of drilling operations for de first exploration well top. Environmental activists express concern say dem no properly vet ReconAfrica ein plans give ein test wells thru Namibia ein environmental review process, howeva ReconAfrica den both de governments of Namibia den Botswana stated say de company ein activities follow due process den dat no fracking go occur.<ref>{{cite web |title=ReconAfrica Environmental, Social, and Governance |url=https://reconafrica.com/our-sustainable-approach/environmental-social-governance/ |access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Press release - Clarity on explorative activities by Reconnaissance Energy Botswana|url=https://twitter.com/bwgovernment/status/1359497088128733191|website=twitter.com|access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Factual Response to article titled: "Oil Drillers Threaten Okavango Ecosystem" |url=http://www.mme.gov.na/news/73/No-Fracking-Activities-will-be-conducted-In-the-Okavango-Delta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518042410/http://www.mme.gov.na/news/73/No-Fracking-Activities-will-be-conducted-In-the-Okavango-Delta |archive-date=18 May 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=mme.gov.na}}</ref> ReconAfrica ein drilling area dey for de Kavango West insyd region wey dey contain a multicountry conservation park, six locally managed wildlife reserves, den one UNESCO World Heritage site, howeva de drilling license no dey include any of these protected areas.<ref>[https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/news/reconafrica-start-drilling-first-well-kavango-basin-namibia/ ReconAfrica starts drilling on first well in Kavango Basin, Namibia]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210219215106/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/oil-drilling-fracking-planned-okavango-wilderness Oil drilling, possible fracking planned for Okavango region—elephants' last stronghold]</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [http://www.okacom.org/ OKACOM Homepage] 9wdou4rn193ghjrgkmsmtgzd60hnrmw 99311 99310 2026-05-31T14:04:44Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Kavango River view.jpg|thumb|Kavango river view at Hakusembe river lodge]] De '''Okavango River''' (dem formerly spell am ''Okovango'' anaa ''Okovanggo''), be a river for southwestern Africa insyd. Dem know am by dis name for [[Botswana]] insyd, as '''Cubango''' for [[Angola]] insyd, for '''Kavango''' for [[Namibia]] insyd.<ref name="mendelsohn">{{cite web |last=Mendelsohn |first=John |date=9 September 2021 |title=A River in Trouble |url=https://conservationnamibia.com/articles/cn2021-river-in-trouble.php |access-date=8 January 2024 |website=Conservation Namibia}}</ref> E be de fourth-longest river system for southern Africa insyd, wey dey run southeastward give {{convert|1,600|km|mi|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. E dey begin at an elevation of {{convert|1300|m|ft}} for de sandy highlands of Angola insyd. Farther south, e dey form part of de border between Angola den Namibia, den dey then flow into Botswana. De Okavango no get an outlet to de sea. Instead, e dey discharge into de Okavango Delta anaa Okavango Alluvial Fan, for an endorheic basin insyd for de Kalahari Desert insyd. De '''Cuito River''' be major tributary. == Flow == De Cubango den Cuito Rivers be de principal tributaries of de Okavango Delta, den dey affect ein health.<ref name="mendelsohn" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goyder |first1=David J. |last2=Barker |first2=Nigel |last3=Bester |first3=Stoffel P. |last4=Frisby |first4=Arnold |last5=Janks |first5=Matt |last6=Gonçalves |first6=Francisco M.P. |display-authors=2 |date=27 November 2018 |title=The Cuito catchment of the Okavango system: a vascular plant checklist for the Angolan headwaters |journal=PhytoKeys |publisher=Pensoft Publishers |issue=113 |pages=1–31 |bibcode=2018PhytK.113....1G |doi=10.3897/phytokeys.113.30439 |hdl=2263/71882 |issn=1314-2003 |pmc=6279898 |pmid=30524187 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> For Angola insyd, seasonal controlled burns of de vegetation dey clog de upper reaches of de Cuito den reduce water flow downstream as de accumulated water instead dey [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|flow into]] de sand.<ref name="into">{{cite web |last1=Society |first1=National Geographic |author-link=National Geographic |title=Okavango Wilderness Project |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/okavango/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108114019/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/okavango/ |archive-date=8 November 2020 |website=www.nationalgeographic.org |publisher=[[Into the Okavango]] |language=en}}</ref> Before e dey enter Botswana, de river dey drop 4 m (13 ft) for a series of rapids insyd wey dem know am as Popa Falls, wey dey visible wen de river dey low, as during de dry season.<ref>Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd, "Popa Falls | Okavango River | Botswana" webpage: [http://www.travel.za.net/africa_popa_falls.html TravelZA-PopaFalls]</ref> For de rainy season insyd, an outflow to de Boteti River for turn insyd seasonally dey discharge to de Makgadikgadi Pans, wey dey feature an expansive area of rainy-season wetland wey tens of thousands of flamingos congregate each summer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andy Burnham, Pete Evans (Layout), The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |title=Makgadikgadi |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&mode=&order=0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030065111/https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&mode=&order=0 |archive-date=2023-10-30 |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=The Megalithic Portal |language=en}}</ref> Part of de river ein flow dey fill Lake Ngami. == Flood == [[File:Popafälle (2018).jpg|thumb|Popa Falls (2018)]]Every wet season, Angola dey receive three times more rainfall dan Botswana, wey dey discharge a higher dan usual flow into de Okavango, wey dey turn swathes of outlying desert into a huge wetland. Although de summer rains dey fall for Angola insyd for January insyd, dem take a whole month to travel de first 1,000&#x20;km of de Okavango River, den then dem take a further four months to filter thru de plants den numerous channels of de final 250&#x20;km of de delta. As a result, de flood dey at ein biggest sometime between June den August, during Botswana ein dry winter months. De delta then dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of wildlife. At ein widest point for a big flood year insyd, de seasonal swamp dey stretch to 150&#x20;km across from east to west; one of de factors dat dey lead to de ever-changing nature of de delta be de flatness of de area. If one be say to take a cross section of de delta at ein widest point, one go find say de height variation from den mean ova dat 150&#x20;km dey less dan 2 m, wey dey mean say a minor sand deposition fi cause major changes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango Delta – Part 2 {{!}} |url=http://blog.africabespoke.com:80/okavango-delta-part-2/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20180621102937/http://blog.africabespoke.com:80/okavango-delta-part-2/ |archive-date=2018-06-21 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=blog.africabespoke.com |language=en-US}}</ref> For very wet years insyd, a part of de river ein flow fi extend along de Magweggana River (actually a northeastern distributary of de Okavango Delta) den enter de Zambezi River, wey e bypass de Kalahari. == Sediment transport == De river dey carry annually 28,000 tonnes of suspended sediment den a similar amount of bedload to de terminal swamps.<ref name="hani">{{cite journal |last1=Hanibal Lemma |first1=and colleagues |date=2019 |title=Bedload transport measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=577 |bibcode=2019JHyd..57723968L |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968 |s2cid=199099061 |article-number=123968}}</ref> Most of de particulate sediment wey de river carry be fine sand, plus sam silt den mud, thanks to de geological makeup of de Okavango River catchment wey dey largely underlain by Kalahari sand. Der dey low concentration of dissolved solids for de river water insyd - around 40&#x20;mg/L, make up mostly of silica, calcium den magnesium bicarbonates - but dem dissolved solids dey form de largest component of sediment wey dem carry into de delta sekof de annual water volume dey so large.<ref name="SafGeo">{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T S |date=October 2013 |title=The okavango delta and its place in the geomorphological evolution of Southern Africa |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=1–54 |bibcode=2013SAJG..116....1M |doi=10.2113/gssajg.116.1.1}}</ref> == History == During colder periods for Earth ein history insyd, a part of de Kalahari be a massive lake, wey dem know am as Lake Makgadikgadi. For this time insyd, de Okavango go fi be one of ein largest tributaries. [[File:Cuito and Okavango (2018).jpg|thumb|Confluence of Cuito (from top) den Okavango (wey dey flow from left to right) (2018)<br />{{Coord|18|01|40|S| 020|47|31|E|display=inline|dim:10000}}]] == Water conflict == Both Namibia den Botswana dey experience drought, den as a result, dem express concerns about possible conflict ova use of de river ein water. Namibia build a water canal, wey e measure about 300&#x20;km long, den dem propose a project to build a 250&#x20;km pipeline to divert water from de river into Namibia to help relieve de drought.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Basedau |first=Matthias |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWrEcl2ydzEC&pg=PA294 |title=Resource Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=GIGA-Hamburg |isbn=978-3-928049-91-7 |pages=294 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Varis |first1=Olli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3ilzosWx4wC&pg=PA96 |title=Management of Transboundary Rivers and Lakes |last2=Tortajada |first2=Cecilia |last3=Biswas |first3=Asit K. |date=2008-03-15 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-74928-8 |pages=96 |language=en}}</ref> Botswana, howeva, dey use de Okavango Delta give both tourism income den a water source. De Department of Water Affairs for Botswana insyd submit dat dem lose 97% of de water for de river insyd thru evaporation, so de country no fi afford to lose any extra water. Namibia, for turn insyd, argue say e go only divert half of one percent of de river ein flow, den say dem entitle am to any water dat dey flow thru ein territory. To deal plus such issues, for September 1994 insyd, Angola, Namibia, den Botswana sign a multilateral agreement to form de Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission, to provide advice to de three countries about de best ways to share de Okavango River ein resources.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> === Oil exploration === ReconAfrica, a petroleum exploration company wey dem headquarter am for [[Canada]] insyd, obtain exploration licenses give more dan 13,600 square miles of land for de former Kavango Region of Namibia insyd den for Botswana insyd. For January 2021 insyd, ReconAfrica announce de start of drilling operations for de first exploration well top. Environmental activists express concern say dem no properly vet ReconAfrica ein plans give ein test wells thru Namibia ein environmental review process, howeva ReconAfrica den both de governments of Namibia den Botswana stated say de company ein activities follow due process den dat no fracking go occur.<ref>{{cite web |title=ReconAfrica Environmental, Social, and Governance |url=https://reconafrica.com/our-sustainable-approach/environmental-social-governance/ |access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Press release - Clarity on explorative activities by Reconnaissance Energy Botswana|url=https://twitter.com/bwgovernment/status/1359497088128733191|website=twitter.com|access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Factual Response to article titled: "Oil Drillers Threaten Okavango Ecosystem" |url=http://www.mme.gov.na/news/73/No-Fracking-Activities-will-be-conducted-In-the-Okavango-Delta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518042410/http://www.mme.gov.na/news/73/No-Fracking-Activities-will-be-conducted-In-the-Okavango-Delta |archive-date=18 May 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=mme.gov.na}}</ref> ReconAfrica ein drilling area dey for de Kavango West insyd region wey dey contain a multicountry conservation park, six locally managed wildlife reserves, den one UNESCO World Heritage site, howeva de drilling license no dey include any of these protected areas.<ref>[https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/news/reconafrica-start-drilling-first-well-kavango-basin-namibia/ ReconAfrica starts drilling on first well in Kavango Basin, Namibia]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210219215106/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/oil-drilling-fracking-planned-okavango-wilderness Oil drilling, possible fracking planned for Okavango region—elephants' last stronghold]</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://www.okacom.org/ OKACOM Homepage] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Angola]] [[Category:Rivers of Namibia]] [[Category:Rivers of Botswana]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Kalahari Desert]] [[Category:Angola–Namibia border]] [[Category:Water conflicts]] [[Category:Border rivers]] 394i1ekwkf2veva26fasko4zospowvb 0 27069 99317 99283 2026-05-31T14:13:04Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Epupa Falls 3.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Epupa Falls]] De '''Cunene''' (Portuguese spelling) anaa '''Kunene''' (common Namibian spelling)<ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Cunene "Cunene"]. ''[[:en:The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language|The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'' (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved May 30, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190530134220/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Cunene "Cunene"] (US) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182735/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cunene "Cunene"]. ''[[:en:Lexico|Lexico]] UK English Dictionary''. [[:en:Oxford_University_Press|Oxford University Press]]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182735/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cunene the original] on 2020-03-22.</ref><ref>[[mwod:Cunene|"Cunene"]]. ''[[:en:Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary]]''. Merriam-Webster. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871 1032680871]. Retrieved May 30, 2019.</ref> be a river for Southern Africa insyd. E dey flow from deAngola highlands southwards to de border plus [[Namibia]]. E then dey flow for a westerly direction insyd along de border until e dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. == Geography == One of de few perennial rivers for de region insyd, de Cunene dey about {{convert|1,050|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, plus a drainage basin {{convert|106,560|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} for area insyd. Ein mean annual discharge be 174 m3/s (6,100 cu ft/s) to 222 m3/s (7,800 cu ft/s) at ein mouth. De Epupa Falls dey lie for de river top. Olushandja Dam dey dam a tributary of de river, de Etaka, den dey help to provide de Ruacana Power Station plus water. De main stream dey rise for 12° 30′ S. insyd den about 160 miles for a direct line from de sea insyd at Benguella, dey run generally from north to south thru four degrees of latitude, but finally dey flow west to de sea thru a break for de outer highlands insyd.<ref name=":0">One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the [[:en:Public_domain|public domain]]: [[:en:Hugh_Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]], ed. (1911). "[[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Kunene|Kunene]]". ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 946–947.</ref> Between de mouths of ein two tributaries, de Cunene dey traverse a swampy plain, wey e inundate during high water, den dey contain several small lakes at oda times of de year. From dis swampy region divergent branches dey run S.E. Dem be mainly intermittent, but de Kwamatuo, wey dey leave de main stream for about 15° 8′ E., 17° 15′ S. insyd, dey flow into a large marsh anaa lake dem bell Etosha, wey dey occupy a depression for de inner table-land insyd about 3400 ft. above sea-level. From de S.E. end of de Etosha lake streams issue for de direction of de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango]], wey for times of great flood insyd, dem dey contribute sam water.<ref name=":0" /> For leaving de swampy region top, de Cunene dey turn decidedly to de west, den dey descend to de coast plain by a number of cataracts, wey de chief (for 17° 25′ S., 14° 20′ E. insyd) has a fall of 330 ft. De river dey becam smaller for volume insyd as e dey pass thru an almost desert region plus little anaa no vegetation. De stream sometimes dey shallow den fordable, at odas confine to a narrow rocky channel. Near de sea de Cunene dey traverse a region of sand-hills, wey dem completely block ein mouth at low water. De river dey enter de Atlantic for 17° 18′ S., 11° 40′ E. insyd. Der dey indications dat a former branch of de river once enter a bay to de south.<ref name=":0" /> == Dam controversies == De Namibian government propose for de late 1990s insyd to build de Epupa Dam, a controversial hydroelectric dam for de Cunene top. For 2012 insyd de, Governments of Namibia den Angola announce plans to jointly build de Orokawe dam for de Baynes Mountains insyd. According to de indigenous Himba who go fi be most affected by de construction of de dam, de dam go threaten de local ecosystem den therefore de economic basis of de Himba. During February 2012, traditional Himba chiefs issue a declaration to de [[African Union]] den to de United Nations Human Rights Council of de [[United Nations]], wey dem title "Declaration of de most affected Ovahimba, Ovatwa, Ovatjimba den Ovazemba against de Orokawe Dam for de Baynes Mountains insyd," wey dey outline de fierce objections against de dam from de traditional Himba chiefs den communities dat reside near de Kunene River.<ref name="Galdu">{{Cite web |title=Indigenous Himba Appeal to UN to Fight Namibian Dam |url=http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=5638&giella1=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017232022/http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=5638&giella1=eng |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=galdu.org}}</ref><ref name="newsodrome">{{Cite web |title=Namibian Minority Groups Demand Their Rights |url=http://newsodrome.com/native_american_news/namibian-minority-groups-demand-their-rights-29917361 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017135555/http://newsodrome.com/native_american_news/namibian-minority-groups-demand-their-rights-29917361 |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=newsodrome.com}}</ref><ref name="ep1061">{{Cite web |title=Declaration of the most affected Ovahimba, Ovatwa, Ovatjimba and Ovazemba against the Orokawe Dam in the Baynes Mountains |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=1061 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}</ref> For September 2012 insyd, de United Nations special rapporteur for de Rights of Indigenous Peoples top visit de Himba, den hear demma concerns. For November 23, 2012 top, hundreds of Himba den Zemba from Omuhonga den Epupa region protest for Okanguati insyd against Namibia ein plans to construct a dam for de Kunene River insyd for de Baynes Mountains insyd, against increasing mining operations for demma traditional land top den human rights violations against dem.<ref name="Rebecca Sommer">{{Cite web |title=Namibia: Indigenous semi-nomadic Himba and Zemba march in protest against dam, mining and human rights violations |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2910=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310002526/http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2910=eng |archive-date=March 10, 2013 |access-date=November 24, 2012 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}</ref> For March 25, 2013 top, ova a thousand Himba den Zemba pippoe march for Opuwo insyd<ref name="Earth Peoples">{{Cite web |title=German GIZ directly engaged with dispossessing indigenous peoples of their lands and territories in Namibia |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=4151 |access-date=March 30, 2013 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}</ref> to protest once more against Namibia ein plans to build de Orokawe dam for de Cunene River insyd without dey consult plus de indigenous pippoe dat no consent to de construction plans.<ref name="The Namibian">{{Cite web |title=Himba, Zemba reiterate 'no' to Baynes dam |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2013/march/article/himba-zemba-reiterate-no-to-baynes-dam/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329005913/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2013/march/article/himba-zemba-reiterate-no-to-baynes-dam |archive-date=March 29, 2013 |access-date=March 26, 2013 |publisher=Catherine Sasman for The Namibian}}</ref> == Attraction == Tourists frequent campsites anaa lodges at Epupa, wey dey offer water sports for de river top, wey dey include rafting den canoeing.<ref>{{cite web |title=KaokoHimba Safaris Namibia - Kaokoland, Epupa Falls Campsite, Himba People, Tours - Epupa Falls |url=http://www.kaoko-namibia.com/epupa_falls.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422001005/http://www.kaoko-namibia.com/epupa_falls.html |archive-date=April 22, 2013 |access-date=March 23, 2013}}</ref> Ancient baobab trees dey grow alongside de gorge, den der be an attractive den well-kept viewpoint high above de village den falls. == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{cite book |author=C. Michael Hogan |title=Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment |year=2012 |editor1=P. Saundry |location=Washington DC. |section=Kunene River |editor2=C. Cleveland |section-url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Kunene_River?topic=78166}} * {{cite journal |author1=F. C. de Moor |author2=H. M. Barber-James |author3=A. D. Harrison |author4=C. R. Lugo-Ortiz |year=2000 |title=The macroinvertebrates of the Cunene River from the Ruacana Falls to the river mouth and assessment of the conservation status of the river |journal=African Journal of Aquatic Science |volume=25 |issue=1}} * {{cite book |last=Nakayama |first=Mikiyasu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ittv1oAJ37sC |title=International Waters in Southern Africa |publisher=[[United Nations University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=92-808-1077-4}} Google eBook. == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071121034417/http://www.pgoimages.com/gallery.php?gall=g_namibia_serracafema Images near Kunene River] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121034417/http://www.pgoimages.com/gallery.php?gall=g_namibia_serracafema|date=2007-11-21}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813015647/http://www.waterandnature.org/en/resources/publications/thematic-collection/facts-figures/watersheds-world Map of the Cunene River basin at Water Resources eAtlas] ikn202ysza8913sao6wigx0jq777lay 99318 99317 2026-05-31T14:16:22Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Epupa Falls 3.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Epupa Falls]] De '''Cunene''' (Portuguese spelling) anaa '''Kunene''' (common Namibian spelling)<ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Cunene "Cunene"]. ''[[:en:The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language|The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'' (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved May 30, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190530134220/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Cunene "Cunene"] (US) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182735/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cunene "Cunene"]. ''[[:en:Lexico|Lexico]] UK English Dictionary''. [[:en:Oxford_University_Press|Oxford University Press]]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182735/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cunene the original] on 2020-03-22.</ref><ref>[[mwod:Cunene|"Cunene"]]. ''[[:en:Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary]]''. Merriam-Webster. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871 1032680871]. Retrieved May 30, 2019.</ref> be a river for Southern Africa insyd. E dey flow from deAngola highlands southwards to de border plus [[Namibia]]. E then dey flow for a westerly direction insyd along de border until e dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. == Geography == One of de few perennial rivers for de region insyd, de Cunene dey about {{convert|1,050|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, plus a drainage basin {{convert|106,560|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} for area insyd. Ein mean annual discharge be 174 m3/s (6,100 cu ft/s) to 222 m3/s (7,800 cu ft/s) at ein mouth. De Epupa Falls dey lie for de river top. Olushandja Dam dey dam a tributary of de river, de Etaka, den dey help to provide de Ruacana Power Station plus water. De main stream dey rise for 12° 30′ S. insyd den about 160 miles for a direct line from de sea insyd at Benguella, dey run generally from north to south thru four degrees of latitude, but finally dey flow west to de sea thru a break for de outer highlands insyd.<ref name=":0">One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the [[:en:Public_domain|public domain]]: [[:en:Hugh_Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]], ed. (1911). "[[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Kunene|Kunene]]". ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 946–947.</ref> Between de mouths of ein two tributaries, de Cunene dey traverse a swampy plain, wey e inundate during high water, den dey contain several small lakes at oda times of de year. From dis swampy region divergent branches dey run S.E. Dem be mainly intermittent, but de Kwamatuo, wey dey leave de main stream for about 15° 8′ E., 17° 15′ S. insyd, dey flow into a large marsh anaa lake dem bell Etosha, wey dey occupy a depression for de inner table-land insyd about 3400 ft. above sea-level. From de S.E. end of de Etosha lake streams issue for de direction of de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango]], wey for times of great flood insyd, dem dey contribute sam water.<ref name=":0" /> For leaving de swampy region top, de Cunene dey turn decidedly to de west, den dey descend to de coast plain by a number of cataracts, wey de chief (for 17° 25′ S., 14° 20′ E. insyd) has a fall of 330 ft. De river dey becam smaller for volume insyd as e dey pass thru an almost desert region plus little anaa no vegetation. De stream sometimes dey shallow den fordable, at odas confine to a narrow rocky channel. Near de sea de Cunene dey traverse a region of sand-hills, wey dem completely block ein mouth at low water. De river dey enter de Atlantic for 17° 18′ S., 11° 40′ E. insyd. Der dey indications dat a former branch of de river once enter a bay to de south.<ref name=":0" /> == Dam controversies == De Namibian government propose for de late 1990s insyd to build de Epupa Dam, a controversial hydroelectric dam for de Cunene top. For 2012 insyd de, Governments of Namibia den Angola announce plans to jointly build de Orokawe dam for de Baynes Mountains insyd. According to de indigenous Himba who go fi be most affected by de construction of de dam, de dam go threaten de local ecosystem den therefore de economic basis of de Himba. During February 2012, traditional Himba chiefs issue a declaration to de [[African Union]] den to de United Nations Human Rights Council of de [[United Nations]], wey dem title "Declaration of de most affected Ovahimba, Ovatwa, Ovatjimba den Ovazemba against de Orokawe Dam for de Baynes Mountains insyd," wey dey outline de fierce objections against de dam from de traditional Himba chiefs den communities dat reside near de Kunene River.<ref name="Galdu">{{Cite web |title=Indigenous Himba Appeal to UN to Fight Namibian Dam |url=http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=5638&giella1=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017232022/http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=5638&giella1=eng |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=galdu.org}}</ref><ref name="newsodrome">{{Cite web |title=Namibian Minority Groups Demand Their Rights |url=http://newsodrome.com/native_american_news/namibian-minority-groups-demand-their-rights-29917361 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017135555/http://newsodrome.com/native_american_news/namibian-minority-groups-demand-their-rights-29917361 |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=newsodrome.com}}</ref><ref name="ep1061">{{Cite web |title=Declaration of the most affected Ovahimba, Ovatwa, Ovatjimba and Ovazemba against the Orokawe Dam in the Baynes Mountains |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=1061 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}</ref> For September 2012 insyd, de United Nations special rapporteur for de Rights of Indigenous Peoples top visit de Himba, den hear demma concerns. For November 23, 2012 top, hundreds of Himba den Zemba from Omuhonga den Epupa region protest for Okanguati insyd against Namibia ein plans to construct a dam for de Kunene River insyd for de Baynes Mountains insyd, against increasing mining operations for demma traditional land top den human rights violations against dem.<ref name="Rebecca Sommer">{{Cite web |title=Namibia: Indigenous semi-nomadic Himba and Zemba march in protest against dam, mining and human rights violations |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2910=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310002526/http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2910=eng |archive-date=March 10, 2013 |access-date=November 24, 2012 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}</ref> For March 25, 2013 top, ova a thousand Himba den Zemba pippoe march for Opuwo insyd<ref name="Earth Peoples">{{Cite web |title=German GIZ directly engaged with dispossessing indigenous peoples of their lands and territories in Namibia |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=4151 |access-date=March 30, 2013 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}</ref> to protest once more against Namibia ein plans to build de Orokawe dam for de Cunene River insyd without dey consult plus de indigenous pippoe dat no consent to de construction plans.<ref name="The Namibian">{{Cite web |title=Himba, Zemba reiterate 'no' to Baynes dam |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2013/march/article/himba-zemba-reiterate-no-to-baynes-dam/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329005913/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2013/march/article/himba-zemba-reiterate-no-to-baynes-dam |archive-date=March 29, 2013 |access-date=March 26, 2013 |publisher=Catherine Sasman for The Namibian}}</ref> == Attraction == Tourists frequent campsites anaa lodges at Epupa, wey dey offer water sports for de river top, wey dey include rafting den canoeing.<ref>{{cite web |title=KaokoHimba Safaris Namibia - Kaokoland, Epupa Falls Campsite, Himba People, Tours - Epupa Falls |url=http://www.kaoko-namibia.com/epupa_falls.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422001005/http://www.kaoko-namibia.com/epupa_falls.html |archive-date=April 22, 2013 |access-date=March 23, 2013}}</ref> Ancient baobab trees dey grow alongside de gorge, den der be an attractive den well-kept viewpoint high above de village den falls. == References == <references /> === Sources === * {{cite book |author=C. Michael Hogan |title=Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment |year=2012 |editor1=P. Saundry |location=Washington DC. |section=Kunene River |editor2=C. Cleveland |section-url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Kunene_River?topic=78166}} * {{cite journal |author1=F. C. de Moor |author2=H. M. Barber-James |author3=A. D. Harrison |author4=C. R. Lugo-Ortiz |year=2000 |title=The macroinvertebrates of the Cunene River from the Ruacana Falls to the river mouth and assessment of the conservation status of the river |journal=African Journal of Aquatic Science |volume=25 |issue=1}} * {{cite book |last=Nakayama |first=Mikiyasu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ittv1oAJ37sC |title=International Waters in Southern Africa |publisher=[[United Nations University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=92-808-1077-4}} Google eBook. == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://www.pgoimages.com/gallery.php?gall=g_namibia_serracafema Images near Kunene River] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121034417/http://www.pgoimages.com/gallery.php?gall=g_namibia_serracafema |date=2007-11-21 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813015647/http://www.waterandnature.org/en/resources/publications/thematic-collection/facts-figures/watersheds-world Map of the Cunene River basin at Water Resources eAtlas] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Angola]] [[Category:Rivers of Namibia]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Huambo Province]] [[Category:Geography of Kunene Region]] [[Category:Angola–Namibia border]] [[Category:African drainage basins of de Atlantic Ocean]] [[Category:Border rivers]] 2x0ubjkbkelrsfb7yym4stbrp8a6myv 0 27070 99323 99134 2026-05-31T14:31:51Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Jubba River''' anaa '''Juba River''' (Somali: ''Webiga Jubba'', Italian: ''fiume Giuba'') be a river for southern Somalia insyd wey dey flow thru de region of Jubaland. E dey begin at de border plus [[Ethiopia]], wey de Dawa den Ganale Dorya rivers dey meet, den dey flow directly south to de Somali Sea, wey e empty at de ''Goobweyn'' juncture. De Jubba basin dey cover an area of {{Convert|749000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.hrpub.org/download/201309/nrc.2013.010203.pdf Managing Shared Basins in the Horn of Africa – Ethiopian Projects on the Juba and Shabelle Rivers and Downstream Effects in Somalia].</ref> De Somali regional state of Jubaland, wey dem formerly bell am ''Trans-Juba'', dem name am after de river.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oltre Giuba (Trans-Juba), Italian Colony (1924-1926) |url=https://www.dcstamps.com/oltre-giuba-italian-colony/ |access-date=28 May 2026 |publisher=Dead Country Stamps and Banknotes |quote=Oltre Giuba (Trans-Juba) was a short lived Italian colony in the south-western part of what is now Somalia. The territory was located on the far side of the Juba River from the existing borders of Italian Somaliland, hence the name 'Trans Juba' or Oltre Giuba in Italian.}}</ref> == History == === Ajuran Empire === De Jubba River get a rich history of a once-booming sophisticated civilization den trade network wey de powerful Somalis conducted am dat hold sway ova de Jubba River. During de Middle Ages Jubba River dey under de Ajuran Empire of de Horn of Africa wey utilize de Jubba River give ein plantations den be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd. A hydraulic empire dat rise for de 13th century AD insyd, Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de Jubba River den Shebelle. Thru hydraulic engineering, e sanso construct many of de limestone [[:en:Water_well|wells]] den cisterns of de state dat be still operative den for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to used for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.<ref name="His 40">{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}</ref> Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be one of de few hydraulic empire for Africa insyd. Dem construct large wells make out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by taking demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruins den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.<ref>[[:en:Jubba_River#CITEREFCassanelli1982|Cassanelli (1982)]], p. 149.</ref> Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de Jubba den Shebelle valleys insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches wey dem locally know am as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den Jubba River into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams dey in support for dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed'' wey be de terms dem use. De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de State. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from Jubba den Shebelle valleys bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den wey dey come from Arabia, Persia, India, Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].<ref>''Journal of African History'' pg. 50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver.</ref> ==== Modern Period ==== Ova two centuries pass until German explorer Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken ascend for de lower reaches of de river top for de small steamship Welf for 1863 insyd. He wreck de steamship for de rapids insyd above Bardhere, wey local Somalis attack party, wey e end for de deaths of de Baron insyd den three odas for ein party insyd. De first European to explore widely den complete de course of de river be de Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego wey Commander F. G. Dundas British Navy attend am. Bottego den ein expedition sail {{convert|400|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip}} of de river for 1891 insyd. During ein exploration Bottego change de name of de main affluent of Jubba—de Ganale river—for Ganale Doria insyd after de famous Italian naturalist Giacomo Doria.<ref>1892; ''Il Giuba esplorato'', 1895.</ref><ref>F. G. Dundas, "Expedition up the Jub River through Somali-Land, East Africa", ''Geographical Journal'', 1 (March 1893), pp. 209–222.</ref> == Overview == [[File:Bardere.bridge.jpg|thumb|Bridge ova de Jubba river for Bardhere insyd.]]De Jubba basin region primarily be savanna, den be, ecologically speaking, de richest part of de country sekof ein fertile farmland. Native wildlife dey include giraffes, cheetahs, lions, leopards, hyenas, buffalos, hippopotamus, crocodiles, oryx, gazelles, camels, ostriches, jackals, den Somali wild asses. De Jubba River dey give ein name to de Somali administrative regions of Upper Juba (Gedo, Bay, Bakool), Middle Juba den Lower Juba, as well as to de larger historical region of Jubaland. Major cities wey de Jubba River dey pass by dey include Dolow, Luuq, Burdhubo, Beled'hawo, Bardhere, Buale, den Goobweyn near Kismaayo. == Make you sanso see == * [[Shebelle River]] == References == <references /> === Works cited === * {{cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlhyAAAAMAAJ |title=The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3}} == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101110220920/http://multimedia.wri.org/watersheds_2003/af10.html Map of de Jubba River basin at Water Resources eAtlas] dg967irt1j3w1c5gq4gg55w9inz9en1 99324 99323 2026-05-31T14:32:46Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Jubba River''' anaa '''Juba River''' (Somali: ''Webiga Jubba'', Italian: ''fiume Giuba'') be a river for southern Somalia insyd wey dey flow thru de region of Jubaland. E dey begin at de border plus [[Ethiopia]], wey de Dawa den Ganale Dorya rivers dey meet, den dey flow directly south to de Somali Sea, wey e empty at de ''Goobweyn'' juncture. De Jubba basin dey cover an area of {{Convert|749000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.hrpub.org/download/201309/nrc.2013.010203.pdf Managing Shared Basins in the Horn of Africa – Ethiopian Projects on the Juba and Shabelle Rivers and Downstream Effects in Somalia].</ref> De Somali regional state of Jubaland, wey dem formerly bell am ''Trans-Juba'', dem name am after de river.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oltre Giuba (Trans-Juba), Italian Colony (1924-1926) |url=https://www.dcstamps.com/oltre-giuba-italian-colony/ |access-date=28 May 2026 |publisher=Dead Country Stamps and Banknotes |quote=Oltre Giuba (Trans-Juba) was a short lived Italian colony in the south-western part of what is now Somalia. The territory was located on the far side of the Juba River from the existing borders of Italian Somaliland, hence the name 'Trans Juba' or Oltre Giuba in Italian.}}</ref> == History == === Ajuran Empire === De Jubba River get a rich history of a once-booming sophisticated civilization den trade network wey de powerful Somalis conducted am dat hold sway ova de Jubba River. During de Middle Ages Jubba River dey under de Ajuran Empire of de Horn of Africa wey utilize de Jubba River give ein plantations den be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd. A hydraulic empire dat rise for de 13th century AD insyd, Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de Jubba River den Shebelle. Thru hydraulic engineering, e sanso construct many of de limestone [[:en:Water_well|wells]] den cisterns of de state dat be still operative den for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to used for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.<ref name="His 40">{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}</ref> Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be one of de few hydraulic empire for Africa insyd. Dem construct large wells make out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by taking demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruins den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.<ref>[[:en:Jubba_River#CITEREFCassanelli1982|Cassanelli (1982)]], p. 149.</ref> Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de Jubba den Shebelle valleys insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches wey dem locally know am as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den Jubba River into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams dey in support for dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed'' wey be de terms dem use. De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de State. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from Jubba den Shebelle valleys bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den wey dey come from Arabia, Persia, India, Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].<ref>''Journal of African History'' pg. 50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver.</ref> ==== Modern Period ==== Ova two centuries pass until German explorer Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken ascend for de lower reaches of de river top for de small steamship Welf for 1863 insyd. He wreck de steamship for de rapids insyd above Bardhere, wey local Somalis attack party, wey e end for de deaths of de Baron insyd den three odas for ein party insyd. De first European to explore widely den complete de course of de river be de Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego wey Commander F. G. Dundas British Navy attend am. Bottego den ein expedition sail {{convert|400|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip}} of de river for 1891 insyd. During ein exploration Bottego change de name of de main affluent of Jubba—de Ganale river—for Ganale Doria insyd after de famous Italian naturalist Giacomo Doria.<ref>1892; ''Il Giuba esplorato'', 1895.</ref><ref>F. G. Dundas, "Expedition up the Jub River through Somali-Land, East Africa", ''Geographical Journal'', 1 (March 1893), pp. 209–222.</ref> == Overview == [[File:Bardere.bridge.jpg|thumb|Bridge ova de Jubba river for Bardhere insyd.]]De Jubba basin region primarily be savanna, den be, ecologically speaking, de richest part of de country sekof ein fertile farmland. Native wildlife dey include giraffes, cheetahs, lions, leopards, hyenas, buffalos, hippopotamus, crocodiles, oryx, gazelles, camels, ostriches, jackals, den Somali wild asses. De Jubba River dey give ein name to de Somali administrative regions of Upper Juba (Gedo, Bay, Bakool), Middle Juba den Lower Juba, as well as to de larger historical region of Jubaland. Major cities wey de Jubba River dey pass by dey include Dolow, Luuq, Burdhubo, Beled'hawo, Bardhere, Buale, den Goobweyn near Kismaayo. == Make you sanso see == * [[Shebelle River]] == References == <references /> === Works cited === * {{cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlhyAAAAMAAJ |title=The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3}} == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101110220920/http://multimedia.wri.org/watersheds_2003/af10.html Map of the Jubba River basin at Water Resources eAtlas] [[Category:Jubba River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Somalia]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Ethiopia–Somalia border]] [[Category:Jubaland]] [[Category:Border rivers]] id07nj1i7fdfdjenmunmtkjmna6j8gy 0 27076 99329 99221 2026-05-31T14:46:02Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shebelle River''' (Oromo: Laga Shabeellee, Somali: ''Webi Shabeelle'', Amharic: እደላ, Italian: ''fiume Uebi Scebeli'') wey dem sanso historically know am as de '''Nile of Mogadishu''',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Philips |first=John Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq5wGaae5qkC |title=Writing African History |date=2006 |publisher=University Rochester Press |isbn=978-1-58046-256-3 |pages=221 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=137 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻAlī |first=Abū al-Fidāʾ Ismāʻīl ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bgWAAAAQAAJ&q=abulfeda+geographie+reinaud |title=Géographie d'Aboulféda |date=1848 |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |pages=232–233 |language=fr}}</ref> dey begin for de highlands of [[Ethiopia]] insyd, den then dey flow southeast into [[Somalia]] towards Mogadishu. Near Mogadishu, e dey turn sharply southwest, wey e dey follow de coast. Below Mogadishu, de river dey becam seasonal. During most years, de river dey dry up near de mouth of de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba River]], while for seasons of heavy rainfall insyd, de river actually dey reach de Jubba den thus de ocean. During periods of heavy rainfall for Ethiopia insyd, de Shebelle River den de Jubba River dey merge, den demma combined waters ultimately dey reach de Indian Ocean. Howeva, for drier years insyd, de Shebelle River dey diminish den transform into a series of wetlands den sandy plains to de northeast of de confluence plus de Jubba. De Shebelle River get a total length of 1,820 km. De area wey dey surround de Shebeli River, Arsi Oromo pippoe inhabit am, Somali pippoe for de Somali Region of Ethiopia insyd den Somali pippoe for Somalia insyd. For de lower basin of de river insyd, agriculture largely replace de traditional nomadic herding lifestyle, den de cultivation of bananas along de southern stretches of de Shebeli den [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] rivers dey contribute significantly to Somalia ein export industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shebeli River {{!}} Kenya, Somalia & Ethiopia {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Shebeli-River |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> == Tributaries == De Shebelle geta number of tributaries, both seasonal den permanent rivers. Dem dey include: * Erer River * Galetti River * Wabe River De Fafen only dey reach de Shebelle for times of heavy rainfall insyd; ein stream usually dey end before e reach de main river. == History == === Ajuran Empire === During de middle ages, de Shebelle river dey under de control of de Ajuran Empire den dem largely utilize am give ein plantations. Coming into prominence during de 13th century AD, de Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shebelle Rivers. Thru hydraulic engineering, dem sanso construct many of de limestone wells den cisterns of de state wey many of dem still for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to use am for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.<ref name="His 40">{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}</ref> Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd during demma reign. Dem construct large wells wey dem make am out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali den Oromo nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by dey take demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long-distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, dem continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruin den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |title=The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3 |series=Ethnohistory |location=Philadelphia |pages=149}}</ref> Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shabelle rivers insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches dem know am locally as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den [[Jubba River|Jubba rivers]] into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams support dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus dem use de terms ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed''. De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de state. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shebelle rivers bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den coming from Arabia, Persia, [[India]], Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].<ref>Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver</ref> ==== Modern period ==== According to Thomas Wakefield, wey visit de region, dem sanso know de river as de "Adari River".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wakefield |first1=Thomas |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/1884Expedition.pdf |title=Somal and Galla Land; Embodying Information Collected by the Rev. Thomas Wakefield |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=261}}</ref> De Arsi Oromo cultivate de source of de Shebelle River. A sacred enclosure dey surround am wey demn wood am plus juniper trees, wey as of 1951 dey under de protection of a [[Muslims|Muslim]] member of de Arsi.<ref>J. Spencer Trimingham, ''Islam in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 260.</ref> For 1989 insyd, plus de help of Soviet engineers, dem build Melka Wakena dam for de upper reaches of de Shebelle River top for de Bale Mountains insyd. Producing 153 megawatts, dis dam be Ethiopia ein largest hydroelectric generator.<ref>Lulseged Ayalew, [http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm "Something that We Need to Know about Our River’s Hydropower Potential"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223124/http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm|date=2006-05-22}}. Accessed 20 April 2006</ref> Frequent destructive flash floods mark recent history of de Shabelle. Dem say de Shabelle flood every oda year prior to de 1960s; dat decade get only two devastating floods, de ''hidigsayley'' for 1965 insyd, den de ''soogudud'' for 1966 insyd. For de 1970s insyd, de most devastating flood be de ''kabahay'' of 1978.<ref name="Ayele-35">Ayele Gebre-Mariam, [http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%20Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf ''The Critical Issue of Land Ownership''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303173436/http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%2520Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf|date=2020-03-03}}, Working Paper No. 2 (Bern: NCCR North-South, 2005), pp. 35f (accessed 19 January 2009)</ref> For 1996 insyd, floods devastate three woredas for Ethiopia insyd. For 23 October 1999 top, de river unexpectedly flood for de middle of de night insyd, wey e destroy homes den crops for 14 out of de 117 kebeles insyd for Kelafo woreda insyd, as well as 29 of de 46 kebeles for neighboring Mustahil woreda insyd. According to de local authorities, 34 people den an estimated 750 livestock die, plus 70,000 wey de floods affect'em den for need of assistance insyd.<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/eue_web/som1199.htm "Drought and Floods: Stress Livelihoods and Food Security in the Ethiopian Somali Region"] UNDP Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia report, dated November 1999 (accessed 28 December 2008)</ref> Two more recent floods be de ''dawdle'' for 2003 insyd, wen e wash away about 100 livestock den 119 pippoe, den de flood of April 2005, wen floodwaters surround about 30,000 persons den de floods wash away 2,000 camels den 4,000 shoats; sam locals dey consider dis de worst flood for 40 years insyd.<ref name="Ayele-35" /><gallery> File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|Satellite pictures wey dey show de Shebelle valley for southern Somalia den Ethiopia insyd before den during floods for 2005 insyd File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|Astronaut photograph wey dey show irrigation along de river </gallery> == Notes == <references /> == External links == * [https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-integrated-phase-classification-maps-sep-2008 ReliefWeb: Somalia Integrated Phase Classification Maps (as of Sep 2008)] * [http://www.zgf.de/download/166/BMNP_GMP_2007.pdf Bale Mountains National Park] * [[iarchive:watershedsofworl0000unse/page/n71/mode/2up|Map of de Shebelle River basin at Water Resources Institute]] * [http://www.somwat.com/hydropolitics.html Hydropolitics for de Horn of Africa insyd] rlud85tngam5bte7b73dxgs9njgh5m0 99330 99329 2026-05-31T14:49:23Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shebelle River''' (Oromo: Laga Shabeellee, Somali: ''Webi Shabeelle'', Amharic: እደላ, Italian: ''fiume Uebi Scebeli'') wey dem sanso historically know am as de '''Nile of Mogadishu''',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Philips |first=John Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq5wGaae5qkC |title=Writing African History |date=2006 |publisher=University Rochester Press |isbn=978-1-58046-256-3 |pages=221 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=137 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻAlī |first=Abū al-Fidāʾ Ismāʻīl ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bgWAAAAQAAJ&q=abulfeda+geographie+reinaud |title=Géographie d'Aboulféda |date=1848 |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |pages=232–233 |language=fr}}</ref> dey begin for de highlands of [[Ethiopia]] insyd, den then dey flow southeast into [[Somalia]] towards Mogadishu. Near Mogadishu, e dey turn sharply southwest, wey e dey follow de coast. Below Mogadishu, de river dey becam seasonal. During most years, de river dey dry up near de mouth of de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba River]], while for seasons of heavy rainfall insyd, de river actually dey reach de Jubba den thus de ocean. During periods of heavy rainfall for Ethiopia insyd, de Shebelle River den de Jubba River dey merge, den demma combined waters ultimately dey reach de Indian Ocean. Howeva, for drier years insyd, de Shebelle River dey diminish den transform into a series of wetlands den sandy plains to de northeast of de confluence plus de Jubba. De Shebelle River get a total length of 1,820 km. De area wey dey surround de Shebeli River, Arsi Oromo pippoe inhabit am, Somali pippoe for de Somali Region of Ethiopia insyd den Somali pippoe for Somalia insyd. For de lower basin of de river insyd, agriculture largely replace de traditional nomadic herding lifestyle, den de cultivation of bananas along de southern stretches of de Shebeli den [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] rivers dey contribute significantly to Somalia ein export industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shebeli River {{!}} Kenya, Somalia & Ethiopia {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Shebeli-River |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> == Tributaries == De Shebelle geta number of tributaries, both seasonal den permanent rivers. Dem dey include: * Erer River * Galetti River * Wabe River De Fafen only dey reach de Shebelle for times of heavy rainfall insyd; ein stream usually dey end before e reach de main river. == History == === Ajuran Empire === During de middle ages, de Shebelle river dey under de control of de Ajuran Empire den dem largely utilize am give ein plantations. Coming into prominence during de 13th century AD, de Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shebelle Rivers. Thru hydraulic engineering, dem sanso construct many of de limestone wells den cisterns of de state wey many of dem still for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to use am for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.<ref name="His 40">{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}</ref> Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd during demma reign. Dem construct large wells wey dem make am out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali den Oromo nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by dey take demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long-distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, dem continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruin den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |title=The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3 |series=Ethnohistory |location=Philadelphia |pages=149}}</ref> Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shabelle rivers insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches dem know am locally as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den [[Jubba River|Jubba rivers]] into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams support dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus dem use de terms ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed''. De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de state. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shebelle rivers bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den coming from Arabia, Persia, [[India]], Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].<ref>Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver</ref> ==== Modern period ==== According to Thomas Wakefield, wey visit de region, dem sanso know de river as de "Adari River".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wakefield |first1=Thomas |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/1884Expedition.pdf |title=Somal and Galla Land; Embodying Information Collected by the Rev. Thomas Wakefield |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=261}}</ref> De Arsi Oromo cultivate de source of de Shebelle River. A sacred enclosure dey surround am wey demn wood am plus juniper trees, wey as of 1951 dey under de protection of a [[Muslims|Muslim]] member of de Arsi.<ref>J. Spencer Trimingham, ''Islam in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 260.</ref> For 1989 insyd, plus de help of Soviet engineers, dem build Melka Wakena dam for de upper reaches of de Shebelle River top for de Bale Mountains insyd. Producing 153 megawatts, dis dam be Ethiopia ein largest hydroelectric generator.<ref>Lulseged Ayalew, [http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm "Something that We Need to Know about Our River’s Hydropower Potential"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223124/http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm|date=2006-05-22}}. Accessed 20 April 2006</ref> Frequent destructive flash floods mark recent history of de Shabelle. Dem say de Shabelle flood every oda year prior to de 1960s; dat decade get only two devastating floods, de ''hidigsayley'' for 1965 insyd, den de ''soogudud'' for 1966 insyd. For de 1970s insyd, de most devastating flood be de ''kabahay'' of 1978.<ref name="Ayele-35">Ayele Gebre-Mariam, [http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%20Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf ''The Critical Issue of Land Ownership''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303173436/http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%2520Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf|date=2020-03-03}}, Working Paper No. 2 (Bern: NCCR North-South, 2005), pp. 35f (accessed 19 January 2009)</ref> For 1996 insyd, floods devastate three woredas for Ethiopia insyd. For 23 October 1999 top, de river unexpectedly flood for de middle of de night insyd, wey e destroy homes den crops for 14 out of de 117 kebeles insyd for Kelafo woreda insyd, as well as 29 of de 46 kebeles for neighboring Mustahil woreda insyd. According to de local authorities, 34 people den an estimated 750 livestock die, plus 70,000 wey de floods affect'em den for need of assistance insyd.<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/eue_web/som1199.htm "Drought and Floods: Stress Livelihoods and Food Security in the Ethiopian Somali Region"] UNDP Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia report, dated November 1999 (accessed 28 December 2008)</ref> Two more recent floods be de ''dawdle'' for 2003 insyd, wen e wash away about 100 livestock den 119 pippoe, den de flood of April 2005, wen floodwaters surround about 30,000 persons den de floods wash away 2,000 camels den 4,000 shoats; sam locals dey consider dis de worst flood for 40 years insyd.<ref name="Ayele-35" /><gallery> File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|Satellite pictures wey dey show de Shebelle valley for southern Somalia den Ethiopia insyd before den during floods for 2005 insyd File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|Astronaut photograph wey dey show irrigation along de river </gallery> == Notes == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-integrated-phase-classification-maps-sep-2008 ReliefWeb: Somalia Integrated Phase Classification Maps (as of Sep 2008)] *[http://www.zgf.de/download/166/BMNP_GMP_2007.pdf Bale Mountains National Park] *[[iarchive:watershedsofworl0000unse/page/n71/mode/2up|Map of the Shebelle River basin at Water Resources Institute]] *[http://www.somwat.com/hydropolitics.html Hydropolitics in the Horn of Africa] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Shebelle River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Somalia]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Bale Mountains]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:Jubba River]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia]] 0p8k5wm84r1djrmebykf09njd5lg8lx 99375 99330 2026-06-01T01:39:54Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 99375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Shebelle River''' (Oromo: Laga Shabeellee, Somali: ''Webi Shabeelle'', Amharic: እደላ, Italian: ''fiume Uebi Scebeli'') wey dem sanso historically know am as de '''Nile of Mogadishu''',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Philips |first=John Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq5wGaae5qkC |title=Writing African History |date=2006 |publisher=University Rochester Press |isbn=978-1-58046-256-3 |pages=221 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=137 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻAlī |first=Abū al-Fidāʾ Ismāʻīl ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bgWAAAAQAAJ&q=abulfeda+geographie+reinaud |title=Géographie d'Aboulféda |date=1848 |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |pages=232–233 |language=fr}}</ref> dey begin for de highlands of [[Ethiopia]] insyd, den then dey flow southeast into [[Somalia]] towards Mogadishu. Near Mogadishu, e dey turn sharply southwest, wey e dey follow de coast. Below Mogadishu, de river dey becam seasonal. During most years, de river dey dry up near de mouth of de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba River]], while for seasons of heavy rainfall insyd, de river actually dey reach de Jubba den thus de ocean. During periods of heavy rainfall for Ethiopia insyd, de Shebelle River den de Jubba River dey merge, den demma combined waters ultimately dey reach de Indian Ocean. Howeva, for drier years insyd, de Shebelle River dey diminish den transform into a series of wetlands den sandy plains to de northeast of de confluence plus de Jubba. De Shebelle River get a total length of 1,820 km. De area wey dey surround de Shebeli River, Arsi Oromo pippoe inhabit am, Somali pippoe for de Somali Region of Ethiopia insyd den Somali pippoe for Somalia insyd. For de lower basin of de river insyd, agriculture largely replace de traditional nomadic herding lifestyle, den de cultivation of bananas along de southern stretches of de Shebeli den [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] rivers dey contribute significantly to Somalia ein export industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shebeli River {{!}} Kenya, Somalia & Ethiopia {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Shebeli-River |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> == Tributaries == De Shebelle geta number of tributaries, both seasonal den permanent rivers. Dem dey include: * Erer River * Galetti River * Wabe River De Fafen only dey reach de Shebelle for times of heavy rainfall insyd; ein stream usually dey end before e reach de main river. == History == === Ajuran Empire === During de middle ages, de Shebelle river dey under de control of de Ajuran Empire den dem largely utilize am give ein plantations. Coming into prominence during de 13th century AD, de Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shebelle Rivers. Thru hydraulic engineering, dem sanso construct many of de limestone wells den cisterns of de state wey many of dem still for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to use am for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.<ref name="His 40">{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}</ref> Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd during demma reign. Dem construct large wells wey dem make am out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali den Oromo nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by dey take demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long-distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, dem continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruin den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |title=The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3 |series=Ethnohistory |location=Philadelphia |pages=149}}</ref> Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shabelle rivers insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches dem know am locally as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den [[Jubba River|Jubba rivers]] into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams support dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus dem use de terms ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed''. De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de state. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from [[:en:Jubba_River|Jubba]] den Shebelle rivers bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den coming from Arabia, Persia, [[India]], Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].<ref>Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver</ref> ==== Modern period ==== According to Thomas Wakefield, wey visit de region, dem sanso know de river as de "Adari River".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wakefield |first1=Thomas |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/1884Expedition.pdf |title=Somal and Galla Land; Embodying Information Collected by the Rev. Thomas Wakefield |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=261}}</ref> De Arsi Oromo cultivate de source of de Shebelle River. A sacred enclosure dey surround am wey demn wood am plus juniper trees, wey as of 1951 dey under de protection of a [[Muslims|Muslim]] member of de Arsi.<ref>J. Spencer Trimingham, ''Islam in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 260.</ref> For 1989 insyd, plus de help of Soviet engineers, dem build Melka Wakena dam for de upper reaches of de Shebelle River top for de Bale Mountains insyd. Producing 153 megawatts, dis dam be Ethiopia ein largest hydroelectric generator.<ref>Lulseged Ayalew, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223124/http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm "Something that We Need to Know about Our River’s Hydropower Potential"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223124/http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm|date=2006-05-22}}. Accessed 20 April 2006</ref> Frequent destructive flash floods mark recent history of de Shabelle. Dem say de Shabelle flood every oda year prior to de 1960s; dat decade get only two devastating floods, de ''hidigsayley'' for 1965 insyd, den de ''soogudud'' for 1966 insyd. For de 1970s insyd, de most devastating flood be de ''kabahay'' of 1978.<ref name="Ayele-35">Ayele Gebre-Mariam, [http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%20Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf ''The Critical Issue of Land Ownership''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303173436/http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%2520Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf|date=2020-03-03}}, Working Paper No. 2 (Bern: NCCR North-South, 2005), pp. 35f (accessed 19 January 2009)</ref> For 1996 insyd, floods devastate three woredas for Ethiopia insyd. For 23 October 1999 top, de river unexpectedly flood for de middle of de night insyd, wey e destroy homes den crops for 14 out of de 117 kebeles insyd for Kelafo woreda insyd, as well as 29 of de 46 kebeles for neighboring Mustahil woreda insyd. According to de local authorities, 34 people den an estimated 750 livestock die, plus 70,000 wey de floods affect'em den for need of assistance insyd.<ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/eue_web/som1199.htm "Drought and Floods: Stress Livelihoods and Food Security in the Ethiopian Somali Region"] UNDP Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia report, dated November 1999 (accessed 28 December 2008)</ref> Two more recent floods be de ''dawdle'' for 2003 insyd, wen e wash away about 100 livestock den 119 pippoe, den de flood of April 2005, wen floodwaters surround about 30,000 persons den de floods wash away 2,000 camels den 4,000 shoats; sam locals dey consider dis de worst flood for 40 years insyd.<ref name="Ayele-35" /><gallery> File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|Satellite pictures wey dey show de Shebelle valley for southern Somalia den Ethiopia insyd before den during floods for 2005 insyd File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|Astronaut photograph wey dey show irrigation along de river </gallery> == Notes == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-integrated-phase-classification-maps-sep-2008 ReliefWeb: Somalia Integrated Phase Classification Maps (as of Sep 2008)] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719115946/http://www.zgf.de/download/166/BMNP_GMP_2007.pdf Bale Mountains National Park] *[[iarchive:watershedsofworl0000unse/page/n71/mode/2up|Map of the Shebelle River basin at Water Resources Institute]] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060626084833/http://www.somwat.com/hydropolitics.html Hydropolitics in the Horn of Africa] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Shebelle River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Somalia]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Bale Mountains]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:Jubba River]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia]] 0v38cnbs4txfbygq1j3adpfzqg0fpw4 0 27083 99335 99279 2026-05-31T15:19:23Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). == References == <references /> == External links == m6atf859hyjorl3377xzo5v0ydop086 99336 99335 2026-05-31T15:21:46Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] qyilq9uwleqfnurf23qiigp29zbi3ff 99376 99336 2026-06-01T01:53:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 6unkrqvqffpyql30rny0efymcfholrh 99377 99376 2026-06-01T01:54:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] pvjfk4fzfes3wamjp53bjc5nk4yzsv8 99378 99377 2026-06-01T01:55:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 9uil40chu092w8zalt1zs9eake22q2z 99379 99378 2026-06-01T01:56:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 01zdn1vcyqrkr6r3nqrdmwudvdzy6qm 99380 99379 2026-06-01T01:56:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] r91of3hk518rs25m1pf9xornerlxjub 99381 99380 2026-06-01T01:58:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 73j254swvltj51e2f5pbz15gbxkrr8i 99382 99381 2026-06-01T01:58:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 10myys2r45qokg7inl6s89wvuh2rahy 99383 99382 2026-06-01T01:59:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] c271robx5ayht2myflnfve7w3xtbq9d 99384 99383 2026-06-01T02:00:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority. Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 0u82ry8tueti82mzj5ypj1cpavleiwb 99385 99384 2026-06-01T03:33:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd. De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] iks8tbh5fstfawyccaea70md4srivk4 99386 99385 2026-06-01T03:35:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin. Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ib6lqs8ojssta9u6toqfnhxnsbi6vrm 99387 99386 2026-06-01T03:36:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography". For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] j5k1h0tug9b6e5x1zk2n73pmdhp4om0 99388 99387 2026-06-01T03:37:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99388 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users. Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 84k2mja8cazk1cm2364gcsxfs38x7v0 99389 99388 2026-06-01T03:37:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges. Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 9mul9oae1shyuour517nwstu3i9ptex 99390 99389 2026-06-01T03:38:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] a9fkutoo58gbaphbhkvwmzahfewvqty 99391 99390 2026-06-01T03:39:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] bh0fe28g5q8gm983nf21paip09nq2aw 99392 99391 2026-06-01T03:45:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99392 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] c274aqvcy6llqp7yb1m31eebzfb4o8e 99393 99392 2026-06-01T03:46:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99393 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] qloxxjhk9wzzjwdzdw3ke577l9g2nk2 99394 99393 2026-06-01T03:47:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] iammqxzt7s2055m80nj3cj31m7fwui7 99395 99394 2026-06-01T03:49:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99395 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] rjb29f1ux2pe80komzbczs14um4w167 99396 99395 2026-06-01T03:50:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l., wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] sm8q3e7y8rqfduyesfx71yxt84vtcv2 99397 99396 2026-06-01T03:51:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99397 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] gnk7ghy14pyogwmfd4og00ekcs3tliq 99398 99397 2026-06-01T03:55:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99398 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ickxmia8bc1gecdjfrcq6izl70aiye6 99399 99398 2026-06-01T03:58:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99399 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 1n6cgmc4szgcmp0iqcz34bpwilyx8b6 99400 99399 2026-06-01T03:59:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99400 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes. Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 56p8f1axfeb1w6ehmohic4knvppu9o5 99401 99400 2026-06-01T08:18:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99401 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] l2clmn4jr079ckl457xo273gz3jr36q 99402 99401 2026-06-01T08:18:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] i4wkpzo9s1v6jc3neuzqsj6k41ehhka 99403 99402 2026-06-01T08:20:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99403 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 22qev7njic7qilwqevbpg58b9l0c35h 99404 99403 2026-06-01T08:22:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99404 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ni727fsyglgsfutfm15nimd89c95ho4 99405 99404 2026-06-01T08:55:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99405 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] tgqmmqc5zbjhus4wdsonm9y7ke1g8jc 99406 99405 2026-06-01T08:55:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99406 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] i5hbbbh934qtntarzueamwb1h2g9e6z 99407 99406 2026-06-01T08:56:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top. Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] e4crq4mypvs8g7tc6xiaztg59frcchm 99408 99407 2026-06-01T08:56:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99408 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] d41ujac9p5fmfz8sf3bxhtykh6hfxen 99409 99408 2026-06-01T08:56:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99409 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] cm9tvd523bk7m5fxmqjm45jaxc1tqp1 99410 99409 2026-06-01T08:58:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99410 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 7ra7pzmsrvd4r7roxq03l4daidt9bat 99411 99410 2026-06-01T09:01:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99411 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 8kremvjqw0ru0smqq3ajm7k4ne1kbtb 99412 99411 2026-06-01T09:01:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] sdfyudcn00h07ft6ncdti8d8hzycgte 99413 99412 2026-06-01T09:02:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99413 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] sc421jutc2354r4ydro9ttzgemn9imp 99414 99413 2026-06-01T09:02:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99414 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd. De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] qtpp1a2d4eikwulg7tylwadl37e5zfe 99415 99414 2026-06-01T09:02:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd. De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact. All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 1o9pi2ukbj41kppbhk9sloysuayb9ae 99416 99415 2026-06-01T09:03:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99416 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd. De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact. All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] t8gz15o0d4wdh0e9f245lrvtzt9m8xb 99417 99416 2026-06-01T09:04:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99417 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact. All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ex5yvzfvleg17k5y2m9n6shzyhbtchv 99418 99417 2026-06-01T09:04:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99418 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] kn78k3ilmnf15wxcu4e4rpgj56f4ql5 99419 99418 2026-06-01T09:05:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99419 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] l6uvertmvtg00fhybq6v2tsbv5u9zpu 99420 99419 2026-06-01T09:09:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99420 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] lyongwosvxfv4ofvfn8veqyf0t6ctj8 99421 99420 2026-06-01T09:10:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99421 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] lffosyz51zmwohmxloizy7xcocvhve1 99422 99421 2026-06-01T09:10:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99422 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd. Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] h48ziula1h8x6d75m27ngqsovg6j830 99423 99422 2026-06-01T09:10:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd. Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 750dhwf03z9o9924hewe4jf3k7w3q23 99424 99423 2026-06-01T09:11:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99424 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] go5zb93yqwsoob3i5k1jfyu1a8qs4np 99425 99424 2026-06-01T09:12:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99425 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] r19xhddh9evgot2387luui9u7dyl7oi 99426 99425 2026-06-01T09:14:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] tpnixxoy9dcokwli97x74j8b1gjv2hn 99427 99426 2026-06-01T09:15:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99427 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd. Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories). == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] k6rh6uj5kvgq31n4d3xkiye79xavnd1 99428 99427 2026-06-01T09:15:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99428 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories). == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 428c1dppksy666psckuj3qxchf9vgvf 99429 99428 2026-06-01T09:16:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99429 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 3rpixo20vnyp734xv958mmny4hlcdf9 99430 99429 2026-06-01T09:18:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99430 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] l6sdx5tneubyh0kwd99f0wtnr3xlv5q 99431 99430 2026-06-01T09:18:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] nlkwblzclxyergh03celmpumwyo4f2v 99433 99431 2026-06-01T09:44:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99433 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] eurcblob7rfq9defusmljx82756j6rm 99434 99433 2026-06-01T09:45:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99434 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] d7wl34v50deoott8qjc361mbjz6dsd5 99435 99434 2026-06-01T09:45:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99435 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ngfxbk86voyw76vd50sztjxzogs8onj 99436 99435 2026-06-01T09:46:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 0jhjbgv8yanfd1asnkdb39fcgkrchm6 99437 99436 2026-06-01T09:47:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99437 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 1lsbigdb0945n9qfxzz6kucobzuh2bv 99438 99437 2026-06-01T09:47:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] nxgh46m0f7u656sdxlfcp37ld7qulhi 99439 99438 2026-06-01T09:48:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] bgfaqtlli6p32zl6piqj29ypsm93jv6 99440 99439 2026-06-01T09:48:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 4n2mj8iv691tpgq8tvexefi3al73447 99441 99440 2026-06-01T09:49:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99441 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] lz1gznf560v44ykms2zn1f4i3uatbra 99442 99441 2026-06-01T09:49:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99442 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] q9vqb1tj8u93q4vnzqwdsiis0t9o91q 99443 99442 2026-06-01T09:50:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99443 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] b4rn6mgcx9vwltize8mdq20q9w8ntrv 99444 99443 2026-06-01T09:51:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99444 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 6l21r9ffxk7h0n0lkacqtu3b5o6fkef 99445 99444 2026-06-01T09:52:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99445 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 64p8x1pcz3jfzdv5fsya9cdbekjthdm 99446 99445 2026-06-01T09:52:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99446 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] qhj4s8bpl1x8m3nwynd262tvgvyy1ex 99447 99446 2026-06-01T09:53:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99447 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] jhie5qc5w2tpdmr1qaj56var3s1eztd 99448 99447 2026-06-01T09:53:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99448 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] b3qr0py78xqocrr6h5u7gkjnrsg9qla 99449 99448 2026-06-01T09:54:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99449 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 3xwmtff6uezkq84mcb1ha3lsglcsjz5 99450 99449 2026-06-01T09:54:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99450 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] eimepjysek04rtntey8esb5br8ff0y0 99451 99450 2026-06-01T09:55:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 00kessxlppreaery9w1lg7zgubf1g1u 99452 99451 2026-06-01T09:55:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99452 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 2lc70mso6rcu0ue6z3rzvb2n9g2e9h2 99453 99452 2026-06-01T09:56:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] l3b6xc7kurlpwou22ucwqrq289gikly 99454 99453 2026-06-01T09:56:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99454 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation. Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 2fw1s6ylsefxwqrnr99wy2j3j2eurel 99455 99454 2026-06-01T09:57:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99455 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces. Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] d1q8egxp5be85ihony3x45mhtgxztqk 99457 99455 2026-06-01T10:13:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99457 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables. [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] jnewfws5rbi44phmxqjwoj3b563s2r3 99458 99457 2026-06-01T10:14:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd. Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] crujsmnhbdxqeatuqgj4ave1508lln2 99459 99458 2026-06-01T10:16:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur. Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] asrr2f5mvy4g61pw8663517qox0iwvl 99460 99459 2026-06-01T10:16:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99460 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] dtnxxsfmynrc0eo0wdihq2x5b28bxa9 99461 99460 2026-06-01T10:17:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>{{cite iucn|author=Moehlman, P.D.|author2=Kebede, F.|author3=Yohannes, H.|year=2015|title=''Equus africanus''|volume=2015|article-number=e.T7949A45170994|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 3r61nbkrbq76h8oxt3lu9ahhcnvhg6j 99462 99461 2026-06-01T10:25:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99462 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] k4v1na5wtks98esr94gm6plk9x72t8e 99463 99462 2026-06-01T10:33:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99463 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] oyuou24ef5de8n28mbkd06hxhbhab36 99464 99463 2026-06-01T10:38:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] tbknvdpi7p8k50fv0ewjwq2eiuafiwv 99465 99464 2026-06-01T10:38:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 3i032k4r8y0i44o5411u9q3tgku2ftj 99466 99465 2026-06-01T10:39:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99466 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] o9m79vjylxe8eoiivjic1zr9fw07d95 99467 99466 2026-06-01T10:44:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99467 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] g9xv591jsq4p5m1itkpy0bi1t766tox 99468 99467 2026-06-01T10:44:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99468 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 79yqx94gfejwl74qqp5580ol6hr2qts 99469 99468 2026-06-01T10:44:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99469 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ecvw4qrpc95zenezz5oh1tmuxenv9a8 99470 99469 2026-06-01T10:45:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99470 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation. De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 5vf625dyt7lqcpiji50k2egkdfp7t2o 99471 99470 2026-06-01T10:45:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99471 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] t17j01a5hjxf6ocmxrlxkcmkj5dk4ta 99472 99471 2026-06-01T10:50:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99472 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] lu9c3gk3o34sv9a5yj6o251rjw89t1c 99473 99472 2026-06-01T10:50:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99473 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health. [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] mrshbfg8umryfows8vdatw2dc2lphis 99474 99473 2026-06-01T10:52:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99474 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health. [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] aqui065jvsuogha9o9rxdd3nlpavrkp 99475 99474 2026-06-01T10:52:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99475 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health. [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] okv2mcsswjy2e6xl3nay4zdpnu5i0vv 99476 99475 2026-06-01T10:52:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99476 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] b7lpe7hjx2233hakt33ynwaaern15ru 99477 99476 2026-06-01T10:53:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99477 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] i69sabhrwy0py2h6fd51vnbe8p1i9ao 99478 99477 2026-06-01T10:56:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99478 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] bkw091stv8xgfb2o6u5e5uuu4gari3v 99479 99478 2026-06-01T11:02:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99479 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 225j5a7icdunybtq3nfxtf6aw5ufzkp 99480 99479 2026-06-01T11:03:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99480 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system. Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] sdpsnmfk73yl304wvvulyvi2lnaetnc 99481 99480 2026-06-01T11:03:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99481 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] j0eodh2o77eoy0vfowddnfgs6tfadqz 99482 99481 2026-06-01T11:12:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99482 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ag5eoukf3lo53p1iuzr2famboh76mei 99483 99482 2026-06-01T11:12:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 8ds5j980q08jfnn6xom3unpgpyod00y 99484 99483 2026-06-01T11:13:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99484 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 023dh7cprfsgu93wr3urnan1wf5ookv 99485 99484 2026-06-01T11:13:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99485 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] p1totgljvinxc22km00gm5xbky5cs40 99486 99485 2026-06-01T11:13:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99486 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd." == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] c3pcarebgah5tt3ku4lz0vxzte3jwdn 99487 99486 2026-06-01T11:14:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99487 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] t8l3d99j3q11jwywqsy0ssh6b8vbk9i 99488 99487 2026-06-01T11:22:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99488 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] kz6juctgw8xu9xtyfpr5mewxcwantl5 99489 99488 2026-06-01T11:23:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99489 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 8xrqi4nfvw20ep8122sr6x7gif33dho 99490 99489 2026-06-01T11:23:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99490 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] nla2hnbwponpp7cxesstv1ak4owf33k 99491 99490 2026-06-01T11:24:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] h5hmv234ez83umtc84d392933inszkr 99492 99491 2026-06-01T11:24:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99492 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am. Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] f7nfmexe7l1tbkqehvi7ttefzvfngcg 99493 99492 2026-06-01T11:25:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99493 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am. Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water. For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] k5u0ims9n28uq6jvxrdojk63qpept43 99494 99493 2026-06-01T11:26:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am. Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water. For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 2iwn4xnmdagop1afra4124e66ha5kh2 99495 99494 2026-06-01T11:27:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99495 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water. For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] fi6zjg6w0cehg6vdczf8zhie2wtrzaj 99496 99495 2026-06-01T11:27:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 70dcq1o16bi4sdr65t78aswdm30wei7 99497 99496 2026-06-01T11:28:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] fcstf7ekjucm442twcey1ee016banpp 99498 99497 2026-06-01T11:31:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 6cl5duyg57b88wvxbrv05vygt4kw8nk 99499 99498 2026-06-01T11:40:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] rm6azcsj71ri5tabkg0plolxew8qsq4 99500 99499 2026-06-01T11:41:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 1xfwygusv96lun0jht9q73mlyyzebmc 99501 99500 2026-06-01T11:41:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd. De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] cpox34ei0iyku4nc8f6fdalpbl7nk6s 99502 99501 2026-06-01T11:42:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd. De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]]. Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] bzwhbn6c999xvj8dox0sh7z63hn3026 99503 99502 2026-06-01T11:45:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]]. Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] aoy5f3jwhokkgrenjm6jfrpkpzcah4k 99504 99503 2026-06-01T11:45:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] k4k5t2p4k1snv1gjygsmd04v8dl6bw3 99505 99504 2026-06-01T11:46:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 2vbmld7yyeqc8yudjl8vxt5x0fgzh0v 99506 99505 2026-06-01T11:50:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99506 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] po3nrrnzgx1hlmtab9jgoqgq1w0shp3 99507 99506 2026-06-01T11:51:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] njdmcttptem2l4ug45oib9aybdu12ed 0 27084 99341 99282 2026-05-31T16:28:42Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Tanganyika''' (Kirundi: ''Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika''; Swahili: ''Ziwa Tanganyika'') be one African Great Lake.<ref name="r5" /> E be de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume, den e san be de second deepest lake for de world, after Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref name="r6" /><ref name="r7" /> E san be de world ein longest freshwater lake, den de sixth-largest lake by area.<ref name="r8"/> Four countries dey share de lake: [[Tanzania]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Burundi]] den [[Zambia]]. Tanzania get about 46% of de lake, while Democratic Republic of the Congo get about 40%. De lake drain through Lukuga River enter Congo River system, wey later enter [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Banana, Democratic Republic of de Congo.<ref name="r2"/> ==Geography== Lake Tanganyika dey insyd de Albertine Rift, wey be de western branch of de East African Rift. Mountain walls of de valley surround am. E be de largest rift lake for Africa and de second-largest freshwater lake by volume for de world. E be de deepest lake for Africa, den e hold de largest freshwater volume for de continent, about 16% of de world ein available fresh water.<ref name="r2"/><ref name="r9"/> De lake stretch about 676 km from north to south, and ein average width be about 50 km. E cover about 32,000 km², get shoreline of about 1,900 km, mean depth of about 572 m, den maximum depth of about 1,471 m for de northern basin. E hold estimated water volume of about 18,750 km³.<ref name="r2" /><ref name="r9" /> De lake ein catchment area be about 231,000 km². Two main rivers, plus plenty small rivers and streams, flow enter de lake. Because steep mountains surround de lake, plenty of de rivers and streams no dey long. De only major outflow be Lukuga River, wey empty into Congo River drainage. Rainfall and evaporation play bigger role for de lake ein water balance than rivers. At least 90% of de water wey enter de lake come from rain wey fall directly on de lake surface, and at least 90% of de water loss come from direct evaporation.<ref name="r10"/> De main river wey flow enter de lake be Ruzizi River. E form about 10,000 years ago, and e enter de northern side of de lake from Lake Kivu.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi River, wey be Tanzania ein second-largest river, enter de eastern side of Lake Tanganyika.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi be older than Lake Tanganyika, and before de lake form, e likely be headwater of de Lualaba River, de main headstream of Congo River.<ref name="r10"/> De lake get complex history for how water flow patterns dey change. De reason dey include ein high altitude, great depth, slow refill rate, and mountain location inside volcanic area wey climate changes affect. For de past, de lake rarely get outflow to de sea, so some scholars describe am as almost endorheic. De lake ein connection to sea depend on high water level wey allow water overflow through Lukuga River into Congo River.<ref name="r11" /> When de lake no dey overflow, sand bars and weed masses normally block de exit into Lukuga River, and de river then depend on ein own tributaries, especially Niemba River, to maintain flow.<ref name="r10"/> For some periods, de lake fit get different inflows and outflows. Scholars propose say water from higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi, den one exit route to de Nile fit exist for some time inside de lake ein history.<ref name="r12"/> [[File:View of Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Lake Taganyika ein eastern shore for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] Lake Tanganyika be ancient lake, one of only about twenty lakes wey dey more than one million years old. Ein three basins were separate lakes during periods wey water level drop very low. De central basin begin form about 9-12 million years ago, de northern basin about 7-8 million years ago, and de southern basin about 2-4 million years ago.<ref name="r13"/> ==Water characteristics== [[File:Clear lake Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Clear water lake of Lake Tanganyika for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] De lake ein water be alkaline. De pH be around 9 from 0 to 100 m depth.<ref name="r14" /> Below dat level, de pH be around 8.7, and e gradually fall to 8.3-8.5 for de deepest parts of Tanganyika.<ref name="r14" /> Electric conductivity follow similar pattern, from about 670 μS/cm for de upper part to about 690 μS/cm for de deepest part.<ref name="r14" /> Surface temperature normally range from about 24 °C for de southern part of de lake during early August to about 28-29 °C during late rainy season around March-April.<ref name="r15" /> For depths greater than 400 m, de temperature remain very stable around 23.1-23.4 °C.<ref name="r16" /> De lake water has gradually warmed since de 19th century, and dis warming has become faster since de 1950s because of global warming.<ref name="r17" /> De lake dey stratified, and seasonal mixing normally no pass depth of 150 m.<ref name="r15" /> Mixing happen mainly through wind-driven upwellings for de south, even though upwellings and downwellings also occur for some other parts of de lake.<ref name="r18" /> Sake of de stratification, de deep sections contain "fossil water".<ref name="r19" /> De deeper parts lack oxygen, so fish and other aerobic organisms mostly dey limited to de upper part of de lake. Dis oxygen limit normally dey around 100 m depth for de northern part and around 240-250 m for de southern part.<ref name="r20" /><ref name="r21" /> De deepest oxygen-free sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide and be almost lifeless,<ref name="r6" /> except bacteria.<ref name="r14" /><ref name="r22" /> ==Biology== ===Reptiles=== Lake Tanganyika and ein associated wetlands get Nile crocodiles, wey dey include de famous giant crocodile Gustave. De area also get Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, den pan hinged terrapins.<ref name="r23" /> Storm's water cobra, wey be threatened subspecies of banded water cobra, dey feed mainly on fish and only dey Lake Tanganyika, where e prefer rocky shores.<ref name="r23"/><ref name="r24"/> ===Cichlid fishes=== Lake Tanganyika get at least 250 endemic species of cichlids,<ref name="r28" /> den more undescribed species likely still dey.<ref name="r29"/> Almost all de lake ein cichlid species, about 98%, dey only there. Because of dis, de lake be important biological resource for studying speciation and evolution.<ref name="r30"/><ref name="r31"/> Cichlids of de African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent one of de most diverse examples of adaptive radiation among vertebrates.<ref name="r32"/> Some endemic species enter small part of de upper Lukuga River, wey be Lake Tanganyika ein outflow. Further spread into Congo River basin be limited by geography and water chemistry. Tanganyika lake environment be more stable than de rapids and fast-flowing sections of Congo River. De lake water be alkaline, get higher pH, and contain more calcium and minerals than Congo River acidic and sediment-rich waters. For some areas of Congo away from rapids, sediment and organic matter create blackwater with high tannin concentration from wood and leaves, and cichlids no thrive well there.<ref name="r10"/> Lake Tanganyika get fewer cichlid species than Lake Malawi anaa Lake Victoria, but ein cichlids be more morphologically and genetically diverse.<ref name="r32" /><ref name="r34" /> Dis link to de old age of Tanganyika, because de lake be much older than those lakes. Tanganyika get de largest number of endemic cichlid genera among African lakes.<ref name="r33"/><ref name="r35"/> All Tanganyika cichlids dey inside subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Out of de 10 tribes inside dis subfamily, half dey largely or completely restricted to de lake: Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini den Tropheini.<ref name="r36" /> Another three tribes, Haplochromini, Tilapiini den Tylochromini, also get species inside de lake. Some researchers propose say Tanganyika cichlids fit be split into as many as 12-16 tribes, including Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini den Trematocarini.<ref name="r32"/> Most Tanganyika cichlids live along de shoreline down to about 100 m depth, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m.<ref name="r37" /> ''Trematocara'' species have been found at more than 300 m depth, deeper than any known cichlid.<ref name="r38" /> Some deepwater genera, such as ''Bathybates'', ''Gnathochromis'', ''Hemibates'' den ''Xenochromis'', have been caught for places wey almost no oxygen dey, and how dem survive there still no dey clear.<ref name="r21"/> Tanganyika cichlids normally be benthic, meaning dem dey near de bottom, or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlid be truly pelagic and offshore, except some piscivorous ''Bathybates''. Two of dem, ''B. fasciatus'' den ''B. leo'', mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r37"/><ref name="r39"/> De cichlids get plenty feeding styles, including herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. Even species with specialized diets fit change and feed opportunistically on ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'' and ''Limnothrissa miodon'' when prey concentration rise high.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r40"/> Breeding behavior among de fishes fall into two main groups: substrate or sand spawners, often for caves or rock crevices, and mouthbrooders.<ref name="r41"/> Among de endemic species, two of de world ein smallest cichlids be ''Neolamprologus multifasciatus'' and ''N. similis''. Both be shell dwellers and grow only about 4-5 cm. One of de largest be giant cichlid, ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'', which fit reach 90 cm.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r42"/><ref name="r43"/><ref name="r44"/> Many Lake Tanganyika cichlids, including species from ''Altolamprologus'', ''Cyprichromis'', ''Eretmodus'', ''Julidochromis'', ''Lamprologus'', ''Neolamprologus'', ''Tropheus'' den ''Xenotilapia'', be popular aquarium fishes because of dem bright colours, patterns and interesting behaviour. Aquarium hobbyists also like to recreate Lake Tanganyika biotope, and many of de species dey bred successfully in captivity today.<ref name="r41"/><ref name="r45"/> ''Neolamprologus brichardi'' and ein close relative ''N. pulcher'' get complex social behaviours, and researchers have studied dem in detail.<ref name="r25"/><ref name="r26"/><ref name="r27"/> ====Cichlid tribes for Lake Tanganyika==== * '''Bathybatini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Bathybates ferox'' be benthic and piscivorous, but de genus also get pelagic species. Some researchers split de tribe into three, with Hemibatini and Trematocarini as other groups.<ref name="r37"/><ref name="r46"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Benthochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Benthochromis horii'' was scientifically described in 2008, but people often misidentify am as ''B. tricoti''.<ref name="r48"/> * '''Boulengerochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'' be one of de world ein largest cichlids and de only member of ein tribe.<ref name="r44"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Cyphotilapiini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' be one of two similar species inside de tribe.<ref name="r49"/> * '''Cyprichromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyprichromis microlepidotus'' and other members of dis tribe be open-water planktivores.<ref name="r50"/><ref name="r51"/> * '''Ectodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): Male ''Ophthalmotilapia nasuta'' be more colourful, get longer fins and longer nose than female.<ref name="r52"/> * '''Eretmodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Eretmodus cyanostictus'' live near de bottom for turbulent coastal surf zone, like other members of ein tribe.<ref name="r51"/><ref name="r53"/> * '''Haplochromini''': ''Astatotilapia burtoni'' be one of de few Tanganyika species inside dis tribe, unlike other African Great Lakes where plenty species belong to dis tribe.<ref name="r54"/><ref name="r55"/> * '''Lamprologini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Julidochromis marlieri'' dey popular for aquarium trade, where members of de genus dey known as "Julies".<ref name="r56"/> * '''Limnochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Gnathochromis permaxillaris'' be zooplanktivore with unusual protractile mouth.<ref name="r57"/> * '''Perissodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Perissodus microlepis'' be specialized scale-eating species.<ref name="r58"/> * '''Tilapiini''': ''Oreochromis tanganicae'' be one of de common coastal species wey dey local fish markets.<ref name="r59"/> * '''Tropheini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Tropheus moorii'', including de "red" Chimba morph, vary plenty, and de taxonomy of some morphs still dey debated.<ref name="r60"/><ref name="r61"/><ref name="r62"/> ===Oda fish=== Lake Tanganyika get more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish, and about 60% of dem be endemic.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r28"/><ref name="r64"/><ref name="r65"/> For de open waters of de pelagic zone, four non-cichlid species dominate. Two species of "Tanganyika sardine", ''Limnothrissa miodon'' den ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'', form de largest fish biomass for dat zone. Dem be important prey for forktail lates, ''Lates microlepis'', and sleek lates, ''L. stappersii''. Two other lates, ''L. angustifrons'' den ''L. mariae'', also dey de lake, but dem be mainly benthic hunters. All four lates be endemic to Tanganyika, and overfishing has made larger individuals rare today.<ref name="r39"/> One unusual fish group for de lake be endemic facultative brood-parasitic "cuckoo catfish", wey dey include ''Synodontis grandiops'' and ''S. multipunctatus''. Some similar species, such as ''S. lucipinnis'' and ''S. petricola'', are often confused with dem, and e no dey clear if dem get de same behaviour. De brood parasites often lay eggs at de same time as mouthbrooding cichlids. De cichlid pick de eggs into ein mouth as if dem be ein own. When de catfish eggs hatch, de young ones eat de cichlid eggs.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r41"/><ref name="r66"/><ref name="r67"/> Six catfish genera dey completely restricted to de lake basin: ''Bathybagrus'', ''Dinotopterus'', ''Lophiobagrus'', ''Phyllonemus'', ''Pseudotanganikallabes'' and ''Tanganikallabes''. Six species of ''Chrysichthys'' catfish are only found inside de Tanganyika basin, even though de genus itself no be endemic. Dem live for shallow and relatively deep waters. For de deep habitat, dem be main predators and scavengers.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r54"/><ref name="r68"/> De lake get unique evolutionary radiation of 15 ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, all except one endemic to de basin. Other African Great Lakes also get ''Synodontis'' catfish, endemic catfish genera and ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, but Tanganyika ein high diversity be unusual and likely link to de lake ein old age.<ref name="r64"/><ref name="r69"/> Some non-endemic fish for de lake be widespread African species, while others are shared only with Malagarasi and Congo River basins. Examples include Congo bichir (''Polypterus congicus''), goliath tigerfish (''Hydrocynus goliath''), ''Citharinus citharus'', six-banded distichodus (''Distichodus sexfasciatus'') and mbu puffer (''Tetraodon mbu'').<ref name="r54"/> De Tanganyika killifish, ''Lamprichthys tanganicanus'', be de only member of ein genus.<ref name="r63"/> ===Molluscs den crustaceans=== Lake Tanganyika get 83 freshwater snail species, of which 65 be endemic, and 11 bivalve species, of which 8 be endemic.<ref name="r70"/> Among de endemic bivalves, three genera get only one species each: ''Grandidieria burtoni'', ''Pseudospatha tanganyicensis'' den ''Brazzaea anceyi''.<ref name="r70"/> Many of de snails no be ordinary for freshwater species because dem get thick shells or strong shell sculpture, features common among marine snails. People call dem thalassoids, meaning "marine-like". All Tanganyika thalassoids be part of Prosobranchia and be endemic to de lake. At first, people believed say dem relate to similar marine snails, but researchers now know say dem no be related. Their shape likely come from de lake ein diverse habitats and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and ''Platythelphusa'' crabs.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r71"/><ref name="r72"/> Seventeen freshwater snail genera be endemic to de lake, including ''Hirthia'', ''Lavigeria'', ''Paramelania'', ''Reymondia'', ''Spekia'', ''Stanleya'', ''Tanganyicia'' and ''Tiphobia''.<ref name="r71"/> About 30 non-thalassoid snail species dey de lake, but only five of dem be endemic, including ''Ferrissia tanganyicensis'' and ''Neothauma tanganyicense''. ''Neothauma tanganyicense'' be de largest Tanganyika snail, and small shell-dwelling cichlids often use ein shell.<ref name="r71"/><ref name="r73"/> Crustaceans sanso be highly diverse for Tanganyika. De lake get more dan 200 species, den more dan half be endemic. Dem include 10 species of freshwater crabs, plus 9 ''Platythelphusa'' species den ''Potamonautes platynotus'', all endemic; at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp from ''Atyella'', ''Caridella'' den ''Limnocaridina''; one endemic palaemonid shrimp, ''Macrobrachium moorei''; about 100 ostracods, wey dey include chaw endemics; den several copepods.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r74"/><ref name="r75"/><ref name="r76"/><ref name="r77"/><ref name="r78"/><ref name="r79"/><ref name="r80"/> ''Limnocaridina iridinae'' live inside de mantle cavity of de unionid mussel ''Pleiodon spekei''. Dis make am one of only two known commensal freshwater shrimp species; de other be sponge-living ''Caridina spongicola'' from Lake Towuti for Indonesia.<ref name="r81"/><ref name="r82"/> Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika pass all others for crustacean den freshwater snail richness, both by total number of species den number of endemics. For example, de only other Rift Valley lakes plus endemic freshwater crabs be Lake Kivu den Lake Victoria, plus two species each.<ref name="r83"/><ref name="r84"/><ref name="r85"/> ===Oda invertebrates=== Knowledge about other invertebrate groups for Lake Tanganyika no dey complete. Still, researchers have described at least 20 species of leeches, wey dey include 12 endemics; 9 sponges, plus 7 endemic; 6 bryozoa, plus 2 endemic; 11 flatworms, plus 7 endemic; 20 nematodes, plus 7 endemic; 28 annelids, plus 17 endemic; den de small hydrozoan jellyfish ''Limnocnida tanganyicae''.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r86"/><ref name="r87"/> ==Fishing== Lake Tanganyika support major fishery. Depending on de source, de fishery provide 25-40% or about 60% of animal protein for people wey live inside de region.<ref name="r17"/><ref name="r88"/><ref name="r89"/> Fish from Lake Tanganyika dey exported across East Africa. Major commercial fishing begin for de mid-1950s. Together with global warming, fishing pressure has affected fish populations and caused sharp declines. In 2016, de total catch was estimated to reach up to 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="r16"/><ref name="r17"/><ref name="r89"/> ==History== Early ''Homo sapiens'' likely affected de Lake Tanganyika region during de Stone Age. De period from Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age dey described as age of advanced hunter-gatherers.<ref name="r90"/> Local people around de lake used many fishing methods. Most of de methods used lantern as lure because some fish dey attracted to light. Three common methods were Lusenga, lift net, and Chiromila. Lusenga be wide net wey one person use from canoe. Lift net involve dropping net deep below boat with two parallel canoes, then pulling am up together. Chiromila use three canoes: one canoe stay with lantern, another hold one end of de net, and de third canoe circle round to meet de net.<ref name="r91"/> De first known Westerners to find de lake were British explorers Richard Burton den John Speke insyd 1858. Dem located de lake when dem dey search for de source of de Nile River. Speke continue den later find Lake Victoria, de actual source. Later, [[David Livingstone]] pass by de lake. He record de name "Liemba" for de southern part, likely from Fipa language. "Tanganyika" wey mean "stars" in Luvale language.<ref name="r92"/><ref name="r93"/> During World War I, de lake became de scene of de Battle for Lake Tanganyika. With help from ''Graf Goetzen'', de Germans controll de lake at de early stage of de war. De ship carried cargo den people across de lake, den sanso serve as base for surprise attacks on Allied troops. Secof dis, Allied forces need to control de lake. Under Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, de British Royal Navy move two armed motor boats, HMS ''Mimi'' den HMS ''Toutou'', from England to de lake by rail, road den river to Albertville, now Kalemie, on de western shore of Lake Tanganyika. Insyd December 1915, de two boats attacked de Germans and captured de gunboat ''Kingani''. Another German vessel, ''Hedwig'', be sunk insyd February 1916, leaving ''Götzen'' as de only German vessel controlling de lake. To stop Allied forces from taking de ship, Zimmer scuttled am on 26 July 1916. Dem later raise de vessel insyd 1924 wey dem rename am MV ''Liemba''.<ref name="r94"/> ==References== <references> <ref name="r1">Yohannes, Okbazghi (2008). ''Water resources and inter-riparian relations in the Nile basin''. SUNY Press. p. 127.</ref> <ref name="r2">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika {{!}} Lake Tanganyika {{!}} World Lake Database - ILEC |url=https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3587 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=wldb.ilec.or.jp}}</ref> <ref name="r3">[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1671 "Tanganyika"]. ''Ramsar Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> <ref name="r4">Wells, John C. (2008). ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'' (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.</ref> <ref name="r5">Burton, Richard Francis (1965). Richards, Charles (ed.). ''Burton and Lake Tanganyika''. Dar Es Salaam: East African Literature Bureau. OCLC 180480726.</ref> <ref name="r6">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/lakes/lake-tanganyika/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=Zambia Tourism |language=en-US}}</ref> <ref name="r7">Lewis, R. (16 May 2010). [https://news.brown.edu/articles/2010/05/tanganyika "Brown Geologists Show Unprecedented Warming in Lake Tanganyika"]. Brown University. Retrieved 25 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r8">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/worlds-largest-lakes-2228655 "World's largest lakes | Description, Area, & Facts | Britannica"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 October 2025.</ref> <ref name="r9">[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dafr06.html "Datbase Summary: Lake Tanganyika"]. International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r10">Kullander, S.O.; Roberts, T.R. (2011). "Out of Lake Tanganyika: endemic lake fishes inhabit rapids of the Lukuga River". ''Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters''. 22 (4): 355-376.</ref> <ref name="r11">Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. US: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 366-367. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.</ref> <ref name="r12">Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-57033-6.</ref> <ref name="r13">Cohen; Soreghan; Scholz (1993). "Estimating the age of formation of lakes: An example from Lake Tanganyika, East African Rift system". ''Geology''. 21 (6): 511-514. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021&lt;0511:ETAOFO&gt;2.3.CO;2.</ref> <ref name="r14">De Wever; Muylaert; Van der Gucht; Pirlot; Cocquyt; Descy; Plisnier; Vyverman (2005). "Bacterial Community Composition in Lake Tanganyika: Vertical and Horizontal Heterogeneity". ''Applied and Environmental Microbiology''. 71 (9): 5029-5037. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5029-5037.2005.</ref> <ref name="r15">Edmond; Stallard; Craigh; Weiss; Coulter (1993). "Nutrient chemistry of the water column of Lake Tanganyika". ''Limnology and Oceanography''. 38 (4): 725-738. doi:10.4319/lo.1993.38.4.0725.</ref> <ref name="r16">O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Alin, Simone R.; Plisnier, Pierre-Denis; Cohen, Andrew S.; Mckee, Brent A. (2003). "Climate change decreases aquatic ecosystem productivity of Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Nature''. 424 (6950): 766-768. doi:10.1038/nature01833.</ref> <ref name="r17">Jensen, M.R. (8 August 2016). "Lake Tanganyika Fisheries Declining From Global Warming". University of Arizona. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r18">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). "Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution". ''Freshwater Forum''. 20 (1): 4-64.</ref> <ref name="r19">Hutter; Yongqi; Chubarenko (2011). ''Physics of Lakes, volume 1: Foundation of the Mathematical and Physical Background''. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-642-15178-1.</ref> <ref name="r20">Wright, J.J.; Page, L.M. (2006). "Taxonomic revision of Lake Tanganyikan Synodontis (Siluriformes: Mochokidae)". ''Florida Museum of Natural History Bulletin''. 46(4): 99-154.</ref> <ref name="r21">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (1987). ''Ecological Studies in Tropical Fish Communities''. ISBN 0-521-28064-8.</ref> <ref name="r22">Ryan, Emily; Todd, Jonathan A.; McGlue, Michael; Kimirei, Ismael; Soreghan, Michael (2017). "Variation in Taphonomic Character of Shell Beds in Lake Tanganyika, Africa: Paleoenvironmental and Stratigraphic Implications of Shell Beds in Lakes". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 304608. doi:10.1130/abs/2017am-304608.</ref> <ref name="r23">Spawls, Howell, Drewes, and Ashe (2002). ''A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa''. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-656470-1.</ref> <ref name="r24">O'Shea, Mark; Mcintyre, P.B. (2005). "Boulengerina annulata stormsi (Storm's water cobra). Attempted predation". ''Herpetological Review''. 36 (2): 189.</ref> <ref name="r25">Dierkes; Taborsky; Kohler (1999). "Reproductive parasitism of broodcare helpers in a cooperatively breeding fish". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 10 (5): 510-515. doi:10.1093/beheco/10.5.510.</ref> <ref name="r26">Balshine-Earn; Lotem (1998). "Individual recognition in a cooperatively breeding cichlid: Evidence from video playback experiments". ''Behaviour''. 135 (3): 369-386. doi:10.1163/156853998793066221.</ref> <ref name="r27">Werner; Balshine; Leach; Lotem (2003). "Helping opportunities and space segregation in cooperatively breeding cichlids". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 14 (6): 749-756. doi:10.1093/beheco/arg067.</ref> <ref name="r28">Kelly West (28 February 2001). "Results and Experiences of the UNDP/GEF Conservation Initiative (RAF/92/G32) in Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia". IW:LEARN.</ref> <ref name="r29">Craig Mortiff (24 December 2009). "Lake Tanganyika and its Diverse Cichlids". Cichlid Fish Forum.</ref> <ref name="r30">Takahashi, T.; Hori, M. (2012). "Genetic and Morphological Evidence Implies Existence of Two Sympatric Species in Cyathopharynx furcifer from Lake Tanganyika". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 980879. doi:10.1155/2012/980879.</ref> <ref name="r31">Kornfield, Ivy; Smith, Peter A. (2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics''. 31: 163-196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> <ref name="r32">Meyer, Britta; Matchiner, Michael; Salburger, Walter (2013). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r33">Turner, Seehausen; Knight, Allender; Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology''. 10 (3): 793-806. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x.</ref> <ref name="r34">Seehausen, O. (2015). "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations - inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification". ''New Phytologist''. 207 (2): 304-312. doi:10.1111/nph.13450.</ref> <ref name="r35">Nishida, M. (1991). "Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary reservoir of old lineages of East African cichlid fishes: Inferences from allozyme data". ''Experientia''. 47 (9): 974-979. doi:10.1007/bf01929896.</ref> <ref name="r36">Sparks; Smith (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes". ''Cladistics''. 20 (6): 501-517. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00038.x.</ref> <ref name="r37">Kirchberger; Sefc; Sturmbauer; Koblmuller (2012). "Evolutionary History of Lake Tanganyika's Predatory Deepwater Cichlids". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 716209. doi:10.1155/2012/716209.</ref> <ref name="r38">Loiselle, Paul (1994). ''The Cichlid Aquarium''. p. 304. Tetra Press, Germany. ISBN 978-1564651464.</ref> <ref name="r39">Lindqvist, O.V.; Mölsä, H.; Solonen, K.; Sarvala, J., editors (1999). ''From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes''. pp. 213-214. Springer. ISBN 978-0792360179.</ref> <ref name="r40">Golcher-Benavides J.; Wagner C.E. (2019). "Playing out Liem's Paradox: Opportunistic Piscivory across Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids". ''The American Naturalist''. 194 (2): 260-267. doi:10.1086/704169.</ref> <ref name="r41">Schliewen, U. (1992). ''Aquarium Fish''. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.</ref> <ref name="r42">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus multifasciatus". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r43">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus similis". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r44">"The 10 biggest cichlids". ''Practical Fishkeeping''. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r45">"tanganyika biotope aquarium". Aquariums Life. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> <ref name="r46">Meyer; Matchiner; Salburger (2015). "Lake Tanganyika - A 'Melting Pot' of Ancient and Young Cichlid Lineages?" ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (7): e0125043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125043.</ref> <ref name="r47">Weiss; Cotterill; Schliewen (2015). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r48">Takahashi, T. (2008). "Description of a new cichlid fish species of the genus Benthochromis from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 72 (3): 603-613. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01727.x.</ref> <ref name="r49">Takahashi, T.; Nakaya, K. (2003). "New species of Cyphotilapia from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Copeia''. 2003 (4): 824-832. doi:10.1643/ia03-148.1.</ref> <ref name="r50">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Cyprichromis microlepidotus". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60487A12363286. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60487A12363286.en.</ref> <ref name="r51">Smith, M.P. (1998). ''Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids''. pp. 9-10. ISBN 0-7641-0615-5.</ref> <ref name="r52">"Ophthalmotilapia nasuta". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r53">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Eretmodus cyanostictus". FishBase. April 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r54">"Species in the Tanganyika". FishBase table. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r55">Lowe-McConnell, R. (2009). "Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems". ''Freshwater Reviews''. 2 (2): 131-151. doi:10.1608/frj-2.2.2.</ref> <ref name="r56">"Julidochromis marlieri (Marlier's Julie)". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r57">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Gnathochromis permaxillaris". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60493A12364587. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60493A12364587.en.</ref> <ref name="r58">Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus". ''BMC Biology''. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8.</ref> <ref name="r59">Ntakimazi, G. (2006). "Oreochromis tanganicae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60625A12387918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60625A12387918.en.</ref> <ref name="r60">Begon, M.; Fitter, A.H. (1995). ''Advances in Ecological Research'', vol. 26, p. 203. ISBN 0-12-013926-X.</ref> <ref name="r61">Salzburger; Niederstätter; Brandstätter; Berger; Parson; Snoeks; Sturmbauer (2006). "Colour-assortative mating among populations of Tropheus moorii". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B''. 273 (1584): 257-266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3321.</ref> <ref name="r62">Robert Toman (2017). "Tropheus Genus Evolution". Cichlid World. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r63">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Lamprichthys". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r64">Brown; Britz; Bills; Rüber; Day (2011). "Pectoral fin loss in the Mastacembelidae: a new species from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Zoology''. 284 (4): 286-293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00804.x.</ref> <ref name="r65">Wright, J.J.; Bailey, R.M. (2012). "Systematic revision of the formerly monotypic genus Tanganikallabes". ''Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society''. 165 (1): 121-142. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00789.x.</ref> <ref name="r66">"Synodontis grandiops - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r67">"Synodontis lucipinnis - Mochokidae" and "Synodontis petricola - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r68">Wright, J.J. (2017). "A new diminutive genus and species of catfish from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 91 (3): 789-805. doi:10.1111/jfb.13374.</ref> <ref name="r69">Brown; Rüber; Bills; Day (2010). "Mastacembelid eels support Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary hotspot of diversification". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 10: 188. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-188.</ref> <ref name="r70">Seddon, M.; Appleton, C.; Van Damme, D.; Graf, D. (2011). "Freshwater molluscs of Africa: diversity, distribution, and conservation". In Darwall et al. (eds.). IUCN. pp. 92-119. ISBN 978-2-8317-1345-8.</ref> <ref name="r71">Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance''. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5.</ref> <ref name="r72">West, K.; Cohen, A. (1996). "Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Evolution''. 50 (2): 672-682. doi:10.2307/2410840.</ref> <ref name="r73">Koblmüller; Duftner; Sefc; Aibara; Stipacek; Blanc; Egger; Sturmbauer (2007). "Reticulate phylogeny of gastropod-shell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 7: 7. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-7.</ref> <ref name="r74">Marijnissen; Michel; Daniels; Erpenbeck; Menken; Schram (2006). "Molecular evidence for recent divergence of Lake Tanganyika endemic crabs". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 40 (2): 628-634. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.025.</ref> <ref name="r75">Fryer, G. (2006). "Evolution in ancient lakes". ''Hydrobiologia''. 568 (1): 131-142. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0322-x.</ref> <ref name="r76">De Grave, S. (2013). "Macrobrachium moorei". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T196882A2477768. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T196882A2477768.en.</ref> <ref name="r77">Martens; Schön; Meisch; Horne (2008). "Global diversity of ostracods in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 185-193. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9245-4.</ref> <ref name="r78">Gitter, F.; Gross, M.; Piller, W.E. (2015). "Sub-Decadal Resolution in Sediments of Late Miocene Lake Pannon Reveals Speciation of Cyprideis". ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (4): e0109360. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109360.</ref> <ref name="r79">Schön, I.; Martens, K. (2012). "Molecular analyses of ostracod flocks from Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 682 (1): 91-110. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0935-6.</ref> <ref name="r80">Cirhuza, D.M.; Plisnier, P.-D. (2016). "Composition and seasonal variations in abundance of Copepod populations from northern Lake Tanganyika". ''Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management''. 19 (4): 401-410. doi:10.1080/14634988.2016.1251277.</ref> <ref name="r81">De Grave, S.; Cai, Y.; Amnker, A. (2008). "Global diversity of shrimps in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 287-293. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9024-2.</ref> <ref name="r82">De Grave, S. (2013). "Limnocaridina iridinae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T198058A2510158. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T198058A2510158.en.</ref> <ref name="r83">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r84">Cumberlidge, N.; Meyer, K.S. (2011). "A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa". Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> <ref name="r85">Cumberlidge, N.; Clark, P.F. (2017). "Description of three new species of Potamonautes from the Lake Victoria region". ''European Journal of Taxonomy''. 371: 1-19. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.371.</ref> <ref name="r86">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 44. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r87">Salonen; Högmander; Langenberg; Mölsä; Sarvala; Tarvainen; Tiirola (2012). "Limnocnida tanganyicae medusae: a semiautonomous microcosm in the food web of Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 690(1): 97-112.</ref> <ref name="r88">"Global warming is killing off tropical lake fish - Study of Lake Tanganyika". Mongabay. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r89">McGrath, M. (8 August 2016). "Decline of fishing in Lake Tanganyika 'due to warming'". BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r90">''East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> <ref name="r91">''Lake Tanganyika and Its Life''. Oxford Press. 1991.</ref> <ref name="r92">Livingstone, David (2008). ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to His Death''. Vol. 1. BiblioBazaar. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-554-26021-1.</ref> <ref name="r93">Crowley, Daniel J. (Summer 1966). "An African Aesthetic". ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism''. 24 (4): 519-524. doi:10.2307/428776.</ref> <ref name="r94">Foden, Giles (2004). ''Mimi and Toutou Go Forth - The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika''. Penguin.</ref> </references> ==External links== * [[wikisource:Tanganyika|"Tanganyika" on Wikisource]] * [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tanganyika|"Tanganyika" in Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition]] [[Category:Lakes of Africa]] [[Category:African Great Lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania]] [[Category:Lakes of Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Lakes of Burundi]] [[Category:Lakes of Zambia]] eqwxj779u12rhz3tv2p7114zs8r5mln 99342 99341 2026-05-31T16:46:01Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Tanganyika''' (Kirundi: ''Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika''; Swahili: ''Ziwa Tanganyika'') be one African Great Lake.<ref name="r5" /> E be de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume, den e san be de second deepest lake for de world, after Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref name="r6" /><ref name="r7" /> E san be de world ein longest freshwater lake, den de sixth-largest lake by area.<ref name="r8"/> Four countries dey share de lake: [[Tanzania]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Burundi]] den [[Zambia]]. Tanzania get about 46% of de lake, while Democratic Republic of the Congo get about 40%. De lake drain through Lukuga River enter Congo River system, wey later enter [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Banana, Democratic Republic of de Congo.<ref name="r2"/> ==Geography== Lake Tanganyika dey insyd de Albertine Rift, wey be de western branch of de East African Rift. Mountain walls of de valley surround am. E be de largest rift lake for Africa and de second-largest freshwater lake by volume for de world. E be de deepest lake for Africa, den e hold de largest freshwater volume for de continent, about 16% of de world ein available fresh water.<ref name="r2"/><ref name="r9"/> De lake stretch about 676 km from north to south, and ein average width be about 50 km. E cover about 32,000 km², get shoreline of about 1,900 km, mean depth of about 572 m, den maximum depth of about 1,471 m for de northern basin. E hold estimated water volume of about 18,750 km³.<ref name="r2" /><ref name="r9" /> De lake ein catchment area be about 231,000 km². Two main rivers, plus plenty small rivers and streams, flow enter de lake. Because steep mountains surround de lake, plenty of de rivers and streams no dey long. De only major outflow be Lukuga River, wey empty into Congo River drainage. Rainfall and evaporation play bigger role for de lake ein water balance than rivers. At least 90% of de water wey enter de lake come from rain wey fall directly on de lake surface, and at least 90% of de water loss come from direct evaporation.<ref name="r10"/> De main river wey flow enter de lake be Ruzizi River. E form about 10,000 years ago, and e enter de northern side of de lake from Lake Kivu.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi River, wey be Tanzania ein second-largest river, enter de eastern side of Lake Tanganyika.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi be older than Lake Tanganyika, and before de lake form, e likely be headwater of de Lualaba River, de main headstream of Congo River.<ref name="r10"/> De lake get complex history for how water flow patterns dey change. De reason dey include ein high altitude, great depth, slow refill rate, and mountain location inside volcanic area wey climate changes affect. For de past, de lake rarely get outflow to de sea, so some scholars describe am as almost endorheic. De lake ein connection to sea depend on high water level wey allow water overflow through Lukuga River into Congo River.<ref name="r11" /> When de lake no dey overflow, sand bars and weed masses normally block de exit into Lukuga River, and de river then depend on ein own tributaries, especially Niemba River, to maintain flow.<ref name="r10"/> For some periods, de lake fit get different inflows and outflows. Scholars propose say water from higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi, den one exit route to de Nile fit exist for some time inside de lake ein history.<ref name="r12"/> [[File:View of Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Lake Taganyika ein eastern shore for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] Lake Tanganyika be ancient lake, one of only about twenty lakes wey dey more than one million years old. Ein three basins were separate lakes during periods wey water level drop very low. De central basin begin form about 9-12 million years ago, de northern basin about 7-8 million years ago, and de southern basin about 2-4 million years ago.<ref name="r13"/> ==Water characteristics== [[File:Clear lake Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Clear water lake of Lake Tanganyika for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] De lake ein water be alkaline. De pH be around 9 from 0 to 100 m depth.<ref name="r14" /> Below dat level, de pH be around 8.7, and e gradually fall to 8.3-8.5 for de deepest parts of Tanganyika.<ref name="r14" /> Electric conductivity follow similar pattern, from about 670 μS/cm for de upper part to about 690 μS/cm for de deepest part.<ref name="r14" /> Surface temperature normally range from about 24 °C for de southern part of de lake during early August to about 28-29 °C during late rainy season around March-April.<ref name="r15" /> For depths greater than 400 m, de temperature remain very stable around 23.1-23.4 °C.<ref name="r16" /> De lake water has gradually warmed since de 19th century, and dis warming has become faster since de 1950s because of global warming.<ref name="r17" /> De lake dey stratified, and seasonal mixing normally no pass depth of 150 m.<ref name="r15" /> Mixing happen mainly through wind-driven upwellings for de south, even though upwellings and downwellings also occur for some other parts of de lake.<ref name="r18" /> Sake of de stratification, de deep sections contain "fossil water".<ref name="r19" /> De deeper parts lack oxygen, so fish and other aerobic organisms mostly dey limited to de upper part of de lake. Dis oxygen limit normally dey around 100 m depth for de northern part and around 240-250 m for de southern part.<ref name="r20" /><ref name="r21" /> De deepest oxygen-free sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide and be almost lifeless,<ref name="r6" /> except bacteria.<ref name="r14" /><ref name="r22" /> ==Biology== ===Reptiles=== Lake Tanganyika and ein associated wetlands get Nile crocodiles, wey dey include de famous giant crocodile Gustave. De area also get Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, den pan hinged terrapins.<ref name="r23" /> Storm's water cobra, wey be threatened subspecies of banded water cobra, dey feed mainly on fish and only dey Lake Tanganyika, where e prefer rocky shores.<ref name="r23"/><ref name="r24"/> ===Cichlid fishes=== Lake Tanganyika get at least 250 endemic species of cichlids,<ref name="r28" /> den more undescribed species likely still dey.<ref name="r29"/> Almost all de lake ein cichlid species, about 98%, dey only there. Because of dis, de lake be important biological resource for studying speciation and evolution.<ref name="r30"/><ref name="r31"/> Cichlids of de African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent one of de most diverse examples of adaptive radiation among vertebrates.<ref name="r32"/> Some endemic species enter small part of de upper Lukuga River, wey be Lake Tanganyika ein outflow. Further spread into Congo River basin be limited by geography and water chemistry. Tanganyika lake environment be more stable than de rapids and fast-flowing sections of Congo River. De lake water be alkaline, get higher pH, and contain more calcium and minerals than Congo River acidic and sediment-rich waters. For some areas of Congo away from rapids, sediment and organic matter create blackwater with high tannin concentration from wood and leaves, and cichlids no thrive well there.<ref name="r10"/> Lake Tanganyika get fewer cichlid species than Lake Malawi anaa Lake Victoria, but ein cichlids be more morphologically and genetically diverse.<ref name="r32" /><ref name="r34" /> Dis link to de old age of Tanganyika, because de lake be much older than those lakes. Tanganyika get de largest number of endemic cichlid genera among African lakes.<ref name="r33"/><ref name="r35"/> All Tanganyika cichlids dey inside subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Out of de 10 tribes inside dis subfamily, half dey largely or completely restricted to de lake: Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini den Tropheini.<ref name="r36" /> Another three tribes, Haplochromini, Tilapiini den Tylochromini, also get species inside de lake. Some researchers propose say Tanganyika cichlids fit be split into as many as 12-16 tribes, including Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini den Trematocarini.<ref name="r32"/> Most Tanganyika cichlids live along de shoreline down to about 100 m depth, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m.<ref name="r37" /> ''Trematocara'' species have been found at more than 300 m depth, deeper than any known cichlid.<ref name="r38" /> Some deepwater genera, such as ''Bathybates'', ''Gnathochromis'', ''Hemibates'' den ''Xenochromis'', have been caught for places wey almost no oxygen dey, and how dem survive there still no dey clear.<ref name="r21"/> Tanganyika cichlids normally be benthic, meaning dem dey near de bottom, or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlid be truly pelagic and offshore, except some piscivorous ''Bathybates''. Two of dem, ''B. fasciatus'' den ''B. leo'', mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r37"/><ref name="r39"/> De cichlids get plenty feeding styles, including herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. Even species with specialized diets fit change and feed opportunistically on ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'' and ''Limnothrissa miodon'' when prey concentration rise high.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r40"/> Breeding behavior among de fishes fall into two main groups: substrate or sand spawners, often for caves or rock crevices, and mouthbrooders.<ref name="r41"/> Among de endemic species, two of de world ein smallest cichlids be ''Neolamprologus multifasciatus'' and ''N. similis''. Both be shell dwellers and grow only about 4-5 cm. One of de largest be giant cichlid, ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'', which fit reach 90 cm.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r42"/><ref name="r43"/><ref name="r44"/> Many Lake Tanganyika cichlids, including species from ''Altolamprologus'', ''Cyprichromis'', ''Eretmodus'', ''Julidochromis'', ''Lamprologus'', ''Neolamprologus'', ''Tropheus'' den ''Xenotilapia'', be popular aquarium fishes because of dem bright colours, patterns and interesting behaviour. Aquarium hobbyists also like to recreate Lake Tanganyika biotope, and many of de species dey bred successfully in captivity today.<ref name="r41"/><ref name="r45"/> ''Neolamprologus brichardi'' and ein close relative ''N. pulcher'' get complex social behaviours, and researchers have studied dem in detail.<ref name="r25"/><ref name="r26"/><ref name="r27"/> ====Cichlid tribes for Lake Tanganyika==== * '''Bathybatini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Bathybates ferox'' be benthic and piscivorous, but de genus also get pelagic species. Some researchers split de tribe into three, with Hemibatini and Trematocarini as other groups.<ref name="r37"/><ref name="r46"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Benthochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Benthochromis horii'' was scientifically described in 2008, but people often misidentify am as ''B. tricoti''.<ref name="r48"/> * '''Boulengerochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'' be one of de world ein largest cichlids and de only member of ein tribe.<ref name="r44"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Cyphotilapiini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' be one of two similar species inside de tribe.<ref name="r49"/> * '''Cyprichromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyprichromis microlepidotus'' and other members of dis tribe be open-water planktivores.<ref name="r50"/><ref name="r51"/> * '''Ectodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): Male ''Ophthalmotilapia nasuta'' be more colourful, get longer fins and longer nose than female.<ref name="r52"/> * '''Eretmodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Eretmodus cyanostictus'' live near de bottom for turbulent coastal surf zone, like other members of ein tribe.<ref name="r51"/><ref name="r53"/> * '''Haplochromini''': ''Astatotilapia burtoni'' be one of de few Tanganyika species inside dis tribe, unlike other African Great Lakes where plenty species belong to dis tribe.<ref name="r54"/><ref name="r55"/> * '''Lamprologini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Julidochromis marlieri'' dey popular for aquarium trade, where members of de genus dey known as "Julies".<ref name="r56"/> * '''Limnochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Gnathochromis permaxillaris'' be zooplanktivore with unusual protractile mouth.<ref name="r57"/> * '''Perissodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Perissodus microlepis'' be specialized scale-eating species.<ref name="r58"/> * '''Tilapiini''': ''Oreochromis tanganicae'' be one of de common coastal species wey dey local fish markets.<ref name="r59"/> * '''Tropheini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Tropheus moorii'', including de "red" Chimba morph, vary plenty, and de taxonomy of some morphs still dey debated.<ref name="r60"/><ref name="r61"/><ref name="r62"/> ===Oda fish=== Lake Tanganyika get more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish, and about 60% of dem be endemic.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r28"/><ref name="r64"/><ref name="r65"/> For de open waters of de pelagic zone, four non-cichlid species dominate. Two species of "Tanganyika sardine", ''Limnothrissa miodon'' den ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'', form de largest fish biomass for dat zone. Dem be important prey for forktail lates, ''Lates microlepis'', and sleek lates, ''L. stappersii''. Two other lates, ''L. angustifrons'' den ''L. mariae'', also dey de lake, but dem be mainly benthic hunters. All four lates be endemic to Tanganyika, and overfishing has made larger individuals rare today.<ref name="r39"/> One unusual fish group for de lake be endemic facultative brood-parasitic "cuckoo catfish", wey dey include ''Synodontis grandiops'' and ''S. multipunctatus''. Some similar species, such as ''S. lucipinnis'' and ''S. petricola'', are often confused with dem, and e no dey clear if dem get de same behaviour. De brood parasites often lay eggs at de same time as mouthbrooding cichlids. De cichlid pick de eggs into ein mouth as if dem be ein own. When de catfish eggs hatch, de young ones eat de cichlid eggs.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r41"/><ref name="r66"/><ref name="r67"/> Six catfish genera dey completely restricted to de lake basin: ''Bathybagrus'', ''Dinotopterus'', ''Lophiobagrus'', ''Phyllonemus'', ''Pseudotanganikallabes'' and ''Tanganikallabes''. Six species of ''Chrysichthys'' catfish are only found inside de Tanganyika basin, even though de genus itself no be endemic. Dem live for shallow and relatively deep waters. For de deep habitat, dem be main predators and scavengers.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r54"/><ref name="r68"/> De lake get unique evolutionary radiation of 15 ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, all except one endemic to de basin. Other African Great Lakes also get ''Synodontis'' catfish, endemic catfish genera and ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, but Tanganyika ein high diversity be unusual and likely link to de lake ein old age.<ref name="r64"/><ref name="r69"/> Some non-endemic fish for de lake be widespread African species, while others are shared only with Malagarasi and Congo River basins. Examples include Congo bichir (''Polypterus congicus''), goliath tigerfish (''Hydrocynus goliath''), ''Citharinus citharus'', six-banded distichodus (''Distichodus sexfasciatus'') and mbu puffer (''Tetraodon mbu'').<ref name="r54"/> De Tanganyika killifish, ''Lamprichthys tanganicanus'', be de only member of ein genus.<ref name="r63"/> ===Molluscs den crustaceans=== Lake Tanganyika get 83 freshwater snail species, of which 65 be endemic, and 11 bivalve species, of which 8 be endemic.<ref name="r70"/> Among de endemic bivalves, three genera get only one species each: ''Grandidieria burtoni'', ''Pseudospatha tanganyicensis'' den ''Brazzaea anceyi''.<ref name="r70"/> Many of de snails no be ordinary for freshwater species because dem get thick shells or strong shell sculpture, features common among marine snails. People call dem thalassoids, meaning "marine-like". All Tanganyika thalassoids be part of Prosobranchia and be endemic to de lake. At first, people believed say dem relate to similar marine snails, but researchers now know say dem no be related. Their shape likely come from de lake ein diverse habitats and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and ''Platythelphusa'' crabs.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r71"/><ref name="r72"/> Seventeen freshwater snail genera be endemic to de lake, including ''Hirthia'', ''Lavigeria'', ''Paramelania'', ''Reymondia'', ''Spekia'', ''Stanleya'', ''Tanganyicia'' and ''Tiphobia''.<ref name="r71"/> About 30 non-thalassoid snail species dey de lake, but only five of dem be endemic, including ''Ferrissia tanganyicensis'' and ''Neothauma tanganyicense''. ''Neothauma tanganyicense'' be de largest Tanganyika snail, and small shell-dwelling cichlids often use ein shell.<ref name="r71"/><ref name="r73"/> Crustaceans sanso be highly diverse for Tanganyika. De lake get more dan 200 species, den more dan half be endemic. Dem include 10 species of freshwater crabs, plus 9 ''Platythelphusa'' species den ''Potamonautes platynotus'', all endemic; at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp from ''Atyella'', ''Caridella'' den ''Limnocaridina''; one endemic palaemonid shrimp, ''Macrobrachium moorei''; about 100 ostracods, wey dey include chaw endemics; den several copepods.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r74"/><ref name="r75"/><ref name="r76"/><ref name="r77"/><ref name="r78"/><ref name="r79"/><ref name="r80"/> ''Limnocaridina iridinae'' live inside de mantle cavity of de unionid mussel ''Pleiodon spekei''. Dis make am one of only two known commensal freshwater shrimp species; de other be sponge-living ''Caridina spongicola'' from Lake Towuti for Indonesia.<ref name="r81"/><ref name="r82"/> Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika pass all others for crustacean den freshwater snail richness, both by total number of species den number of endemics. For example, de only other Rift Valley lakes plus endemic freshwater crabs be Lake Kivu den Lake Victoria, plus two species each.<ref name="r83"/><ref name="r84"/><ref name="r85"/> ===Oda invertebrates=== Knowledge about other invertebrate groups for Lake Tanganyika no dey complete. Still, researchers have described at least 20 species of leeches, wey dey include 12 endemics; 9 sponges, plus 7 endemic; 6 bryozoa, plus 2 endemic; 11 flatworms, plus 7 endemic; 20 nematodes, plus 7 endemic; 28 annelids, plus 17 endemic; den de small hydrozoan jellyfish ''Limnocnida tanganyicae''.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r86"/><ref name="r87"/> ==Fishing== Lake Tanganyika support major fishery. Depending on de source, de fishery provide 25-40% or about 60% of animal protein for people wey live inside de region.<ref name="r17"/><ref name="r88"/><ref name="r89"/> Fish from Lake Tanganyika dey exported across East Africa. Major commercial fishing begin for de mid-1950s. Together with global warming, fishing pressure has affected fish populations and caused sharp declines. In 2016, de total catch was estimated to reach up to 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="r16"/><ref name="r17"/><ref name="r89"/> ==History== Early ''Homo sapiens'' likely affected de Lake Tanganyika region during de Stone Age. De period from Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age dey described as age of advanced hunter-gatherers.<ref name="r90"/> Local people around de lake used many fishing methods. Most of de methods used lantern as lure because some fish dey attracted to light. Three common methods were Lusenga, lift net, and Chiromila. Lusenga be wide net wey one person use from canoe. Lift net involve dropping net deep below boat with two parallel canoes, then pulling am up together. Chiromila use three canoes: one canoe stay with lantern, another hold one end of de net, and de third canoe circle round to meet de net.<ref name="r91"/> De first known Westerners to find de lake were British explorers Richard Burton den John Speke insyd 1858. Dem located de lake when dem dey search for de source of de Nile River. Speke continue den later find Lake Victoria, de actual source. Later, [[David Livingstone]] pass by de lake. He record de name "Liemba" for de southern part, likely from Fipa language. "Tanganyika" wey mean "stars" in Luvale language.<ref name="r92"/><ref name="r93"/> During World War I, de lake became de scene of de Battle for Lake Tanganyika. With help from ''Graf Goetzen'', de Germans controll de lake at de early stage of de war. De ship carried cargo den people across de lake, den sanso serve as base for surprise attacks on Allied troops. Secof dis, Allied forces need to control de lake. Under Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, de British Royal Navy move two armed motor boats, HMS ''Mimi'' den HMS ''Toutou'', from England to de lake by rail, road den river to Albertville, now Kalemie, on de western shore of Lake Tanganyika. Insyd December 1915, de two boats attacked de Germans and captured de gunboat ''Kingani''. Another German vessel, ''Hedwig'', be sunk insyd February 1916, leaving ''Götzen'' as de only German vessel controlling de lake. To stop Allied forces from taking de ship, Zimmer scuttled am on 26 July 1916. Dem later raise de vessel insyd 1924 wey dem rename am MV ''Liemba''.<ref name="r94"/> ==References== <references> <ref name="r1">Yohannes, Okbazghi (2008). ''Water resources and inter-riparian relations in the Nile basin''. SUNY Press. p. 127.</ref> <ref name="r2">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika {{!}} Lake Tanganyika {{!}} World Lake Database - ILEC |url=https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3587 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=wldb.ilec.or.jp}}</ref> <ref name="r3">[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1671 "Tanganyika"]. ''Ramsar Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> <ref name="r4">Wells, John C. (2008). ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'' (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.</ref> <ref name="r5">Burton, Richard Francis (1965). Richards, Charles (ed.). ''Burton and Lake Tanganyika''. Dar Es Salaam: East African Literature Bureau. OCLC 180480726.</ref> <ref name="r6">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/lakes/lake-tanganyika/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=Zambia Tourism |language=en-US}}</ref> <ref name="r7">Lewis, R. (16 May 2010). [https://news.brown.edu/articles/2010/05/tanganyika "Brown Geologists Show Unprecedented Warming in Lake Tanganyika"]. Brown University. Retrieved 25 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r8">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/worlds-largest-lakes-2228655 "World's largest lakes | Description, Area, & Facts | Britannica"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 October 2025.</ref> <ref name="r9">[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dafr06.html "Datbase Summary: Lake Tanganyika"]. International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r10">Kullander, S.O.; Roberts, T.R. (2011). "Out of Lake Tanganyika: endemic lake fishes inhabit rapids of the Lukuga River". ''Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters''. 22 (4): 355-376.</ref> <ref name="r11">Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. US: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 366-367. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.</ref> <ref name="r12">Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-57033-6.</ref> <ref name="r13">Cohen; Soreghan; Scholz (1993). "Estimating the age of formation of lakes: An example from Lake Tanganyika, East African Rift system". ''Geology''. 21 (6): 511-514. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021&lt;0511:ETAOFO&gt;2.3.CO;2.</ref> <ref name="r14">De Wever; Muylaert; Van der Gucht; Pirlot; Cocquyt; Descy; Plisnier; Vyverman (2005). "Bacterial Community Composition in Lake Tanganyika: Vertical and Horizontal Heterogeneity". ''Applied and Environmental Microbiology''. 71 (9): 5029-5037. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5029-5037.2005.</ref> <ref name="r15">Edmond; Stallard; Craigh; Weiss; Coulter (1993). "Nutrient chemistry of the water column of Lake Tanganyika". ''Limnology and Oceanography''. 38 (4): 725-738. doi:10.4319/lo.1993.38.4.0725.</ref> <ref name="r16">O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Alin, Simone R.; Plisnier, Pierre-Denis; Cohen, Andrew S.; Mckee, Brent A. (2003). "Climate change decreases aquatic ecosystem productivity of Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Nature''. 424 (6950): 766-768. doi:10.1038/nature01833.</ref> <ref name="r17">Jensen, M.R. (8 August 2016). "Lake Tanganyika Fisheries Declining From Global Warming". University of Arizona. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r18">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). "Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution". ''Freshwater Forum''. 20 (1): 4-64.</ref> <ref name="r19">Hutter; Yongqi; Chubarenko (2011). ''Physics of Lakes, volume 1: Foundation of the Mathematical and Physical Background''. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-642-15178-1.</ref> <ref name="r20">Wright, J.J.; Page, L.M. (2006). "Taxonomic revision of Lake Tanganyikan Synodontis (Siluriformes: Mochokidae)". ''Florida Museum of Natural History Bulletin''. 46(4): 99-154.</ref> <ref name="r21">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (1987). ''Ecological Studies in Tropical Fish Communities''. ISBN 0-521-28064-8.</ref> <ref name="r22">Ryan, Emily; Todd, Jonathan A.; McGlue, Michael; Kimirei, Ismael; Soreghan, Michael (2017). "Variation in Taphonomic Character of Shell Beds in Lake Tanganyika, Africa: Paleoenvironmental and Stratigraphic Implications of Shell Beds in Lakes". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 304608. doi:10.1130/abs/2017am-304608.</ref> <ref name="r23">Spawls, Howell, Drewes, and Ashe (2002). ''A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa''. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-656470-1.</ref> <ref name="r24">O'Shea, Mark; Mcintyre, P.B. (2005). "Boulengerina annulata stormsi (Storm's water cobra). Attempted predation". ''Herpetological Review''. 36 (2): 189.</ref> <ref name="r25">Dierkes; Taborsky; Kohler (1999). "Reproductive parasitism of broodcare helpers in a cooperatively breeding fish". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 10 (5): 510-515. doi:10.1093/beheco/10.5.510.</ref> <ref name="r26">Balshine-Earn; Lotem (1998). "Individual recognition in a cooperatively breeding cichlid: Evidence from video playback experiments". ''Behaviour''. 135 (3): 369-386. doi:10.1163/156853998793066221.</ref> <ref name="r27">Werner; Balshine; Leach; Lotem (2003). "Helping opportunities and space segregation in cooperatively breeding cichlids". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 14 (6): 749-756. doi:10.1093/beheco/arg067.</ref> <ref name="r28">Kelly West (28 February 2001). "Results and Experiences of the UNDP/GEF Conservation Initiative (RAF/92/G32) in Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia". IW:LEARN.</ref> <ref name="r29">Craig Mortiff (24 December 2009). "Lake Tanganyika and its Diverse Cichlids". Cichlid Fish Forum.</ref> <ref name="r30">Takahashi, T.; Hori, M. (2012). "Genetic and Morphological Evidence Implies Existence of Two Sympatric Species in Cyathopharynx furcifer from Lake Tanganyika". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 980879. doi:10.1155/2012/980879.</ref> <ref name="r31">Kornfield, Ivy; Smith, Peter A. (2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics''. 31: 163-196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> <ref name="r32">Meyer, Britta; Matchiner, Michael; Salburger, Walter (2013). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r33">Turner, Seehausen; Knight, Allender; Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology''. 10 (3): 793-806. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x.</ref> <ref name="r34">Seehausen, O. (2015). "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations - inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification". ''New Phytologist''. 207 (2): 304-312. doi:10.1111/nph.13450.</ref> <ref name="r35">Nishida, M. (1991). "Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary reservoir of old lineages of East African cichlid fishes: Inferences from allozyme data". ''Experientia''. 47 (9): 974-979. doi:10.1007/bf01929896.</ref> <ref name="r36">Sparks; Smith (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes". ''Cladistics''. 20 (6): 501-517. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00038.x.</ref> <ref name="r37">Kirchberger; Sefc; Sturmbauer; Koblmuller (2012). "Evolutionary History of Lake Tanganyika's Predatory Deepwater Cichlids". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 716209. doi:10.1155/2012/716209.</ref> <ref name="r38">Loiselle, Paul (1994). ''The Cichlid Aquarium''. p. 304. Tetra Press, Germany. ISBN 978-1564651464.</ref> <ref name="r39">Lindqvist, O.V.; Mölsä, H.; Solonen, K.; Sarvala, J., editors (1999). ''From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes''. pp. 213-214. Springer. ISBN 978-0792360179.</ref> <ref name="r40">Golcher-Benavides J.; Wagner C.E. (2019). "Playing out Liem's Paradox: Opportunistic Piscivory across Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids". ''The American Naturalist''. 194 (2): 260-267. doi:10.1086/704169.</ref> <ref name="r41">Schliewen, U. (1992). ''Aquarium Fish''. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.</ref> <ref name="r42">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus multifasciatus". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r43">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus similis". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r44">"The 10 biggest cichlids". ''Practical Fishkeeping''. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r45">"tanganyika biotope aquarium". Aquariums Life. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> <ref name="r46">Meyer; Matchiner; Salburger (2015). "Lake Tanganyika - A 'Melting Pot' of Ancient and Young Cichlid Lineages?" ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (7): e0125043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125043.</ref> <ref name="r47">Weiss; Cotterill; Schliewen (2015). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r48">Takahashi, T. (2008). "Description of a new cichlid fish species of the genus Benthochromis from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 72 (3): 603-613. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01727.x.</ref> <ref name="r49">Takahashi, T.; Nakaya, K. (2003). "New species of Cyphotilapia from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Copeia''. 2003 (4): 824-832. doi:10.1643/ia03-148.1.</ref> <ref name="r50">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Cyprichromis microlepidotus". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60487A12363286. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60487A12363286.en.</ref> <ref name="r51">Smith, M.P. (1998). ''Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids''. pp. 9-10. ISBN 0-7641-0615-5.</ref> <ref name="r52">"Ophthalmotilapia nasuta". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r53">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Eretmodus cyanostictus". FishBase. April 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r54">"Species in the Tanganyika". FishBase table. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r55">Lowe-McConnell, R. (2009). "Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems". ''Freshwater Reviews''. 2 (2): 131-151. doi:10.1608/frj-2.2.2.</ref> <ref name="r56">"Julidochromis marlieri (Marlier's Julie)". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r57">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Gnathochromis permaxillaris". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60493A12364587. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60493A12364587.en.</ref> <ref name="r58">Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus". ''BMC Biology''. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8.</ref> <ref name="r59">Ntakimazi, G. (2006). "Oreochromis tanganicae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60625A12387918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60625A12387918.en.</ref> <ref name="r60">Begon, M.; Fitter, A.H. (1995). ''Advances in Ecological Research'', vol. 26, p. 203. ISBN 0-12-013926-X.</ref> <ref name="r61">Salzburger; Niederstätter; Brandstätter; Berger; Parson; Snoeks; Sturmbauer (2006). "Colour-assortative mating among populations of Tropheus moorii". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B''. 273 (1584): 257-266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3321.</ref> <ref name="r62">Robert Toman (2017). "Tropheus Genus Evolution". Cichlid World. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r63">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Lamprichthys". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r64">Brown; Britz; Bills; Rüber; Day (2011). "Pectoral fin loss in the Mastacembelidae: a new species from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Zoology''. 284 (4): 286-293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00804.x.</ref> <ref name="r65">Wright, J.J.; Bailey, R.M. (2012). "Systematic revision of the formerly monotypic genus Tanganikallabes". ''Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society''. 165 (1): 121-142. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00789.x.</ref> <ref name="r66">"Synodontis grandiops - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r67">"Synodontis lucipinnis - Mochokidae" and "Synodontis petricola - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r68">Wright, J.J. (2017). "A new diminutive genus and species of catfish from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 91 (3): 789-805. doi:10.1111/jfb.13374.</ref> <ref name="r69">Brown; Rüber; Bills; Day (2010). "Mastacembelid eels support Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary hotspot of diversification". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 10: 188. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-188.</ref> <ref name="r70">Seddon, M.; Appleton, C.; Van Damme, D.; Graf, D. (2011). "Freshwater molluscs of Africa: diversity, distribution, and conservation". In Darwall et al. (eds.). IUCN. pp. 92-119. ISBN 978-2-8317-1345-8.</ref> <ref name="r71">Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance''. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5.</ref> <ref name="r72">West, K.; Cohen, A. (1996). "Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Evolution''. 50 (2): 672-682. doi:10.2307/2410840.</ref> <ref name="r73">Koblmüller; Duftner; Sefc; Aibara; Stipacek; Blanc; Egger; Sturmbauer (2007). "Reticulate phylogeny of gastropod-shell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 7: 7. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-7.</ref> <ref name="r74">Marijnissen; Michel; Daniels; Erpenbeck; Menken; Schram (2006). "Molecular evidence for recent divergence of Lake Tanganyika endemic crabs". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 40 (2): 628-634. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.025.</ref> <ref name="r75">Fryer, G. (2006). "Evolution in ancient lakes". ''Hydrobiologia''. 568 (1): 131-142. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0322-x.</ref> <ref name="r76">De Grave, S. (2013). "Macrobrachium moorei". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T196882A2477768. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T196882A2477768.en.</ref> <ref name="r77">Martens; Schön; Meisch; Horne (2008). "Global diversity of ostracods in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 185-193. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9245-4.</ref> <ref name="r78">Gitter, F.; Gross, M.; Piller, W.E. (2015). "Sub-Decadal Resolution in Sediments of Late Miocene Lake Pannon Reveals Speciation of Cyprideis". ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (4): e0109360. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109360.</ref> <ref name="r79">Schön, I.; Martens, K. (2012). "Molecular analyses of ostracod flocks from Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 682 (1): 91-110. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0935-6.</ref> <ref name="r80">Cirhuza, D.M.; Plisnier, P.-D. (2016). "Composition and seasonal variations in abundance of Copepod populations from northern Lake Tanganyika". ''Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management''. 19 (4): 401-410. doi:10.1080/14634988.2016.1251277.</ref> <ref name="r81">De Grave, S.; Cai, Y.; Amnker, A. (2008). "Global diversity of shrimps in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 287-293. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9024-2.</ref> <ref name="r82">De Grave, S. (2013). "Limnocaridina iridinae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T198058A2510158. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T198058A2510158.en.</ref> <ref name="r83">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r84">Cumberlidge, N.; Meyer, K.S. (2011). "A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa". Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> <ref name="r85">Cumberlidge, N.; Clark, P.F. (2017). "Description of three new species of Potamonautes from the Lake Victoria region". ''European Journal of Taxonomy''. 371: 1-19. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.371.</ref> <ref name="r86">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 44. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r87">Salonen; Högmander; Langenberg; Mölsä; Sarvala; Tarvainen; Tiirola (2012). "Limnocnida tanganyicae medusae: a semiautonomous microcosm in the food web of Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 690(1): 97-112.</ref> <ref name="r88">"Global warming is killing off tropical lake fish - Study of Lake Tanganyika". Mongabay. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r89">McGrath, M. (8 August 2016). "Decline of fishing in Lake Tanganyika 'due to warming'". BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r90">''East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> <ref name="r91">''Lake Tanganyika and Its Life''. Oxford Press. 1991.</ref> <ref name="r92">Livingstone, David (2008). ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to His Death''. Vol. 1. BiblioBazaar. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-554-26021-1.</ref> <ref name="r93">Crowley, Daniel J. (Summer 1966). "An African Aesthetic". ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism''. 24 (4): 519-524. doi:10.2307/428776.</ref> <ref name="r94">Foden, Giles (2004). ''Mimi and Toutou Go Forth - The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika''. Penguin.</ref> </references> ==External links== {{sister project links||d=Q5511|c=Category:Lake Tanganyika|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Lake Tanganyika|m=no|mw=no|s=Lake Tanganyika|wikt=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lake Tanganyika}} [[Category:Lake Tanganyika| ]] [[Category:Ancient lakes|Tanganyika]] [[Category:African Great Lakes|Tangyanyika]] [[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Burundi|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Zambia|Tanganyika]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Burundi]] [[Category:Ecoregions of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Tanzania]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Zambia]] [[Category:Tanganyika Province]] [[Category:Burundi–Democratic Republic of the Congo border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Tanzania border]] [[Category:Burundi–Tanzania border]] [[Category:Tanzania–Zambia border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Zambia border]] [[Category:Border tripoints]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Zambia]] [[Category:Meromictic lakes]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] 2ecmyb3jhi72412wd3wmv2iqxb66357 99343 99342 2026-05-31T16:49:47Z DaSupremo 9 /* References */ 99343 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Tanganyika''' (Kirundi: ''Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika''; Swahili: ''Ziwa Tanganyika'') be one African Great Lake.<ref name="r5" /> E be de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume, den e san be de second deepest lake for de world, after Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref name="r6" /><ref name="r7" /> E san be de world ein longest freshwater lake, den de sixth-largest lake by area.<ref name="r8"/> Four countries dey share de lake: [[Tanzania]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Burundi]] den [[Zambia]]. Tanzania get about 46% of de lake, while Democratic Republic of the Congo get about 40%. De lake drain through Lukuga River enter Congo River system, wey later enter [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Banana, Democratic Republic of de Congo.<ref name="r2"/> ==Geography== Lake Tanganyika dey insyd de Albertine Rift, wey be de western branch of de East African Rift. Mountain walls of de valley surround am. E be de largest rift lake for Africa and de second-largest freshwater lake by volume for de world. E be de deepest lake for Africa, den e hold de largest freshwater volume for de continent, about 16% of de world ein available fresh water.<ref name="r2"/><ref name="r9"/> De lake stretch about 676 km from north to south, and ein average width be about 50 km. E cover about 32,000 km², get shoreline of about 1,900 km, mean depth of about 572 m, den maximum depth of about 1,471 m for de northern basin. E hold estimated water volume of about 18,750 km³.<ref name="r2" /><ref name="r9" /> De lake ein catchment area be about 231,000 km². Two main rivers, plus plenty small rivers and streams, flow enter de lake. Because steep mountains surround de lake, plenty of de rivers and streams no dey long. De only major outflow be Lukuga River, wey empty into Congo River drainage. Rainfall and evaporation play bigger role for de lake ein water balance than rivers. At least 90% of de water wey enter de lake come from rain wey fall directly on de lake surface, and at least 90% of de water loss come from direct evaporation.<ref name="r10"/> De main river wey flow enter de lake be Ruzizi River. E form about 10,000 years ago, and e enter de northern side of de lake from Lake Kivu.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi River, wey be Tanzania ein second-largest river, enter de eastern side of Lake Tanganyika.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi be older than Lake Tanganyika, and before de lake form, e likely be headwater of de Lualaba River, de main headstream of Congo River.<ref name="r10"/> De lake get complex history for how water flow patterns dey change. De reason dey include ein high altitude, great depth, slow refill rate, and mountain location inside volcanic area wey climate changes affect. For de past, de lake rarely get outflow to de sea, so some scholars describe am as almost endorheic. De lake ein connection to sea depend on high water level wey allow water overflow through Lukuga River into Congo River.<ref name="r11" /> When de lake no dey overflow, sand bars and weed masses normally block de exit into Lukuga River, and de river then depend on ein own tributaries, especially Niemba River, to maintain flow.<ref name="r10"/> For some periods, de lake fit get different inflows and outflows. Scholars propose say water from higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi, den one exit route to de Nile fit exist for some time inside de lake ein history.<ref name="r12"/> [[File:View of Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Lake Taganyika ein eastern shore for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] Lake Tanganyika be ancient lake, one of only about twenty lakes wey dey more than one million years old. Ein three basins were separate lakes during periods wey water level drop very low. De central basin begin form about 9-12 million years ago, de northern basin about 7-8 million years ago, and de southern basin about 2-4 million years ago.<ref name="r13"/> ==Water characteristics== [[File:Clear lake Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Clear water lake of Lake Tanganyika for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] De lake ein water be alkaline. De pH be around 9 from 0 to 100 m depth.<ref name="r14" /> Below dat level, de pH be around 8.7, and e gradually fall to 8.3-8.5 for de deepest parts of Tanganyika.<ref name="r14" /> Electric conductivity follow similar pattern, from about 670 μS/cm for de upper part to about 690 μS/cm for de deepest part.<ref name="r14" /> Surface temperature normally range from about 24 °C for de southern part of de lake during early August to about 28-29 °C during late rainy season around March-April.<ref name="r15" /> For depths greater than 400 m, de temperature remain very stable around 23.1-23.4 °C.<ref name="r16" /> De lake water has gradually warmed since de 19th century, and dis warming has become faster since de 1950s because of global warming.<ref name="r17" /> De lake dey stratified, and seasonal mixing normally no pass depth of 150 m.<ref name="r15" /> Mixing happen mainly through wind-driven upwellings for de south, even though upwellings and downwellings also occur for some other parts of de lake.<ref name="r18" /> Sake of de stratification, de deep sections contain "fossil water".<ref name="r19" /> De deeper parts lack oxygen, so fish and other aerobic organisms mostly dey limited to de upper part of de lake. Dis oxygen limit normally dey around 100 m depth for de northern part and around 240-250 m for de southern part.<ref name="r20" /><ref name="r21" /> De deepest oxygen-free sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide and be almost lifeless,<ref name="r6" /> except bacteria.<ref name="r14" /><ref name="r22" /> ==Biology== ===Reptiles=== Lake Tanganyika and ein associated wetlands get Nile crocodiles, wey dey include de famous giant crocodile Gustave. De area also get Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, den pan hinged terrapins.<ref name="r23" /> Storm's water cobra, wey be threatened subspecies of banded water cobra, dey feed mainly on fish and only dey Lake Tanganyika, where e prefer rocky shores.<ref name="r23"/><ref name="r24"/> ===Cichlid fishes=== Lake Tanganyika get at least 250 endemic species of cichlids,<ref name="r28" /> den more undescribed species likely still dey.<ref name="r29"/> Almost all de lake ein cichlid species, about 98%, dey only there. Because of dis, de lake be important biological resource for studying speciation and evolution.<ref name="r30"/><ref name="r31"/> Cichlids of de African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent one of de most diverse examples of adaptive radiation among vertebrates.<ref name="r32"/> Some endemic species enter small part of de upper Lukuga River, wey be Lake Tanganyika ein outflow. Further spread into Congo River basin be limited by geography and water chemistry. Tanganyika lake environment be more stable than de rapids and fast-flowing sections of Congo River. De lake water be alkaline, get higher pH, and contain more calcium and minerals than Congo River acidic and sediment-rich waters. For some areas of Congo away from rapids, sediment and organic matter create blackwater with high tannin concentration from wood and leaves, and cichlids no thrive well there.<ref name="r10"/> Lake Tanganyika get fewer cichlid species than Lake Malawi anaa Lake Victoria, but ein cichlids be more morphologically and genetically diverse.<ref name="r32" /><ref name="r34" /> Dis link to de old age of Tanganyika, because de lake be much older than those lakes. Tanganyika get de largest number of endemic cichlid genera among African lakes.<ref name="r33"/><ref name="r35"/> All Tanganyika cichlids dey inside subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Out of de 10 tribes inside dis subfamily, half dey largely or completely restricted to de lake: Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini den Tropheini.<ref name="r36" /> Another three tribes, Haplochromini, Tilapiini den Tylochromini, also get species inside de lake. Some researchers propose say Tanganyika cichlids fit be split into as many as 12-16 tribes, including Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini den Trematocarini.<ref name="r32"/> Most Tanganyika cichlids live along de shoreline down to about 100 m depth, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m.<ref name="r37" /> ''Trematocara'' species have been found at more than 300 m depth, deeper than any known cichlid.<ref name="r38" /> Some deepwater genera, such as ''Bathybates'', ''Gnathochromis'', ''Hemibates'' den ''Xenochromis'', have been caught for places wey almost no oxygen dey, and how dem survive there still no dey clear.<ref name="r21"/> Tanganyika cichlids normally be benthic, meaning dem dey near de bottom, or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlid be truly pelagic and offshore, except some piscivorous ''Bathybates''. Two of dem, ''B. fasciatus'' den ''B. leo'', mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r37"/><ref name="r39"/> De cichlids get plenty feeding styles, including herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. Even species with specialized diets fit change and feed opportunistically on ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'' and ''Limnothrissa miodon'' when prey concentration rise high.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r40"/> Breeding behavior among de fishes fall into two main groups: substrate or sand spawners, often for caves or rock crevices, and mouthbrooders.<ref name="r41"/> Among de endemic species, two of de world ein smallest cichlids be ''Neolamprologus multifasciatus'' and ''N. similis''. Both be shell dwellers and grow only about 4-5 cm. One of de largest be giant cichlid, ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'', which fit reach 90 cm.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r42"/><ref name="r43"/><ref name="r44"/> Many Lake Tanganyika cichlids, including species from ''Altolamprologus'', ''Cyprichromis'', ''Eretmodus'', ''Julidochromis'', ''Lamprologus'', ''Neolamprologus'', ''Tropheus'' den ''Xenotilapia'', be popular aquarium fishes because of dem bright colours, patterns and interesting behaviour. Aquarium hobbyists also like to recreate Lake Tanganyika biotope, and many of de species dey bred successfully in captivity today.<ref name="r41"/><ref name="r45"/> ''Neolamprologus brichardi'' and ein close relative ''N. pulcher'' get complex social behaviours, and researchers have studied dem in detail.<ref name="r25"/><ref name="r26"/><ref name="r27"/> ====Cichlid tribes for Lake Tanganyika==== * '''Bathybatini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Bathybates ferox'' be benthic and piscivorous, but de genus also get pelagic species. Some researchers split de tribe into three, with Hemibatini and Trematocarini as other groups.<ref name="r37"/><ref name="r46"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Benthochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Benthochromis horii'' was scientifically described in 2008, but people often misidentify am as ''B. tricoti''.<ref name="r48"/> * '''Boulengerochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'' be one of de world ein largest cichlids and de only member of ein tribe.<ref name="r44"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Cyphotilapiini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' be one of two similar species inside de tribe.<ref name="r49"/> * '''Cyprichromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyprichromis microlepidotus'' and other members of dis tribe be open-water planktivores.<ref name="r50"/><ref name="r51"/> * '''Ectodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): Male ''Ophthalmotilapia nasuta'' be more colourful, get longer fins and longer nose than female.<ref name="r52"/> * '''Eretmodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Eretmodus cyanostictus'' live near de bottom for turbulent coastal surf zone, like other members of ein tribe.<ref name="r51"/><ref name="r53"/> * '''Haplochromini''': ''Astatotilapia burtoni'' be one of de few Tanganyika species inside dis tribe, unlike other African Great Lakes where plenty species belong to dis tribe.<ref name="r54"/><ref name="r55"/> * '''Lamprologini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Julidochromis marlieri'' dey popular for aquarium trade, where members of de genus dey known as "Julies".<ref name="r56"/> * '''Limnochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Gnathochromis permaxillaris'' be zooplanktivore with unusual protractile mouth.<ref name="r57"/> * '''Perissodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Perissodus microlepis'' be specialized scale-eating species.<ref name="r58"/> * '''Tilapiini''': ''Oreochromis tanganicae'' be one of de common coastal species wey dey local fish markets.<ref name="r59"/> * '''Tropheini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Tropheus moorii'', including de "red" Chimba morph, vary plenty, and de taxonomy of some morphs still dey debated.<ref name="r60"/><ref name="r61"/><ref name="r62"/> ===Oda fish=== Lake Tanganyika get more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish, and about 60% of dem be endemic.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r28"/><ref name="r64"/><ref name="r65"/> For de open waters of de pelagic zone, four non-cichlid species dominate. Two species of "Tanganyika sardine", ''Limnothrissa miodon'' den ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'', form de largest fish biomass for dat zone. Dem be important prey for forktail lates, ''Lates microlepis'', and sleek lates, ''L. stappersii''. Two other lates, ''L. angustifrons'' den ''L. mariae'', also dey de lake, but dem be mainly benthic hunters. All four lates be endemic to Tanganyika, and overfishing has made larger individuals rare today.<ref name="r39"/> One unusual fish group for de lake be endemic facultative brood-parasitic "cuckoo catfish", wey dey include ''Synodontis grandiops'' and ''S. multipunctatus''. Some similar species, such as ''S. lucipinnis'' and ''S. petricola'', are often confused with dem, and e no dey clear if dem get de same behaviour. De brood parasites often lay eggs at de same time as mouthbrooding cichlids. De cichlid pick de eggs into ein mouth as if dem be ein own. When de catfish eggs hatch, de young ones eat de cichlid eggs.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r41"/><ref name="r66"/><ref name="r67"/> Six catfish genera dey completely restricted to de lake basin: ''Bathybagrus'', ''Dinotopterus'', ''Lophiobagrus'', ''Phyllonemus'', ''Pseudotanganikallabes'' and ''Tanganikallabes''. Six species of ''Chrysichthys'' catfish are only found inside de Tanganyika basin, even though de genus itself no be endemic. Dem live for shallow and relatively deep waters. For de deep habitat, dem be main predators and scavengers.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r54"/><ref name="r68"/> De lake get unique evolutionary radiation of 15 ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, all except one endemic to de basin. Other African Great Lakes also get ''Synodontis'' catfish, endemic catfish genera and ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, but Tanganyika ein high diversity be unusual and likely link to de lake ein old age.<ref name="r64"/><ref name="r69"/> Some non-endemic fish for de lake be widespread African species, while others are shared only with Malagarasi and Congo River basins. Examples include Congo bichir (''Polypterus congicus''), goliath tigerfish (''Hydrocynus goliath''), ''Citharinus citharus'', six-banded distichodus (''Distichodus sexfasciatus'') and mbu puffer (''Tetraodon mbu'').<ref name="r54"/> De Tanganyika killifish, ''Lamprichthys tanganicanus'', be de only member of ein genus.<ref name="r63"/> ===Molluscs den crustaceans=== Lake Tanganyika get 83 freshwater snail species, of which 65 be endemic, and 11 bivalve species, of which 8 be endemic.<ref name="r70"/> Among de endemic bivalves, three genera get only one species each: ''Grandidieria burtoni'', ''Pseudospatha tanganyicensis'' den ''Brazzaea anceyi''.<ref name="r70"/> Many of de snails no be ordinary for freshwater species because dem get thick shells or strong shell sculpture, features common among marine snails. People call dem thalassoids, meaning "marine-like". All Tanganyika thalassoids be part of Prosobranchia and be endemic to de lake. At first, people believed say dem relate to similar marine snails, but researchers now know say dem no be related. Their shape likely come from de lake ein diverse habitats and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and ''Platythelphusa'' crabs.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r71"/><ref name="r72"/> Seventeen freshwater snail genera be endemic to de lake, including ''Hirthia'', ''Lavigeria'', ''Paramelania'', ''Reymondia'', ''Spekia'', ''Stanleya'', ''Tanganyicia'' and ''Tiphobia''.<ref name="r71"/> About 30 non-thalassoid snail species dey de lake, but only five of dem be endemic, including ''Ferrissia tanganyicensis'' and ''Neothauma tanganyicense''. ''Neothauma tanganyicense'' be de largest Tanganyika snail, and small shell-dwelling cichlids often use ein shell.<ref name="r71"/><ref name="r73"/> Crustaceans sanso be highly diverse for Tanganyika. De lake get more dan 200 species, den more dan half be endemic. Dem include 10 species of freshwater crabs, plus 9 ''Platythelphusa'' species den ''Potamonautes platynotus'', all endemic; at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp from ''Atyella'', ''Caridella'' den ''Limnocaridina''; one endemic palaemonid shrimp, ''Macrobrachium moorei''; about 100 ostracods, wey dey include chaw endemics; den several copepods.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r74"/><ref name="r75"/><ref name="r76"/><ref name="r77"/><ref name="r78"/><ref name="r79"/><ref name="r80"/> ''Limnocaridina iridinae'' live inside de mantle cavity of de unionid mussel ''Pleiodon spekei''. Dis make am one of only two known commensal freshwater shrimp species; de other be sponge-living ''Caridina spongicola'' from Lake Towuti for Indonesia.<ref name="r81"/><ref name="r82"/> Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika pass all others for crustacean den freshwater snail richness, both by total number of species den number of endemics. For example, de only other Rift Valley lakes plus endemic freshwater crabs be Lake Kivu den Lake Victoria, plus two species each.<ref name="r83"/><ref name="r84"/><ref name="r85"/> ===Oda invertebrates=== Knowledge about other invertebrate groups for Lake Tanganyika no dey complete. Still, researchers have described at least 20 species of leeches, wey dey include 12 endemics; 9 sponges, plus 7 endemic; 6 bryozoa, plus 2 endemic; 11 flatworms, plus 7 endemic; 20 nematodes, plus 7 endemic; 28 annelids, plus 17 endemic; den de small hydrozoan jellyfish ''Limnocnida tanganyicae''.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r86"/><ref name="r87"/> ==Fishing== Lake Tanganyika support major fishery. Depending on de source, de fishery provide 25-40% or about 60% of animal protein for people wey live inside de region.<ref name="r17"/><ref name="r88"/><ref name="r89"/> Fish from Lake Tanganyika dey exported across East Africa. Major commercial fishing begin for de mid-1950s. Together with global warming, fishing pressure has affected fish populations and caused sharp declines. In 2016, de total catch was estimated to reach up to 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="r16"/><ref name="r17"/><ref name="r89"/> ==History== Early ''Homo sapiens'' likely affected de Lake Tanganyika region during de Stone Age. De period from Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age dey described as age of advanced hunter-gatherers.<ref name="r90"/> Local people around de lake used many fishing methods. Most of de methods used lantern as lure because some fish dey attracted to light. Three common methods were Lusenga, lift net, and Chiromila. Lusenga be wide net wey one person use from canoe. Lift net involve dropping net deep below boat with two parallel canoes, then pulling am up together. Chiromila use three canoes: one canoe stay with lantern, another hold one end of de net, and de third canoe circle round to meet de net.<ref name="r91"/> De first known Westerners to find de lake were British explorers Richard Burton den John Speke insyd 1858. Dem located de lake when dem dey search for de source of de Nile River. Speke continue den later find Lake Victoria, de actual source. Later, [[David Livingstone]] pass by de lake. He record de name "Liemba" for de southern part, likely from Fipa language. "Tanganyika" wey mean "stars" in Luvale language.<ref name="r92"/><ref name="r93"/> During World War I, de lake became de scene of de Battle for Lake Tanganyika. With help from ''Graf Goetzen'', de Germans controll de lake at de early stage of de war. De ship carried cargo den people across de lake, den sanso serve as base for surprise attacks on Allied troops. Secof dis, Allied forces need to control de lake. Under Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, de British Royal Navy move two armed motor boats, HMS ''Mimi'' den HMS ''Toutou'', from England to de lake by rail, road den river to Albertville, now Kalemie, on de western shore of Lake Tanganyika. Insyd December 1915, de two boats attacked de Germans and captured de gunboat ''Kingani''. Another German vessel, ''Hedwig'', be sunk insyd February 1916, leaving ''Götzen'' as de only German vessel controlling de lake. To stop Allied forces from taking de ship, Zimmer scuttled am on 26 July 1916. Dem later raise de vessel insyd 1924 wey dem rename am MV ''Liemba''.<ref name="r94"/> ==References== <ref name="r1">Yohannes, Okbazghi (2008). ''Water resources and inter-riparian relations in the Nile basin''. SUNY Press. p. 127.</ref> <ref name="r2">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika {{!}} Lake Tanganyika {{!}} World Lake Database - ILEC |url=https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3587 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=wldb.ilec.or.jp}}</ref> <ref name="r3">[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1671 "Tanganyika"]. ''Ramsar Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018.</ref> <ref name="r4">Wells, John C. (2008). ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'' (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.</ref> <ref name="r5">Burton, Richard Francis (1965). Richards, Charles (ed.). ''Burton and Lake Tanganyika''. Dar Es Salaam: East African Literature Bureau. OCLC 180480726.</ref> <ref name="r6">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/lakes/lake-tanganyika/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=Zambia Tourism |language=en-US}}</ref> <ref name="r7">Lewis, R. (16 May 2010). [https://news.brown.edu/articles/2010/05/tanganyika "Brown Geologists Show Unprecedented Warming in Lake Tanganyika"]. Brown University. Retrieved 25 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r8">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/worlds-largest-lakes-2228655 "World's largest lakes | Description, Area, & Facts | Britannica"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 October 2025.</ref> <ref name="r9">[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dafr06.html "Datbase Summary: Lake Tanganyika"]. International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r10">Kullander, S.O.; Roberts, T.R. (2011). "Out of Lake Tanganyika: endemic lake fishes inhabit rapids of the Lukuga River". ''Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters''. 22 (4): 355-376.</ref> <ref name="r11">Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. US: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 366-367. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.</ref> <ref name="r12">Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-57033-6.</ref> <ref name="r13">Cohen; Soreghan; Scholz (1993). "Estimating the age of formation of lakes: An example from Lake Tanganyika, East African Rift system". ''Geology''. 21 (6): 511-514. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021&lt;0511:ETAOFO&gt;2.3.CO;2.</ref> <ref name="r14">De Wever; Muylaert; Van der Gucht; Pirlot; Cocquyt; Descy; Plisnier; Vyverman (2005). "Bacterial Community Composition in Lake Tanganyika: Vertical and Horizontal Heterogeneity". ''Applied and Environmental Microbiology''. 71 (9): 5029-5037. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5029-5037.2005.</ref> <ref name="r15">Edmond; Stallard; Craigh; Weiss; Coulter (1993). "Nutrient chemistry of the water column of Lake Tanganyika". ''Limnology and Oceanography''. 38 (4): 725-738. doi:10.4319/lo.1993.38.4.0725.</ref> <ref name="r16">O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Alin, Simone R.; Plisnier, Pierre-Denis; Cohen, Andrew S.; Mckee, Brent A. (2003). "Climate change decreases aquatic ecosystem productivity of Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Nature''. 424 (6950): 766-768. doi:10.1038/nature01833.</ref> <ref name="r17">Jensen, M.R. (8 August 2016). "Lake Tanganyika Fisheries Declining From Global Warming". University of Arizona. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r18">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). "Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution". ''Freshwater Forum''. 20 (1): 4-64.</ref> <ref name="r19">Hutter; Yongqi; Chubarenko (2011). ''Physics of Lakes, volume 1: Foundation of the Mathematical and Physical Background''. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-642-15178-1.</ref> <ref name="r20">Wright, J.J.; Page, L.M. (2006). "Taxonomic revision of Lake Tanganyikan Synodontis (Siluriformes: Mochokidae)". ''Florida Museum of Natural History Bulletin''. 46(4): 99-154.</ref> <ref name="r21">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (1987). ''Ecological Studies in Tropical Fish Communities''. ISBN 0-521-28064-8.</ref> <ref name="r22">Ryan, Emily; Todd, Jonathan A.; McGlue, Michael; Kimirei, Ismael; Soreghan, Michael (2017). "Variation in Taphonomic Character of Shell Beds in Lake Tanganyika, Africa: Paleoenvironmental and Stratigraphic Implications of Shell Beds in Lakes". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 304608. doi:10.1130/abs/2017am-304608.</ref> <ref name="r23">Spawls, Howell, Drewes, and Ashe (2002). ''A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa''. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-656470-1.</ref> <ref name="r24">O'Shea, Mark; Mcintyre, P.B. (2005). "Boulengerina annulata stormsi (Storm's water cobra). Attempted predation". ''Herpetological Review''. 36 (2): 189.</ref> <ref name="r25">Dierkes; Taborsky; Kohler (1999). "Reproductive parasitism of broodcare helpers in a cooperatively breeding fish". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 10 (5): 510-515. doi:10.1093/beheco/10.5.510.</ref> <ref name="r26">Balshine-Earn; Lotem (1998). "Individual recognition in a cooperatively breeding cichlid: Evidence from video playback experiments". ''Behaviour''. 135 (3): 369-386. doi:10.1163/156853998793066221.</ref> <ref name="r27">Werner; Balshine; Leach; Lotem (2003). "Helping opportunities and space segregation in cooperatively breeding cichlids". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 14 (6): 749-756. doi:10.1093/beheco/arg067.</ref> <ref name="r28">Kelly West (28 February 2001). "Results and Experiences of the UNDP/GEF Conservation Initiative (RAF/92/G32) in Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia". IW:LEARN.</ref> <ref name="r29">Craig Mortiff (24 December 2009). "Lake Tanganyika and its Diverse Cichlids". Cichlid Fish Forum.</ref> <ref name="r30">Takahashi, T.; Hori, M. (2012). "Genetic and Morphological Evidence Implies Existence of Two Sympatric Species in Cyathopharynx furcifer from Lake Tanganyika". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 980879. doi:10.1155/2012/980879.</ref> <ref name="r31">Kornfield, Ivy; Smith, Peter A. (2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics''. 31: 163-196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> <ref name="r32">Meyer, Britta; Matchiner, Michael; Salburger, Walter (2013). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r33">Turner, Seehausen; Knight, Allender; Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology''. 10 (3): 793-806. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x.</ref> <ref name="r34">Seehausen, O. (2015). "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations - inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification". ''New Phytologist''. 207 (2): 304-312. doi:10.1111/nph.13450.</ref> <ref name="r35">Nishida, M. (1991). "Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary reservoir of old lineages of East African cichlid fishes: Inferences from allozyme data". ''Experientia''. 47 (9): 974-979. doi:10.1007/bf01929896.</ref> <ref name="r36">Sparks; Smith (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes". ''Cladistics''. 20 (6): 501-517. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00038.x.</ref> <ref name="r37">Kirchberger; Sefc; Sturmbauer; Koblmuller (2012). "Evolutionary History of Lake Tanganyika's Predatory Deepwater Cichlids". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 716209. doi:10.1155/2012/716209.</ref> <ref name="r38">Loiselle, Paul (1994). ''The Cichlid Aquarium''. p. 304. Tetra Press, Germany. ISBN 978-1564651464.</ref> <ref name="r39">Lindqvist, O.V.; Mölsä, H.; Solonen, K.; Sarvala, J., editors (1999). ''From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes''. pp. 213-214. Springer. ISBN 978-0792360179.</ref> <ref name="r40">Golcher-Benavides J.; Wagner C.E. (2019). "Playing out Liem's Paradox: Opportunistic Piscivory across Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids". ''The American Naturalist''. 194 (2): 260-267. doi:10.1086/704169.</ref> <ref name="r41">Schliewen, U. (1992). ''Aquarium Fish''. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.</ref> <ref name="r42">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus multifasciatus". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r43">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus similis". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r44">"The 10 biggest cichlids". ''Practical Fishkeeping''. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r45">"tanganyika biotope aquarium". Aquariums Life. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> <ref name="r46">Meyer; Matchiner; Salburger (2015). "Lake Tanganyika - A 'Melting Pot' of Ancient and Young Cichlid Lineages?" ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (7): e0125043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125043.</ref> <ref name="r47">Weiss; Cotterill; Schliewen (2015). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r48">Takahashi, T. (2008). "Description of a new cichlid fish species of the genus Benthochromis from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 72 (3): 603-613. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01727.x.</ref> <ref name="r49">Takahashi, T.; Nakaya, K. (2003). "New species of Cyphotilapia from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Copeia''. 2003 (4): 824-832. doi:10.1643/ia03-148.1.</ref> <ref name="r50">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Cyprichromis microlepidotus". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60487A12363286. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60487A12363286.en.</ref> <ref name="r51">Smith, M.P. (1998). ''Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids''. pp. 9-10. ISBN 0-7641-0615-5.</ref> <ref name="r52">"Ophthalmotilapia nasuta". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r53">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Eretmodus cyanostictus". FishBase. April 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r54">"Species in the Tanganyika". FishBase table. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r55">Lowe-McConnell, R. (2009). "Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems". ''Freshwater Reviews''. 2 (2): 131-151. doi:10.1608/frj-2.2.2.</ref> <ref name="r56">"Julidochromis marlieri (Marlier's Julie)". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r57">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Gnathochromis permaxillaris". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60493A12364587. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60493A12364587.en.</ref> <ref name="r58">Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus". ''BMC Biology''. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8.</ref> <ref name="r59">Ntakimazi, G. (2006). "Oreochromis tanganicae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60625A12387918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60625A12387918.en.</ref> <ref name="r60">Begon, M.; Fitter, A.H. (1995). ''Advances in Ecological Research'', vol. 26, p. 203. ISBN 0-12-013926-X.</ref> <ref name="r61">Salzburger; Niederstätter; Brandstätter; Berger; Parson; Snoeks; Sturmbauer (2006). "Colour-assortative mating among populations of Tropheus moorii". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B''. 273 (1584): 257-266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3321.</ref> <ref name="r62">Robert Toman (2017). "Tropheus Genus Evolution". Cichlid World. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r63">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Lamprichthys". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r64">Brown; Britz; Bills; Rüber; Day (2011). "Pectoral fin loss in the Mastacembelidae: a new species from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Zoology''. 284 (4): 286-293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00804.x.</ref> <ref name="r65">Wright, J.J.; Bailey, R.M. (2012). "Systematic revision of the formerly monotypic genus Tanganikallabes". ''Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society''. 165 (1): 121-142. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00789.x.</ref> <ref name="r66">"Synodontis grandiops - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r67">"Synodontis lucipinnis - Mochokidae" and "Synodontis petricola - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r68">Wright, J.J. (2017). "A new diminutive genus and species of catfish from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 91 (3): 789-805. doi:10.1111/jfb.13374.</ref> <ref name="r69">Brown; Rüber; Bills; Day (2010). "Mastacembelid eels support Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary hotspot of diversification". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 10: 188. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-188.</ref> <ref name="r70">Seddon, M.; Appleton, C.; Van Damme, D.; Graf, D. (2011). "Freshwater molluscs of Africa: diversity, distribution, and conservation". In Darwall et al. (eds.). IUCN. pp. 92-119. ISBN 978-2-8317-1345-8.</ref> <ref name="r71">Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance''. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5.</ref> <ref name="r72">West, K.; Cohen, A. (1996). "Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Evolution''. 50 (2): 672-682. doi:10.2307/2410840.</ref> <ref name="r73">Koblmüller; Duftner; Sefc; Aibara; Stipacek; Blanc; Egger; Sturmbauer (2007). "Reticulate phylogeny of gastropod-shell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 7: 7. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-7.</ref> <ref name="r74">Marijnissen; Michel; Daniels; Erpenbeck; Menken; Schram (2006). "Molecular evidence for recent divergence of Lake Tanganyika endemic crabs". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 40 (2): 628-634. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.025.</ref> <ref name="r75">Fryer, G. (2006). "Evolution in ancient lakes". ''Hydrobiologia''. 568 (1): 131-142. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0322-x.</ref> <ref name="r76">De Grave, S. (2013). "Macrobrachium moorei". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T196882A2477768. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T196882A2477768.en.</ref> <ref name="r77">Martens; Schön; Meisch; Horne (2008). "Global diversity of ostracods in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 185-193. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9245-4.</ref> <ref name="r78">Gitter, F.; Gross, M.; Piller, W.E. (2015). "Sub-Decadal Resolution in Sediments of Late Miocene Lake Pannon Reveals Speciation of Cyprideis". ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (4): e0109360. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109360.</ref> <ref name="r79">Schön, I.; Martens, K. (2012). "Molecular analyses of ostracod flocks from Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 682 (1): 91-110. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0935-6.</ref> <ref name="r80">Cirhuza, D.M.; Plisnier, P.-D. (2016). "Composition and seasonal variations in abundance of Copepod populations from northern Lake Tanganyika". ''Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management''. 19 (4): 401-410. doi:10.1080/14634988.2016.1251277.</ref> <ref name="r81">De Grave, S.; Cai, Y.; Amnker, A. (2008). "Global diversity of shrimps in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 287-293. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9024-2.</ref> <ref name="r82">De Grave, S. (2013). "Limnocaridina iridinae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T198058A2510158. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T198058A2510158.en.</ref> <ref name="r83">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r84">Cumberlidge, N.; Meyer, K.S. (2011). "A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa". Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> <ref name="r85">Cumberlidge, N.; Clark, P.F. (2017). "Description of three new species of Potamonautes from the Lake Victoria region". ''European Journal of Taxonomy''. 371: 1-19. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.371.</ref> <ref name="r86">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 44. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r87">Salonen; Högmander; Langenberg; Mölsä; Sarvala; Tarvainen; Tiirola (2012). "Limnocnida tanganyicae medusae: a semiautonomous microcosm in the food web of Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 690(1): 97-112.</ref> <ref name="r88">"Global warming is killing off tropical lake fish - Study of Lake Tanganyika". Mongabay. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r89">McGrath, M. (8 August 2016). "Decline of fishing in Lake Tanganyika 'due to warming'". BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r90">''East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> <ref name="r91">''Lake Tanganyika and Its Life''. Oxford Press. 1991.</ref> <ref name="r92">Livingstone, David (2008). ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to His Death''. Vol. 1. BiblioBazaar. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-554-26021-1.</ref> <ref name="r93">Crowley, Daniel J. (Summer 1966). "An African Aesthetic". ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism''. 24 (4): 519-524. doi:10.2307/428776.</ref> <ref name="r94">Foden, Giles (2004). ''Mimi and Toutou Go Forth - The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika''. Penguin.</ref> ==External links== {{sister project links||d=Q5511|c=Category:Lake Tanganyika|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Lake Tanganyika|m=no|mw=no|s=Lake Tanganyika|wikt=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lake Tanganyika}} [[Category:Lake Tanganyika| ]] [[Category:Ancient lakes|Tanganyika]] [[Category:African Great Lakes|Tangyanyika]] [[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Burundi|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Zambia|Tanganyika]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Burundi]] [[Category:Ecoregions of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Tanzania]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Zambia]] [[Category:Tanganyika Province]] [[Category:Burundi–Democratic Republic of the Congo border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Tanzania border]] [[Category:Burundi–Tanzania border]] [[Category:Tanzania–Zambia border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Zambia border]] [[Category:Border tripoints]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Zambia]] [[Category:Meromictic lakes]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] h6t9zzka338qhea3xu1bs4xchuci3kv 99344 99343 2026-05-31T16:56:11Z DaSupremo 9 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) to last revision by [[User:Kofiarkohbaidoo|Kofiarkohbaidoo]] 99282 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Tanganyika''' (Kirundi: ''Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika''; Swahili: ''Ziwa Tanganyika'') be one [[African Great Lakes|African Great Lake]].<ref name="r5" /> E be de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume, den e san be de second deepest lake for de world, after [[Lake Baikal]] for [[Siberia]].<ref name="r6" /><ref name="r7" /> E san be de world ein longest freshwater lake, den de sixth-largest lake by area.<ref name="r8"/> Four countries dey share de lake: [[Tanzania]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Burundi]] den [[Zambia]]. Tanzania get about 46% of de lake, while Democratic Republic of the Congo get about 40%. De lake drain through [[Lukuga River]] enter [[Congo River]] system, wey later enter [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Banana, Democratic Republic of de Congo.<ref name="r2"/> ==Geography== Lake Tanganyika dey insyd de [[Albertine Rift]], wey be de western branch of de [[East African Rift]]. Mountain walls of de valley surround am. E be de largest rift lake for Africa and de second-largest freshwater lake by volume for de world. E be de deepest lake for Africa, den e hold de largest freshwater volume for de continent, about 16% of de world ein available fresh water.<ref name="r2"/><ref name="r9"/> De lake stretch about 676 km from north to south, and ein average width be about 50 km. E cover about 32,000 km², get shoreline of about 1,900 km, mean depth of about 572 m, den maximum depth of about 1,471 m for de northern basin. E hold estimated water volume of about 18,750 km³.<ref name="r2" /><ref name="r9" /> De lake ein catchment area be about 231,000 km². Two main rivers, plus plenty small rivers and streams, flow enter de lake. Because steep mountains surround de lake, plenty of de rivers and streams no dey long. De only major outflow be Lukuga River, wey empty into Congo River drainage. Rainfall and evaporation play bigger role for de lake ein water balance than rivers. At least 90% of de water wey enter de lake come from rain wey fall directly on de lake surface, and at least 90% of de water loss come from direct evaporation.<ref name="r10"/> De main river wey flow enter de lake be Ruzizi River. E form about 10,000 years ago, and e enter de northern side of de lake from [[Lake Kivu]].<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi River, wey be Tanzania ein second-largest river, enter de eastern side of Lake Tanganyika.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi be older than Lake Tanganyika, and before de lake form, e likely be headwater of de Lualaba River, de main headstream of Congo River.<ref name="r10"/> De lake get complex history for how water flow patterns dey change. De reason dey include ein high altitude, great depth, slow refill rate, and mountain location inside volcanic area wey climate changes affect. For de past, de lake rarely get outflow to de sea, so some scholars describe am as almost endorheic. De lake ein connection to sea depend on high water level wey allow water overflow through Lukuga River into Congo River.<ref name="r11" /> When de lake no dey overflow, sand bars and weed masses normally block de exit into Lukuga River, and de river then depend on ein own tributaries, especially Niemba River, to maintain flow.<ref name="r10"/> For some periods, de lake fit get different inflows and outflows. Scholars propose say water from higher [[Lake Rukwa]], access to [[Lake Malawi]], and one exit route to de [[Nile]] fit exist for some time inside de lake ein history.<ref name="r12"/> [[File:View of Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Lake Taganyika ein eastern shore for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] Lake Tanganyika be ancient lake, one of only about twenty lakes wey dey more than one million years old. Ein three basins were separate lakes during periods wey water level drop very low. De central basin begin form about 9-12 million years ago, de northern basin about 7-8 million years ago, and de southern basin about 2-4 million years ago.<ref name="r13"/> ==Water characteristics== [[File:Clear lake Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Clear water lake of Lake Tanganyika for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] De lake ein water be alkaline. De pH be around 9 from 0 to 100 m depth.<ref name="r14" /> Below dat level, de pH be around 8.7, and e gradually fall to 8.3-8.5 for de deepest parts of Tanganyika.<ref name="r14" /> Electric conductivity follow similar pattern, from about 670 μS/cm for de upper part to about 690 μS/cm for de deepest part.<ref name="r14" /> Surface temperature normally range from about 24 °C for de southern part of de lake during early August to about 28-29 °C during late rainy season around March-April.<ref name="r15" /> For depths greater than 400 m, de temperature remain very stable around 23.1-23.4 °C.<ref name="r16" /> De lake water has gradually warmed since de 19th century, and dis warming has become faster since de 1950s because of global warming.<ref name="r17" /> De lake dey stratified, and seasonal mixing normally no pass depth of 150 m.<ref name="r15" /> Mixing happen mainly through wind-driven upwellings for de south, even though upwellings and downwellings also occur for some other parts of de lake.<ref name="r18" /> Sake of de stratification, de deep sections contain "fossil water".<ref name="r19" /> De deeper parts lack oxygen, so fish and other aerobic organisms mostly dey limited to de upper part of de lake. Dis oxygen limit normally dey around 100 m depth for de northern part and around 240-250 m for de southern part.<ref name="r20" /><ref name="r21" /> De deepest oxygen-free sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide and be almost lifeless,<ref name="r6" /> except bacteria.<ref name="r14" /><ref name="r22" /> ==Biology== ===Reptiles=== Lake Tanganyika and ein associated wetlands get [[Nile crocodile]]s, including de famous giant crocodile Gustave. De area also get Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, den pan hinged terrapins.<ref name="r23" /> Storm's water cobra, wey be threatened subspecies of banded water cobra, dey feed mainly on fish and only dey Lake Tanganyika, where e prefer rocky shores.<ref name="r23"/><ref name="r24"/> ===Cichlid fishes=== Lake Tanganyika get at least 250 endemic species of [[cichlid]]s,<ref name="r28" /> and more undescribed species likely still dey.<ref name="r29"/> Almost all de lake ein cichlid species, about 98%, dey only there. Because of dis, de lake be important biological resource for studying speciation and evolution.<ref name="r30"/><ref name="r31"/> Cichlids of de African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent one of de most diverse examples of adaptive radiation among vertebrates.<ref name="r32"/> Some endemic species enter small part of de upper Lukuga River, wey be Lake Tanganyika ein outflow. Further spread into Congo River basin be limited by geography and water chemistry. Tanganyika lake environment be more stable than de rapids and fast-flowing sections of Congo River. De lake water be alkaline, get higher pH, and contain more calcium and minerals than Congo River acidic and sediment-rich waters. For some areas of Congo away from rapids, sediment and organic matter create blackwater with high tannin concentration from wood and leaves, and cichlids no thrive well there.<ref name="r10"/> Lake Tanganyika get fewer cichlid species than [[Lake Malawi]] or [[Lake Victoria]], but ein cichlids be more morphologically and genetically diverse.<ref name="r32" /><ref name="r34" /> Dis link to de old age of Tanganyika, because de lake be much older than those lakes. Tanganyika get de largest number of endemic cichlid genera among African lakes.<ref name="r33"/><ref name="r35"/> All Tanganyika cichlids dey inside subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Out of de 10 tribes inside dis subfamily, half dey largely or completely restricted to de lake: Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini den Tropheini.<ref name="r36" /> Another three tribes, Haplochromini, Tilapiini den Tylochromini, also get species inside de lake. Some researchers propose say Tanganyika cichlids fit be split into as many as 12-16 tribes, including Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini den Trematocarini.<ref name="r32"/> Most Tanganyika cichlids live along de shoreline down to about 100 m depth, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m.<ref name="r37" /> ''Trematocara'' species have been found at more than 300 m depth, deeper than any known cichlid.<ref name="r38" /> Some deepwater genera, such as ''Bathybates'', ''Gnathochromis'', ''Hemibates'' den ''Xenochromis'', have been caught for places wey almost no oxygen dey, and how dem survive there still no dey clear.<ref name="r21"/> Tanganyika cichlids normally be benthic, meaning dem dey near de bottom, or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlid be truly pelagic and offshore, except some piscivorous ''Bathybates''. Two of dem, ''B. fasciatus'' den ''B. leo'', mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r37"/><ref name="r39"/> De cichlids get plenty feeding styles, including herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. Even species with specialized diets fit change and feed opportunistically on ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'' and ''Limnothrissa miodon'' when prey concentration rise high.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r40"/> Breeding behavior among de fishes fall into two main groups: substrate or sand spawners, often for caves or rock crevices, and mouthbrooders.<ref name="r41"/> Among de endemic species, two of de world ein smallest cichlids be ''Neolamprologus multifasciatus'' and ''N. similis''. Both be shell dwellers and grow only about 4-5 cm. One of de largest be giant cichlid, ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'', which fit reach 90 cm.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r42"/><ref name="r43"/><ref name="r44"/> Many Lake Tanganyika cichlids, including species from ''Altolamprologus'', ''Cyprichromis'', ''Eretmodus'', ''Julidochromis'', ''Lamprologus'', ''Neolamprologus'', ''Tropheus'' den ''Xenotilapia'', be popular aquarium fishes because of dem bright colours, patterns and interesting behaviour. Aquarium hobbyists also like to recreate Lake Tanganyika biotope, and many of de species dey bred successfully in captivity today.<ref name="r41"/><ref name="r45"/> ''Neolamprologus brichardi'' and ein close relative ''N. pulcher'' get complex social behaviours, and researchers have studied dem in detail.<ref name="r25"/><ref name="r26"/><ref name="r27"/> ====Cichlid tribes for Lake Tanganyika==== * '''Bathybatini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Bathybates ferox'' be benthic and piscivorous, but de genus also get pelagic species. Some researchers split de tribe into three, with Hemibatini and Trematocarini as other groups.<ref name="r37"/><ref name="r46"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Benthochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Benthochromis horii'' was scientifically described in 2008, but people often misidentify am as ''B. tricoti''.<ref name="r48"/> * '''Boulengerochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'' be one of de world ein largest cichlids and de only member of ein tribe.<ref name="r44"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Cyphotilapiini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' be one of two similar species inside de tribe.<ref name="r49"/> * '''Cyprichromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyprichromis microlepidotus'' and other members of dis tribe be open-water planktivores.<ref name="r50"/><ref name="r51"/> * '''Ectodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): Male ''Ophthalmotilapia nasuta'' be more colourful, get longer fins and longer nose than female.<ref name="r52"/> * '''Eretmodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Eretmodus cyanostictus'' live near de bottom for turbulent coastal surf zone, like other members of ein tribe.<ref name="r51"/><ref name="r53"/> * '''Haplochromini''': ''Astatotilapia burtoni'' be one of de few Tanganyika species inside dis tribe, unlike other African Great Lakes where plenty species belong to dis tribe.<ref name="r54"/><ref name="r55"/> * '''Lamprologini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Julidochromis marlieri'' dey popular for aquarium trade, where members of de genus dey known as "Julies".<ref name="r56"/> * '''Limnochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Gnathochromis permaxillaris'' be zooplanktivore with unusual protractile mouth.<ref name="r57"/> * '''Perissodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Perissodus microlepis'' be specialized scale-eating species.<ref name="r58"/> * '''Tilapiini''': ''Oreochromis tanganicae'' be one of de common coastal species wey dey local fish markets.<ref name="r59"/> * '''Tropheini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Tropheus moorii'', including de "red" Chimba morph, vary plenty, and de taxonomy of some morphs still dey debated.<ref name="r60"/><ref name="r61"/><ref name="r62"/> ===Other fish=== Lake Tanganyika get more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish, and about 60% of dem be endemic.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r28"/><ref name="r64"/><ref name="r65"/> For de open waters of de pelagic zone, four non-cichlid species dominate. Two species of "Tanganyika sardine", ''Limnothrissa miodon'' den ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'', form de largest fish biomass for dat zone. Dem be important prey for forktail lates, ''Lates microlepis'', and sleek lates, ''L. stappersii''. Two other lates, ''L. angustifrons'' den ''L. mariae'', also dey de lake, but dem be mainly benthic hunters. All four lates be endemic to Tanganyika, and overfishing has made larger individuals rare today.<ref name="r39"/> One unusual fish group for de lake be endemic facultative brood-parasitic "cuckoo catfish", including ''Synodontis grandiops'' and ''S. multipunctatus''. Some similar species, such as ''S. lucipinnis'' and ''S. petricola'', are often confused with dem, and e no dey clear if dem get de same behaviour. De brood parasites often lay eggs at de same time as mouthbrooding cichlids. De cichlid pick de eggs into ein mouth as if dem be ein own. When de catfish eggs hatch, de young ones eat de cichlid eggs.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r41"/><ref name="r66"/><ref name="r67"/> Six catfish genera dey completely restricted to de lake basin: ''Bathybagrus'', ''Dinotopterus'', ''Lophiobagrus'', ''Phyllonemus'', ''Pseudotanganikallabes'' and ''Tanganikallabes''. Six species of ''Chrysichthys'' catfish are only found inside de Tanganyika basin, even though de genus itself no be endemic. Dem live for shallow and relatively deep waters. For de deep habitat, dem be main predators and scavengers.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r54"/><ref name="r68"/> De lake get unique evolutionary radiation of 15 ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, all except one endemic to de basin. Other African Great Lakes also get ''Synodontis'' catfish, endemic catfish genera and ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, but Tanganyika ein high diversity be unusual and likely link to de lake ein old age.<ref name="r64"/><ref name="r69"/> Some non-endemic fish for de lake be widespread African species, while others are shared only with Malagarasi and Congo River basins. Examples include Congo bichir (''Polypterus congicus''), goliath tigerfish (''Hydrocynus goliath''), ''Citharinus citharus'', six-banded distichodus (''Distichodus sexfasciatus'') and mbu puffer (''Tetraodon mbu'').<ref name="r54"/> De Tanganyika killifish, ''Lamprichthys tanganicanus'', be de only member of ein genus.<ref name="r63"/> ===Molluscs and crustaceans=== Lake Tanganyika get 83 freshwater snail species, of which 65 be endemic, and 11 bivalve species, of which 8 be endemic.<ref name="r70"/> Among de endemic bivalves, three genera get only one species each: ''Grandidieria burtoni'', ''Pseudospatha tanganyicensis'' den ''Brazzaea anceyi''.<ref name="r70"/> Many of de snails no be ordinary for freshwater species because dem get thick shells or strong shell sculpture, features common among marine snails. People call dem thalassoids, meaning "marine-like". All Tanganyika thalassoids be part of Prosobranchia and be endemic to de lake. At first, people believed say dem relate to similar marine snails, but researchers now know say dem no be related. Their shape likely come from de lake ein diverse habitats and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and ''Platythelphusa'' crabs.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r71"/><ref name="r72"/> Seventeen freshwater snail genera be endemic to de lake, including ''Hirthia'', ''Lavigeria'', ''Paramelania'', ''Reymondia'', ''Spekia'', ''Stanleya'', ''Tanganyicia'' and ''Tiphobia''.<ref name="r71"/> About 30 non-thalassoid snail species dey de lake, but only five of dem be endemic, including ''Ferrissia tanganyicensis'' and ''Neothauma tanganyicense''. ''Neothauma tanganyicense'' be de largest Tanganyika snail, and small shell-dwelling cichlids often use ein shell.<ref name="r71"/><ref name="r73"/> Crustaceans also be highly diverse for Tanganyika. De lake get more than 200 species, and more than half be endemic. Dem include 10 species of freshwater crabs, with 9 ''Platythelphusa'' species and ''Potamonautes platynotus'', all endemic; at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp from ''Atyella'', ''Caridella'' and ''Limnocaridina''; one endemic palaemonid shrimp, ''Macrobrachium moorei''; about 100 ostracods, including many endemics; and several copepods.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r74"/><ref name="r75"/><ref name="r76"/><ref name="r77"/><ref name="r78"/><ref name="r79"/><ref name="r80"/> ''Limnocaridina iridinae'' live inside de mantle cavity of de unionid mussel ''Pleiodon spekei''. Dis make am one of only two known commensal freshwater shrimp species; de other be sponge-living ''Caridina spongicola'' from Lake Towuti for Indonesia.<ref name="r81"/><ref name="r82"/> Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika pass all others for crustacean and freshwater snail richness, both by total number of species and number of endemics. For example, de only other Rift Valley lakes with endemic freshwater crabs be Lake Kivu and Lake Victoria, with two species each.<ref name="r83"/><ref name="r84"/><ref name="r85"/> ===Other invertebrates=== Knowledge about other invertebrate groups for Lake Tanganyika no dey complete. Still, researchers have described at least 20 species of leeches, including 12 endemics; 9 sponges, with 7 endemic; 6 bryozoa, with 2 endemic; 11 flatworms, with 7 endemic; 20 nematodes, with 7 endemic; 28 annelids, with 17 endemic; and de small hydrozoan jellyfish ''Limnocnida tanganyicae''.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r86"/><ref name="r87"/> ==Fishing== Lake Tanganyika support major fishery. Depending on de source, de fishery provide 25-40% or about 60% of animal protein for people wey live inside de region.<ref name="r17"/><ref name="r88"/><ref name="r89"/> Fish from Lake Tanganyika dey exported across East Africa. Major commercial fishing begin for de mid-1950s. Together with global warming, fishing pressure has affected fish populations and caused sharp declines. In 2016, de total catch was estimated to reach up to 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="r16"/><ref name="r17"/><ref name="r89"/> ==History== Early ''Homo sapiens'' likely affected de Lake Tanganyika region during de Stone Age. De period from Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age dey described as age of advanced hunter-gatherers.<ref name="r90"/> Local people around de lake used many fishing methods. Most of de methods used lantern as lure because some fish dey attracted to light. Three common methods were Lusenga, lift net, and Chiromila. Lusenga be wide net wey one person use from canoe. Lift net involve dropping net deep below boat with two parallel canoes, then pulling am up together. Chiromila use three canoes: one canoe stay with lantern, another hold one end of de net, and de third canoe circle round to meet de net.<ref name="r91"/> De first known Westerners to find de lake were British explorers [[Richard Francis Burton|Richard Burton]] and [[John Hanning Speke|John Speke]] in 1858. Dem located de lake when dem dey search for de source of de Nile River. Speke continued and later found Lake Victoria, de actual source. Later, [[David Livingstone]] passed by de lake. He recorded de name "Liemba" for de southern part, likely from Fipa language. "Tanganyika" means "stars" in Luvale language.<ref name="r92"/><ref name="r93"/> During [[World War I]], de lake became de scene of de [[Battle for Lake Tanganyika]]. With help from ''Graf Goetzen'', de Germans controlled de lake at de early stage of de war. De ship carried cargo and people across de lake, and also served as base for surprise attacks on Allied troops. Because of dis, Allied forces needed to control de lake. Under Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, de British Royal Navy moved two armed motor boats, HMS ''Mimi'' and HMS ''Toutou'', from England to de lake by rail, road and river to Albertville, now Kalemie, on de western shore of Lake Tanganyika. In December 1915, de two boats attacked de Germans and captured de gunboat ''Kingani''. Another German vessel, ''Hedwig'', was sunk in February 1916, leaving ''Götzen'' as de only German vessel controlling de lake. To stop Allied forces from taking de ship, Zimmer scuttled am on 26 July 1916. De vessel was later raised in 1924 and renamed MV ''Liemba''.<ref name="r94"/> ==See also== * [[Cryptodepression]] ==References== <references> <ref name="r1">Yohannes, Okbazghi (2008). ''Water resources and inter-riparian relations in the Nile basin''. SUNY Press. p. 127.</ref> <ref name="r2">"LAKE TANGANYIKA". ''World Lake Database'', International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. Retrieved 12 January 2025. https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3587</ref> <ref name="r3">"Tanganyika". ''Ramsar Sites Information Service''. Retrieved 25 April 2018. https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1671</ref> <ref name="r4">Wells, John C. (2008). ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'' (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.</ref> <ref name="r5">Burton, Richard Francis (1965). Richards, Charles (ed.). ''Burton and Lake Tanganyika''. Dar Es Salaam: East African Literature Bureau. OCLC 180480726.</ref> <ref name="r6">"Lake Tanganyika". Zambia Tourism. Retrieved 14 March 2008. http://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/lakes/lake-tanganyika</ref> <ref name="r7">Lewis, R. (16 May 2010). "Brown Geologists Show Unprecedented Warming in Lake Tanganyika". Brown University. Retrieved 25 March 2017. https://news.brown.edu/articles/2010/05/tanganyika</ref> <ref name="r8">"World's largest lakes | Description, Area, & Facts | Britannica". ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 October 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/worlds-largest-lakes-2228655</ref> <ref name="r9">"Datbase Summary: Lake Tanganyika". International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. Retrieved 14 March 2008. http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dafr06.html</ref> <ref name="r10">Kullander, S.O.; Roberts, T.R. (2011). "Out of Lake Tanganyika: endemic lake fishes inhabit rapids of the Lukuga River". ''Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters''. 22 (4): 355-376.</ref> <ref name="r11">Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. US: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 366-367. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.</ref> <ref name="r12">Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-57033-6.</ref> <ref name="r13">Cohen; Soreghan; Scholz (1993). "Estimating the age of formation of lakes: An example from Lake Tanganyika, East African Rift system". ''Geology''. 21 (6): 511-514. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021&lt;0511:ETAOFO&gt;2.3.CO;2.</ref> <ref name="r14">De Wever; Muylaert; Van der Gucht; Pirlot; Cocquyt; Descy; Plisnier; Vyverman (2005). "Bacterial Community Composition in Lake Tanganyika: Vertical and Horizontal Heterogeneity". ''Applied and Environmental Microbiology''. 71 (9): 5029-5037. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5029-5037.2005.</ref> <ref name="r15">Edmond; Stallard; Craigh; Weiss; Coulter (1993). "Nutrient chemistry of the water column of Lake Tanganyika". ''Limnology and Oceanography''. 38 (4): 725-738. doi:10.4319/lo.1993.38.4.0725.</ref> <ref name="r16">O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Alin, Simone R.; Plisnier, Pierre-Denis; Cohen, Andrew S.; Mckee, Brent A. (2003). "Climate change decreases aquatic ecosystem productivity of Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Nature''. 424 (6950): 766-768. doi:10.1038/nature01833.</ref> <ref name="r17">Jensen, M.R. (8 August 2016). "Lake Tanganyika Fisheries Declining From Global Warming". University of Arizona. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r18">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). "Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution". ''Freshwater Forum''. 20 (1): 4-64.</ref> <ref name="r19">Hutter; Yongqi; Chubarenko (2011). ''Physics of Lakes, volume 1: Foundation of the Mathematical and Physical Background''. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-642-15178-1.</ref> <ref name="r20">Wright, J.J.; Page, L.M. (2006). "Taxonomic revision of Lake Tanganyikan Synodontis (Siluriformes: Mochokidae)". ''Florida Museum of Natural History Bulletin''. 46(4): 99-154.</ref> <ref name="r21">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (1987). ''Ecological Studies in Tropical Fish Communities''. ISBN 0-521-28064-8.</ref> <ref name="r22">Ryan, Emily; Todd, Jonathan A.; McGlue, Michael; Kimirei, Ismael; Soreghan, Michael (2017). "Variation in Taphonomic Character of Shell Beds in Lake Tanganyika, Africa: Paleoenvironmental and Stratigraphic Implications of Shell Beds in Lakes". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 304608. doi:10.1130/abs/2017am-304608.</ref> <ref name="r23">Spawls, Howell, Drewes, and Ashe (2002). ''A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa''. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-656470-1.</ref> <ref name="r24">O'Shea, Mark; Mcintyre, P.B. (2005). "Boulengerina annulata stormsi (Storm's water cobra). Attempted predation". ''Herpetological Review''. 36 (2): 189.</ref> <ref name="r25">Dierkes; Taborsky; Kohler (1999). "Reproductive parasitism of broodcare helpers in a cooperatively breeding fish". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 10 (5): 510-515. doi:10.1093/beheco/10.5.510.</ref> <ref name="r26">Balshine-Earn; Lotem (1998). "Individual recognition in a cooperatively breeding cichlid: Evidence from video playback experiments". ''Behaviour''. 135 (3): 369-386. doi:10.1163/156853998793066221.</ref> <ref name="r27">Werner; Balshine; Leach; Lotem (2003). "Helping opportunities and space segregation in cooperatively breeding cichlids". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 14 (6): 749-756. doi:10.1093/beheco/arg067.</ref> <ref name="r28">Kelly West (28 February 2001). "Results and Experiences of the UNDP/GEF Conservation Initiative (RAF/92/G32) in Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia". IW:LEARN.</ref> <ref name="r29">Craig Mortiff (24 December 2009). "Lake Tanganyika and its Diverse Cichlids". Cichlid Fish Forum.</ref> <ref name="r30">Takahashi, T.; Hori, M. (2012). "Genetic and Morphological Evidence Implies Existence of Two Sympatric Species in Cyathopharynx furcifer from Lake Tanganyika". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 980879. doi:10.1155/2012/980879.</ref> <ref name="r31">Kornfield, Ivy; Smith, Peter A. (2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics''. 31: 163-196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> <ref name="r32">Meyer, Britta; Matchiner, Michael; Salburger, Walter (2013). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r33">Turner, Seehausen; Knight, Allender; Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology''. 10 (3): 793-806. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x.</ref> <ref name="r34">Seehausen, O. (2015). "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations - inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification". ''New Phytologist''. 207 (2): 304-312. doi:10.1111/nph.13450.</ref> <ref name="r35">Nishida, M. (1991). "Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary reservoir of old lineages of East African cichlid fishes: Inferences from allozyme data". ''Experientia''. 47 (9): 974-979. doi:10.1007/bf01929896.</ref> <ref name="r36">Sparks; Smith (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes". ''Cladistics''. 20 (6): 501-517. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00038.x.</ref> <ref name="r37">Kirchberger; Sefc; Sturmbauer; Koblmuller (2012). "Evolutionary History of Lake Tanganyika's Predatory Deepwater Cichlids". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 716209. doi:10.1155/2012/716209.</ref> <ref name="r38">Loiselle, Paul (1994). ''The Cichlid Aquarium''. p. 304. Tetra Press, Germany. ISBN 978-1564651464.</ref> <ref name="r39">Lindqvist, O.V.; Mölsä, H.; Solonen, K.; Sarvala, J., editors (1999). ''From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes''. pp. 213-214. Springer. ISBN 978-0792360179.</ref> <ref name="r40">Golcher-Benavides J.; Wagner C.E. (2019). "Playing out Liem's Paradox: Opportunistic Piscivory across Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids". ''The American Naturalist''. 194 (2): 260-267. doi:10.1086/704169.</ref> <ref name="r41">Schliewen, U. (1992). ''Aquarium Fish''. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.</ref> <ref name="r42">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus multifasciatus". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r43">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus similis". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r44">"The 10 biggest cichlids". ''Practical Fishkeeping''. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.</ref> <ref name="r45">"tanganyika biotope aquarium". Aquariums Life. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> <ref name="r46">Meyer; Matchiner; Salburger (2015). "Lake Tanganyika - A 'Melting Pot' of Ancient and Young Cichlid Lineages?" ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (7): e0125043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125043.</ref> <ref name="r47">Weiss; Cotterill; Schliewen (2015). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> <ref name="r48">Takahashi, T. (2008). "Description of a new cichlid fish species of the genus Benthochromis from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 72 (3): 603-613. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01727.x.</ref> <ref name="r49">Takahashi, T.; Nakaya, K. (2003). "New species of Cyphotilapia from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Copeia''. 2003 (4): 824-832. doi:10.1643/ia03-148.1.</ref> <ref name="r50">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Cyprichromis microlepidotus". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60487A12363286. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60487A12363286.en.</ref> <ref name="r51">Smith, M.P. (1998). ''Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids''. pp. 9-10. ISBN 0-7641-0615-5.</ref> <ref name="r52">"Ophthalmotilapia nasuta". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r53">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Eretmodus cyanostictus". FishBase. April 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r54">"Species in the Tanganyika". FishBase table. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r55">Lowe-McConnell, R. (2009). "Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems". ''Freshwater Reviews''. 2 (2): 131-151. doi:10.1608/frj-2.2.2.</ref> <ref name="r56">"Julidochromis marlieri (Marlier's Julie)". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r57">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Gnathochromis permaxillaris". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60493A12364587. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60493A12364587.en.</ref> <ref name="r58">Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus". ''BMC Biology''. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8.</ref> <ref name="r59">Ntakimazi, G. (2006). "Oreochromis tanganicae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60625A12387918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60625A12387918.en.</ref> <ref name="r60">Begon, M.; Fitter, A.H. (1995). ''Advances in Ecological Research'', vol. 26, p. 203. ISBN 0-12-013926-X.</ref> <ref name="r61">Salzburger; Niederstätter; Brandstätter; Berger; Parson; Snoeks; Sturmbauer (2006). "Colour-assortative mating among populations of Tropheus moorii". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B''. 273 (1584): 257-266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3321.</ref> <ref name="r62">Robert Toman (2017). "Tropheus Genus Evolution". Cichlid World. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r63">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Lamprichthys". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> <ref name="r64">Brown; Britz; Bills; Rüber; Day (2011). "Pectoral fin loss in the Mastacembelidae: a new species from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Zoology''. 284 (4): 286-293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00804.x.</ref> <ref name="r65">Wright, J.J.; Bailey, R.M. (2012). "Systematic revision of the formerly monotypic genus Tanganikallabes". ''Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society''. 165 (1): 121-142. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00789.x.</ref> <ref name="r66">"Synodontis grandiops - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r67">"Synodontis lucipinnis - Mochokidae" and "Synodontis petricola - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> <ref name="r68">Wright, J.J. (2017). "A new diminutive genus and species of catfish from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 91 (3): 789-805. doi:10.1111/jfb.13374.</ref> <ref name="r69">Brown; Rüber; Bills; Day (2010). "Mastacembelid eels support Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary hotspot of diversification". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 10: 188. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-188.</ref> <ref name="r70">Seddon, M.; Appleton, C.; Van Damme, D.; Graf, D. (2011). "Freshwater molluscs of Africa: diversity, distribution, and conservation". In Darwall et al. (eds.). IUCN. pp. 92-119. ISBN 978-2-8317-1345-8.</ref> <ref name="r71">Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance''. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5.</ref> <ref name="r72">West, K.; Cohen, A. (1996). "Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Evolution''. 50 (2): 672-682. doi:10.2307/2410840.</ref> <ref name="r73">Koblmüller; Duftner; Sefc; Aibara; Stipacek; Blanc; Egger; Sturmbauer (2007). "Reticulate phylogeny of gastropod-shell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 7: 7. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-7.</ref> <ref name="r74">Marijnissen; Michel; Daniels; Erpenbeck; Menken; Schram (2006). "Molecular evidence for recent divergence of Lake Tanganyika endemic crabs". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 40 (2): 628-634. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.025.</ref> <ref name="r75">Fryer, G. (2006). "Evolution in ancient lakes". ''Hydrobiologia''. 568 (1): 131-142. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0322-x.</ref> <ref name="r76">De Grave, S. (2013). "Macrobrachium moorei". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T196882A2477768. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T196882A2477768.en.</ref> <ref name="r77">Martens; Schön; Meisch; Horne (2008). "Global diversity of ostracods in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 185-193. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9245-4.</ref> <ref name="r78">Gitter, F.; Gross, M.; Piller, W.E. (2015). "Sub-Decadal Resolution in Sediments of Late Miocene Lake Pannon Reveals Speciation of Cyprideis". ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (4): e0109360. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109360.</ref> <ref name="r79">Schön, I.; Martens, K. (2012). "Molecular analyses of ostracod flocks from Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 682 (1): 91-110. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0935-6.</ref> <ref name="r80">Cirhuza, D.M.; Plisnier, P.-D. (2016). "Composition and seasonal variations in abundance of Copepod populations from northern Lake Tanganyika". ''Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management''. 19 (4): 401-410. doi:10.1080/14634988.2016.1251277.</ref> <ref name="r81">De Grave, S.; Cai, Y.; Amnker, A. (2008). "Global diversity of shrimps in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 287-293. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9024-2.</ref> <ref name="r82">De Grave, S. (2013). "Limnocaridina iridinae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T198058A2510158. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T198058A2510158.en.</ref> <ref name="r83">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r84">Cumberlidge, N.; Meyer, K.S. (2011). "A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa". Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> <ref name="r85">Cumberlidge, N.; Clark, P.F. (2017). "Description of three new species of Potamonautes from the Lake Victoria region". ''European Journal of Taxonomy''. 371: 1-19. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.371.</ref> <ref name="r86">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 44. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref> <ref name="r87">Salonen; Högmander; Langenberg; Mölsä; Sarvala; Tarvainen; Tiirola (2012). "Limnocnida tanganyicae medusae: a semiautonomous microcosm in the food web of Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 690(1): 97-112.</ref> <ref name="r88">"Global warming is killing off tropical lake fish - Study of Lake Tanganyika". Mongabay. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="r89">McGrath, M. (8 August 2016). "Decline of fishing in Lake Tanganyika 'due to warming'". BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> <ref name="r90">''East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> <ref name="r91">''Lake Tanganyika and Its Life''. Oxford Press. 1991.</ref> <ref name="r92">Livingstone, David (2008). ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to His Death''. Vol. 1. BiblioBazaar. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-554-26021-1.</ref> <ref name="r93">Crowley, Daniel J. (Summer 1966). "An African Aesthetic". ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism''. 24 (4): 519-524. doi:10.2307/428776.</ref> <ref name="r94">Foden, Giles (2004). ''Mimi and Toutou Go Forth - The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika''. Penguin.</ref> </references> ==External links== * [[wikisource:Tanganyika|"Tanganyika" on Wikisource]] * [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tanganyika|"Tanganyika" in Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition]] [[Category:Lakes of Africa]] [[Category:African Great Lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania]] [[Category:Lakes of Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Lakes of Burundi]] [[Category:Lakes of Zambia]] 2a7coc8et6gtahhw7y1aqnfssnjk4cg 99345 99344 2026-05-31T17:04:53Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 99345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Tanganyika''' (Kirundi: ''Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika''; Swahili: ''Ziwa Tanganyika'') be one African Great Lake.<ref name="r5">Burton, Richard Francis (1965). Richards, Charles (ed.). ''Burton and Lake Tanganyika''. Dar Es Salaam: East African Literature Bureau. OCLC 180480726.</ref> E be de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume, den e san be de second deepest lake for de world, after Lake Baikal for Siberia.<ref name="r6">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/lakes/lake-tanganyika/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=Zambia Tourism |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="r7">Lewis, R. (16 May 2010). [https://news.brown.edu/articles/2010/05/tanganyika "Brown Geologists Show Unprecedented Warming in Lake Tanganyika"]. Brown University. Retrieved 25 March 2017.</ref> E san be de world ein longest freshwater lake, den de sixth-largest lake by area.<ref name="r8">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/worlds-largest-lakes-2228655 "World's largest lakes | Description, Area, & Facts | Britannica"]. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 October 2025.</ref> Four countries dey share de lake: [[Tanzania]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Burundi]] den [[Zambia]]. Tanzania get about 46% of de lake, while Democratic Republic of the Congo get about 40%. De lake drain through Lukuga River enter Congo River system, wey later enter [[Atlantic Ocean]] for Banana, Democratic Republic of de Congo.<ref name="r2">{{Cite web |title=Lake Tanganyika {{!}} Lake Tanganyika {{!}} World Lake Database - ILEC |url=https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Display/html/3587 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=wldb.ilec.or.jp}}</ref> ==Geography== Lake Tanganyika dey insyd de Albertine Rift, wey be de western branch of de East African Rift. Mountain walls of de valley surround am. E be de largest rift lake for Africa and de second-largest freshwater lake by volume for de world. E be de deepest lake for Africa, den e hold de largest freshwater volume for de continent, about 16% of de world ein available fresh water.<ref name="r2"/><ref name="r9">[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dafr06.html "Datbase Summary: Lake Tanganyika"]. International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref> De lake stretch about 676 km from north to south, and ein average width be about 50 km. E cover about 32,000 km², get shoreline of about 1,900 km, mean depth of about 572 m, den maximum depth of about 1,471 m for de northern basin. E hold estimated water volume of about 18,750 km³.<ref name="r2" /><ref name="r9" /> De lake ein catchment area be about 231,000 km². Two main rivers, plus plenty small rivers and streams, flow enter de lake. Because steep mountains surround de lake, plenty of de rivers and streams no dey long. De only major outflow be Lukuga River, wey empty into Congo River drainage. Rainfall and evaporation play bigger role for de lake ein water balance than rivers. At least 90% of de water wey enter de lake come from rain wey fall directly on de lake surface, and at least 90% of de water loss come from direct evaporation.<ref name="r10">Kullander, S.O.; Roberts, T.R. (2011). "Out of Lake Tanganyika: endemic lake fishes inhabit rapids of the Lukuga River". ''Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters''. 22 (4): 355-376.</ref> De main river wey flow enter de lake be Ruzizi River. E form about 10,000 years ago, and e enter de northern side of de lake from Lake Kivu.<ref name="r11">Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. US: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 366-367. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.</ref> Malagarasi River, wey be Tanzania ein second-largest river, enter de eastern side of Lake Tanganyika.<ref name="r11" /> Malagarasi be older than Lake Tanganyika, and before de lake form, e likely be headwater of de Lualaba River, de main headstream of Congo River.<ref name="r10"/> De lake get complex history for how water flow patterns dey change. De reason dey include ein high altitude, great depth, slow refill rate, and mountain location inside volcanic area wey climate changes affect. For de past, de lake rarely get outflow to de sea, so some scholars describe am as almost endorheic. De lake ein connection to sea depend on high water level wey allow water overflow through Lukuga River into Congo River.<ref name="r11" /> When de lake no dey overflow, sand bars and weed masses normally block de exit into Lukuga River, and de river then depend on ein own tributaries, especially Niemba River, to maintain flow.<ref name="r10"/> For some periods, de lake fit get different inflows and outflows. Scholars propose say water from higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi, den one exit route to de Nile fit exist for some time inside de lake ein history.<ref name="r12">Lévêque, Christian (1997). ''Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa''. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-57033-6.</ref> [[File:View of Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Lake Taganyika ein eastern shore for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] Lake Tanganyika be ancient lake, one of only about twenty lakes wey dey more than one million years old. Ein three basins were separate lakes during periods wey water level drop very low. De central basin begin form about 9-12 million years ago, de northern basin about 7-8 million years ago, and de southern basin about 2-4 million years ago.<ref name="r13">Cohen; Soreghan; Scholz (1993). "Estimating the age of formation of lakes: An example from Lake Tanganyika, East African Rift system". ''Geology''. 21 (6): 511-514. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021&lt;0511:ETAOFO&gt;2.3.CO;2.</ref> ==Water characteristics== [[File:Clear lake Kagongo Ward.jpg|thumb|Clear water lake of Lake Tanganyika for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania]] De lake ein water be alkaline. De pH be around 9 from 0 to 100 m depth.<ref name="r14">De Wever; Muylaert; Van der Gucht; Pirlot; Cocquyt; Descy; Plisnier; Vyverman (2005). "Bacterial Community Composition in Lake Tanganyika: Vertical and Horizontal Heterogeneity". ''Applied and Environmental Microbiology''. 71 (9): 5029-5037. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5029-5037.2005.</ref> Below dat level, de pH be around 8.7, and e gradually fall to 8.3-8.5 for de deepest parts of Tanganyika.<ref name="r14" /> Electric conductivity follow similar pattern, from about 670 μS/cm for de upper part to about 690 μS/cm for de deepest part.<ref name="r14" /> Surface temperature normally range from about 24 °C for de southern part of de lake during early August to about 28-29 °C during late rainy season around March-April.<ref name="r15">Edmond; Stallard; Craigh; Weiss; Coulter (1993). "Nutrient chemistry of the water column of Lake Tanganyika". ''Limnology and Oceanography''. 38 (4): 725-738. doi:10.4319/lo.1993.38.4.0725.</ref> For depths greater than 400 m, de temperature remain very stable around 23.1-23.4 °C.<ref name="r16">O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Alin, Simone R.; Plisnier, Pierre-Denis; Cohen, Andrew S.; Mckee, Brent A. (2003). "Climate change decreases aquatic ecosystem productivity of Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Nature''. 424 (6950): 766-768. doi:10.1038/nature01833.</ref> De lake water has gradually warmed since de 19th century, and dis warming has become faster since de 1950s because of global warming.<ref name="r17">Jensen, M.R. (8 August 2016). "Lake Tanganyika Fisheries Declining From Global Warming". University of Arizona. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> De lake dey stratified, and seasonal mixing normally no pass depth of 150 m.<ref name="r15" /> Mixing happen mainly through wind-driven upwellings for de south, even though upwellings and downwellings also occur for some other parts of de lake.<ref name="r18">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (2003). "Recent research in the African Great Lakes: Fisheries, biodiversity and cichlid evolution". ''Freshwater Forum''. 20 (1): 4-64.</ref> Sake of de stratification, de deep sections contain "fossil water".<ref name="r19">Hutter; Yongqi; Chubarenko (2011). ''Physics of Lakes, volume 1: Foundation of the Mathematical and Physical Background''. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-642-15178-1.</ref> De deeper parts lack oxygen, so fish and other aerobic organisms mostly dey limited to de upper part of de lake. Dis oxygen limit normally dey around 100 m depth for de northern part and around 240-250 m for de southern part.<ref name="r20">Wright, J.J.; Page, L.M. (2006). "Taxonomic revision of Lake Tanganyikan Synodontis (Siluriformes: Mochokidae)". ''Florida Museum of Natural History Bulletin''. 46(4): 99-154.</ref><ref name="r21">Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (1987). ''Ecological Studies in Tropical Fish Communities''. ISBN 0-521-28064-8.</ref> De deepest oxygen-free sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide and be almost lifeless,<ref name="r6" /> except bacteria.<ref name="r14" /><ref name="r22">Ryan, Emily; Todd, Jonathan A.; McGlue, Michael; Kimirei, Ismael; Soreghan, Michael (2017). "Variation in Taphonomic Character of Shell Beds in Lake Tanganyika, Africa: Paleoenvironmental and Stratigraphic Implications of Shell Beds in Lakes". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 304608. doi:10.1130/abs/2017am-304608.</ref> ==Biology== ===Reptiles=== Lake Tanganyika and ein associated wetlands get Nile crocodiles, wey dey include de famous giant crocodile Gustave. De area also get Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, den pan hinged terrapins.<ref name="r23">Spawls, Howell, Drewes, and Ashe (2002). ''A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa''. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-656470-1.</ref> Storm's water cobra, wey be threatened subspecies of banded water cobra, dey feed mainly on fish and only dey Lake Tanganyika, where e prefer rocky shores.<ref name="r23"/><ref name="r24">O'Shea, Mark; Mcintyre, P.B. (2005). "Boulengerina annulata stormsi (Storm's water cobra). Attempted predation". ''Herpetological Review''. 36 (2): 189.</ref> ===Cichlid fishes=== Lake Tanganyika get at least 250 endemic species of cichlids,<ref name="r28">Kelly West (28 February 2001). "Results and Experiences of the UNDP/GEF Conservation Initiative (RAF/92/G32) in Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia". IW:LEARN.</ref> den more undescribed species likely still dey.<ref name="r29">Craig Mortiff (24 December 2009). "Lake Tanganyika and its Diverse Cichlids". Cichlid Fish Forum.</ref> Almost all de lake ein cichlid species, about 98%, dey only there. Because of dis, de lake be important biological resource for studying speciation and evolution.<ref name="r30">Takahashi, T.; Hori, M. (2012). "Genetic and Morphological Evidence Implies Existence of Two Sympatric Species in Cyathopharynx furcifer from Lake Tanganyika". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 980879. doi:10.1155/2012/980879.</ref><ref name="r31">Kornfield, Ivy; Smith, Peter A. (2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics''. 31: 163-196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.</ref> Cichlids of de African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent one of de most diverse examples of adaptive radiation among vertebrates.<ref name="r32">Meyer, Britta; Matchiner, Michael; Salburger, Walter (2013). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> Some endemic species enter small part of de upper Lukuga River, wey be Lake Tanganyika ein outflow. Further spread into Congo River basin be limited by geography and water chemistry. Tanganyika lake environment be more stable than de rapids and fast-flowing sections of Congo River. De lake water be alkaline, get higher pH, and contain more calcium and minerals than Congo River acidic and sediment-rich waters. For some areas of Congo away from rapids, sediment and organic matter create blackwater with high tannin concentration from wood and leaves, and cichlids no thrive well there.<ref name="r10"/> Lake Tanganyika get fewer cichlid species than Lake Malawi anaa Lake Victoria, but ein cichlids be more morphologically and genetically diverse.<ref name="r32" /><ref name="r34">Seehausen, O. (2015). "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations - inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification". ''New Phytologist''. 207 (2): 304-312. doi:10.1111/nph.13450.</ref> Dis link to de old age of Tanganyika, because de lake be much older than those lakes. Tanganyika get de largest number of endemic cichlid genera among African lakes.<ref name="r33">Turner, Seehausen; Knight, Allender; Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" ''Molecular Ecology''. 10 (3): 793-806. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x.</ref><ref name="r35">Nishida, M. (1991). "Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary reservoir of old lineages of East African cichlid fishes: Inferences from allozyme data". ''Experientia''. 47 (9): 974-979. doi:10.1007/bf01929896.</ref> All Tanganyika cichlids dey inside subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Out of de 10 tribes inside dis subfamily, half dey largely or completely restricted to de lake: Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini den Tropheini.<ref name="r36">Sparks; Smith (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes". ''Cladistics''. 20 (6): 501-517. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00038.x.</ref> Another three tribes, Haplochromini, Tilapiini den Tylochromini, also get species inside de lake. Some researchers propose say Tanganyika cichlids fit be split into as many as 12-16 tribes, including Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini den Trematocarini.<ref name="r32"/> Most Tanganyika cichlids live along de shoreline down to about 100 m depth, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m.<ref name="r37">Kirchberger; Sefc; Sturmbauer; Koblmuller (2012). "Evolutionary History of Lake Tanganyika's Predatory Deepwater Cichlids". ''International Journal of Evolutionary Biology''. 2012: 716209. doi:10.1155/2012/716209.</ref> ''Trematocara'' species have been found at more than 300 m depth, deeper than any known cichlid.<ref name="r38">Loiselle, Paul (1994). ''The Cichlid Aquarium''. p. 304. Tetra Press, Germany. ISBN 978-1564651464.</ref> Some deepwater genera, such as ''Bathybates'', ''Gnathochromis'', ''Hemibates'' den ''Xenochromis'', have been caught for places wey almost no oxygen dey, and how dem survive there still no dey clear.<ref name="r21"/> Tanganyika cichlids normally be benthic, meaning dem dey near de bottom, or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlid be truly pelagic and offshore, except some piscivorous ''Bathybates''. Two of dem, ''B. fasciatus'' den ''B. leo'', mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r37"/><ref name="r39">Lindqvist, O.V.; Mölsä, H.; Solonen, K.; Sarvala, J., editors (1999). ''From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes''. pp. 213-214. Springer. ISBN 978-0792360179.</ref> De cichlids get plenty feeding styles, including herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. Even species with specialized diets fit change and feed opportunistically on ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'' and ''Limnothrissa miodon'' when prey concentration rise high.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r40">Golcher-Benavides J.; Wagner C.E. (2019). "Playing out Liem's Paradox: Opportunistic Piscivory across Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids". ''The American Naturalist''. 194 (2): 260-267. doi:10.1086/704169.</ref> Breeding behavior among de fishes fall into two main groups: substrate or sand spawners, often for caves or rock crevices, and mouthbrooders.<ref name="r41">Schliewen, U. (1992). ''Aquarium Fish''. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.</ref> Among de endemic species, two of de world ein smallest cichlids be ''Neolamprologus multifasciatus'' and ''N. similis''. Both be shell dwellers and grow only about 4-5 cm. One of de largest be giant cichlid, ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'', which fit reach 90 cm.<ref name="r29"/><ref name="r42">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus multifasciatus". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref><ref name="r43">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus similis". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref><ref name="r44">"The 10 biggest cichlids". ''Practical Fishkeeping''. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.</ref> Many Lake Tanganyika cichlids, including species from ''Altolamprologus'', ''Cyprichromis'', ''Eretmodus'', ''Julidochromis'', ''Lamprologus'', ''Neolamprologus'', ''Tropheus'' den ''Xenotilapia'', be popular aquarium fishes because of dem bright colours, patterns and interesting behaviour. Aquarium hobbyists also like to recreate Lake Tanganyika biotope, and many of de species dey bred successfully in captivity today.<ref name="r41"/><ref name="r45">"tanganyika biotope aquarium". Aquariums Life. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> ''Neolamprologus brichardi'' and ein close relative ''N. pulcher'' get complex social behaviours, and researchers have studied dem in detail.<ref name="r25">Dierkes; Taborsky; Kohler (1999). "Reproductive parasitism of broodcare helpers in a cooperatively breeding fish". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 10 (5): 510-515. doi:10.1093/beheco/10.5.510.</ref><ref name="r26">Balshine-Earn; Lotem (1998). "Individual recognition in a cooperatively breeding cichlid: Evidence from video playback experiments". ''Behaviour''. 135 (3): 369-386. doi:10.1163/156853998793066221.</ref><ref name="r27">Werner; Balshine; Leach; Lotem (2003). "Helping opportunities and space segregation in cooperatively breeding cichlids". ''Behavioral Ecology''. 14 (6): 749-756. doi:10.1093/beheco/arg067.</ref> ====Cichlid tribes for Lake Tanganyika==== * '''Bathybatini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Bathybates ferox'' be benthic and piscivorous, but de genus also get pelagic species. Some researchers split de tribe into three, with Hemibatini and Trematocarini as other groups.<ref name="r37"/><ref name="r46">Meyer; Matchiner; Salburger (2015). "Lake Tanganyika - A 'Melting Pot' of Ancient and Young Cichlid Lineages?" ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (7): e0125043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125043.</ref><ref name="r47">Weiss; Cotterill; Schliewen (2015). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.</ref> * '''Benthochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Benthochromis horii'' was scientifically described in 2008, but people often misidentify am as ''B. tricoti''.<ref name="r48">Takahashi, T. (2008). "Description of a new cichlid fish species of the genus Benthochromis from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 72 (3): 603-613. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01727.x.</ref> * '''Boulengerochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'' be one of de world ein largest cichlids and de only member of ein tribe.<ref name="r44"/><ref name="r47"/> * '''Cyphotilapiini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyphotilapia frontosa'' be one of two similar species inside de tribe.<ref name="r49">Takahashi, T.; Nakaya, K. (2003). "New species of Cyphotilapia from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Copeia''. 2003 (4): 824-832. doi:10.1643/ia03-148.1.</ref> * '''Cyprichromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Cyprichromis microlepidotus'' and other members of dis tribe be open-water planktivores.<ref name="r50">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Cyprichromis microlepidotus". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60487A12363286. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60487A12363286.en.</ref><ref name="r51">Smith, M.P. (1998). ''Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids''. pp. 9-10. ISBN 0-7641-0615-5.</ref> * '''Ectodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): Male ''Ophthalmotilapia nasuta'' be more colourful, get longer fins and longer nose than female.<ref name="r52">"Ophthalmotilapia nasuta". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> * '''Eretmodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Eretmodus cyanostictus'' live near de bottom for turbulent coastal surf zone, like other members of ein tribe.<ref name="r51"/><ref name="r53">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Eretmodus cyanostictus". FishBase. April 2017 version.</ref> * '''Haplochromini''': ''Astatotilapia burtoni'' be one of de few Tanganyika species inside dis tribe, unlike other African Great Lakes where plenty species belong to dis tribe.<ref name="r54">"Species in the Tanganyika". FishBase table. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref><ref name="r55">Lowe-McConnell, R. (2009). "Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems". ''Freshwater Reviews''. 2 (2): 131-151. doi:10.1608/frj-2.2.2.</ref> * '''Lamprologini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Julidochromis marlieri'' dey popular for aquarium trade, where members of de genus dey known as "Julies".<ref name="r56">"Julidochromis marlieri (Marlier's Julie)". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> * '''Limnochromini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Gnathochromis permaxillaris'' be zooplanktivore with unusual protractile mouth.<ref name="r57">Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Gnathochromis permaxillaris". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60493A12364587. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60493A12364587.en.</ref> * '''Perissodini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Perissodus microlepis'' be specialized scale-eating species.<ref name="r58">Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus". ''BMC Biology''. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8.</ref> * '''Tilapiini''': ''Oreochromis tanganicae'' be one of de common coastal species wey dey local fish markets.<ref name="r59">Ntakimazi, G. (2006). "Oreochromis tanganicae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2006: e.T60625A12387918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60625A12387918.en.</ref> * '''Tropheini''' (endemic or near-endemic): ''Tropheus moorii'', including de "red" Chimba morph, vary plenty, and de taxonomy of some morphs still dey debated.<ref name="r60">Begon, M.; Fitter, A.H. (1995). ''Advances in Ecological Research'', vol. 26, p. 203. ISBN 0-12-013926-X.</ref><ref name="r61">Salzburger; Niederstätter; Brandstätter; Berger; Parson; Snoeks; Sturmbauer (2006). "Colour-assortative mating among populations of Tropheus moorii". ''Proceedings of the Royal Society B''. 273 (1584): 257-266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3321.</ref><ref name="r62">Robert Toman (2017). "Tropheus Genus Evolution". Cichlid World. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> ===Oda fish=== Lake Tanganyika get more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish, and about 60% of dem be endemic.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r28"/><ref name="r64">Brown; Britz; Bills; Rüber; Day (2011). "Pectoral fin loss in the Mastacembelidae: a new species from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Zoology''. 284 (4): 286-293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00804.x.</ref><ref name="r65">Wright, J.J.; Bailey, R.M. (2012). "Systematic revision of the formerly monotypic genus Tanganikallabes". ''Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society''. 165 (1): 121-142. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00789.x.</ref> For de open waters of de pelagic zone, four non-cichlid species dominate. Two species of "Tanganyika sardine", ''Limnothrissa miodon'' den ''Stolothrissa tanganicae'', form de largest fish biomass for dat zone. Dem be important prey for forktail lates, ''Lates microlepis'', and sleek lates, ''L. stappersii''. Two other lates, ''L. angustifrons'' den ''L. mariae'', also dey de lake, but dem be mainly benthic hunters. All four lates be endemic to Tanganyika, and overfishing has made larger individuals rare today.<ref name="r39"/> One unusual fish group for de lake be endemic facultative brood-parasitic "cuckoo catfish", wey dey include ''Synodontis grandiops'' and ''S. multipunctatus''. Some similar species, such as ''S. lucipinnis'' and ''S. petricola'', are often confused with dem, and e no dey clear if dem get de same behaviour. De brood parasites often lay eggs at de same time as mouthbrooding cichlids. De cichlid pick de eggs into ein mouth as if dem be ein own. When de catfish eggs hatch, de young ones eat de cichlid eggs.<ref name="r20"/><ref name="r41"/><ref name="r66">"Synodontis grandiops - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref><ref name="r67">"Synodontis lucipinnis - Mochokidae" and "Synodontis petricola - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.</ref> Six catfish genera dey completely restricted to de lake basin: ''Bathybagrus'', ''Dinotopterus'', ''Lophiobagrus'', ''Phyllonemus'', ''Pseudotanganikallabes'' and ''Tanganikallabes''. Six species of ''Chrysichthys'' catfish are only found inside de Tanganyika basin, even though de genus itself no be endemic. Dem live for shallow and relatively deep waters. For de deep habitat, dem be main predators and scavengers.<ref name="r21"/><ref name="r54"/><ref name="r68">Wright, J.J. (2017). "A new diminutive genus and species of catfish from Lake Tanganyika". ''Journal of Fish Biology''. 91 (3): 789-805. doi:10.1111/jfb.13374.</ref> De lake get unique evolutionary radiation of 15 ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, all except one endemic to de basin. Other African Great Lakes also get ''Synodontis'' catfish, endemic catfish genera and ''Mastacembelus'' spiny eels, but Tanganyika ein high diversity be unusual and likely link to de lake ein old age.<ref name="r64"/><ref name="r69">Brown; Rüber; Bills; Day (2010). "Mastacembelid eels support Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary hotspot of diversification". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 10: 188. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-188.</ref> Some non-endemic fish for de lake be widespread African species, while others are shared only with Malagarasi and Congo River basins. Examples include Congo bichir (''Polypterus congicus''), goliath tigerfish (''Hydrocynus goliath''), ''Citharinus citharus'', six-banded distichodus (''Distichodus sexfasciatus'') and mbu puffer (''Tetraodon mbu'').<ref name="r54"/> De Tanganyika killifish, ''Lamprichthys tanganicanus'', be de only member of ein genus.<ref name="r63">Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Lamprichthys". FishBase. March 2017 version.</ref> ===Molluscs den crustaceans=== Lake Tanganyika get 83 freshwater snail species, of which 65 be endemic, and 11 bivalve species, of which 8 be endemic.<ref name="r70">Seddon, M.; Appleton, C.; Van Damme, D.; Graf, D. (2011). "Freshwater molluscs of Africa: diversity, distribution, and conservation". In Darwall et al. (eds.). IUCN. pp. 92-119. ISBN 978-2-8317-1345-8.</ref> Among de endemic bivalves, three genera get only one species each: ''Grandidieria burtoni'', ''Pseudospatha tanganyicensis'' den ''Brazzaea anceyi''.<ref name="r70"/> Many of de snails no be ordinary for freshwater species because dem get thick shells or strong shell sculpture, features common among marine snails. People call dem thalassoids, meaning "marine-like". All Tanganyika thalassoids be part of Prosobranchia and be endemic to de lake. At first, people believed say dem relate to similar marine snails, but researchers now know say dem no be related. Their shape likely come from de lake ein diverse habitats and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and ''Platythelphusa'' crabs.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r71">Brown, D. (1994). ''Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance''. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5.</ref><ref name="r72">West, K.; Cohen, A. (1996). "Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". ''Evolution''. 50 (2): 672-682. doi:10.2307/2410840.</ref> Seventeen freshwater snail genera be endemic to de lake, including ''Hirthia'', ''Lavigeria'', ''Paramelania'', ''Reymondia'', ''Spekia'', ''Stanleya'', ''Tanganyicia'' and ''Tiphobia''.<ref name="r71"/> About 30 non-thalassoid snail species dey de lake, but only five of dem be endemic, including ''Ferrissia tanganyicensis'' and ''Neothauma tanganyicense''. ''Neothauma tanganyicense'' be de largest Tanganyika snail, and small shell-dwelling cichlids often use ein shell.<ref name="r71"/><ref name="r73">Koblmüller; Duftner; Sefc; Aibara; Stipacek; Blanc; Egger; Sturmbauer (2007). "Reticulate phylogeny of gastropod-shell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika". ''BMC Evolutionary Biology''. 7: 7. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-7.</ref> Crustaceans sanso be highly diverse for Tanganyika. De lake get more dan 200 species, den more dan half be endemic. Dem include 10 species of freshwater crabs, plus 9 ''Platythelphusa'' species den ''Potamonautes platynotus'', all endemic; at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp from ''Atyella'', ''Caridella'' den ''Limnocaridina''; one endemic palaemonid shrimp, ''Macrobrachium moorei''; about 100 ostracods, wey dey include chaw endemics; den several copepods.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r74">Marijnissen; Michel; Daniels; Erpenbeck; Menken; Schram (2006). "Molecular evidence for recent divergence of Lake Tanganyika endemic crabs". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution''. 40 (2): 628-634. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.025.</ref><ref name="r75">Fryer, G. (2006). "Evolution in ancient lakes". ''Hydrobiologia''. 568 (1): 131-142. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0322-x.</ref><ref name="r76">De Grave, S. (2013). "Macrobrachium moorei". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T196882A2477768. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T196882A2477768.en.</ref><ref name="r77">Martens; Schön; Meisch; Horne (2008). "Global diversity of ostracods in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 185-193. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9245-4.</ref><ref name="r78">Gitter, F.; Gross, M.; Piller, W.E. (2015). "Sub-Decadal Resolution in Sediments of Late Miocene Lake Pannon Reveals Speciation of Cyprideis". ''PLOS ONE''. 10 (4): e0109360. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109360.</ref><ref name="r79">Schön, I.; Martens, K. (2012). "Molecular analyses of ostracod flocks from Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 682 (1): 91-110. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0935-6.</ref><ref name="r80">Cirhuza, D.M.; Plisnier, P.-D. (2016). "Composition and seasonal variations in abundance of Copepod populations from northern Lake Tanganyika". ''Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management''. 19 (4): 401-410. doi:10.1080/14634988.2016.1251277.</ref> ''Limnocaridina iridinae'' live inside de mantle cavity of de unionid mussel ''Pleiodon spekei''. Dis make am one of only two known commensal freshwater shrimp species; de other be sponge-living ''Caridina spongicola'' from Lake Towuti for Indonesia.<ref name="r81">De Grave, S.; Cai, Y.; Amnker, A. (2008). "Global diversity of shrimps in freshwater". ''Hydrobiologia''. 595: 287-293. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9024-2.</ref><ref name="r82">De Grave, S. (2013). "Limnocaridina iridinae". ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. 2013: e.T198058A2510158. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T198058A2510158.en.</ref> Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika pass all others for crustacean den freshwater snail richness, both by total number of species den number of endemics. For example, de only other Rift Valley lakes plus endemic freshwater crabs be Lake Kivu den Lake Victoria, plus two species each.<ref name="r83">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 46. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref><ref name="r84">Cumberlidge, N.; Meyer, K.S. (2011). "A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa". Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref><ref name="r85">Cumberlidge, N.; Clark, P.F. (2017). "Description of three new species of Potamonautes from the Lake Victoria region". ''European Journal of Taxonomy''. 371: 1-19. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.371.</ref> ===Oda invertebrates=== Knowledge about other invertebrate groups for Lake Tanganyika no dey complete. Still, researchers have described at least 20 species of leeches, wey dey include 12 endemics; 9 sponges, plus 7 endemic; 6 bryozoa, plus 2 endemic; 11 flatworms, plus 7 endemic; 20 nematodes, plus 7 endemic; 28 annelids, plus 17 endemic; den de small hydrozoan jellyfish ''Limnocnida tanganyicae''.<ref name="r28"/><ref name="r86">Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). ''The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems''. p. 44. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.</ref><ref name="r87">Salonen; Högmander; Langenberg; Mölsä; Sarvala; Tarvainen; Tiirola (2012). "Limnocnida tanganyicae medusae: a semiautonomous microcosm in the food web of Lake Tanganyika". ''Hydrobiologia''. 690(1): 97-112.</ref> ==Fishing== Lake Tanganyika support major fishery. Depending on de source, de fishery provide 25-40% or about 60% of animal protein for people wey live inside de region.<ref name="r17"/><ref name="r88">"Global warming is killing off tropical lake fish - Study of Lake Tanganyika". Mongabay. Retrieved 14 March 2008.</ref><ref name="r89">McGrath, M. (8 August 2016). "Decline of fishing in Lake Tanganyika 'due to warming'". BBC. Retrieved 5 March 2018.</ref> Fish from Lake Tanganyika dey exported across East Africa. Major commercial fishing begin for de mid-1950s. Together with global warming, fishing pressure has affected fish populations and caused sharp declines. In 2016, de total catch was estimated to reach up to 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="r16"/><ref name="r17"/><ref name="r89"/> ==History== Early ''Homo sapiens'' likely affected de Lake Tanganyika region during de Stone Age. De period from Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age dey described as age of advanced hunter-gatherers.<ref name="r90">''East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Local people around de lake used many fishing methods. Most of de methods used lantern as lure because some fish dey attracted to light. Three common methods were Lusenga, lift net, and Chiromila. Lusenga be wide net wey one person use from canoe. Lift net involve dropping net deep below boat with two parallel canoes, then pulling am up together. Chiromila use three canoes: one canoe stay with lantern, another hold one end of de net, and de third canoe circle round to meet de net.<ref name="r91">''Lake Tanganyika and Its Life''. Oxford Press. 1991.</ref> De first known Westerners to find de lake were British explorers Richard Burton den John Speke insyd 1858. Dem located de lake when dem dey search for de source of de Nile River. Speke continue den later find Lake Victoria, de actual source. Later, [[David Livingstone]] pass by de lake. He record de name "Liemba" for de southern part, likely from Fipa language. "Tanganyika" wey mean "stars" in Luvale language.<ref name="r92">Livingstone, David (2008). ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to His Death''. Vol. 1. BiblioBazaar. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-554-26021-1.</ref><ref name="r93">Crowley, Daniel J. (Summer 1966). "An African Aesthetic". ''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism''. 24 (4): 519-524. doi:10.2307/428776.</ref> During World War I, de lake became de scene of de Battle for Lake Tanganyika. With help from ''Graf Goetzen'', de Germans controll de lake at de early stage of de war. De ship carried cargo den people across de lake, den sanso serve as base for surprise attacks on Allied troops. Secof dis, Allied forces need to control de lake. Under Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, de British Royal Navy move two armed motor boats, HMS ''Mimi'' den HMS ''Toutou'', from England to de lake by rail, road den river to Albertville, now Kalemie, on de western shore of Lake Tanganyika. Insyd December 1915, de two boats attacked de Germans and captured de gunboat ''Kingani''. Another German vessel, ''Hedwig'', be sunk insyd February 1916, leaving ''Götzen'' as de only German vessel controlling de lake. To stop Allied forces from taking de ship, Zimmer scuttled am on 26 July 1916. Dem later raise de vessel insyd 1924 wey dem rename am MV ''Liemba''.<ref name="r94">Foden, Giles (2004). ''Mimi and Toutou Go Forth - The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika''. Penguin.</ref> ==References== <references /> ==External links== {{sister project links||d=Q5511|c=Category:Lake Tanganyika|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Lake Tanganyika|m=no|mw=no|s=Lake Tanganyika|wikt=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lake Tanganyika}} [[Category:Lake Tanganyika| ]] [[Category:Ancient lakes|Tanganyika]] [[Category:African Great Lakes|Tangyanyika]] [[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Burundi|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Lakes of Zambia|Tanganyika]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa|Tanganyika]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Burundi]] [[Category:Ecoregions of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Tanzania]] [[Category:Ecoregions of Zambia]] [[Category:Tanganyika Province]] [[Category:Burundi–Democratic Republic of the Congo border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Tanzania border]] [[Category:Burundi–Tanzania border]] [[Category:Tanzania–Zambia border]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Zambia border]] [[Category:Border tripoints]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Zambia]] [[Category:Meromictic lakes]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] jl32iv7eakyle7iv8q4h10l9cm6xx2r 14 27085 99286 2026-05-31T13:23:26Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99286 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27086 99287 2026-05-31T13:23:43Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99287 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27087 99288 2026-05-31T13:23:56Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99288 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27088 99289 2026-05-31T13:24:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99289 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27089 99290 2026-05-31T13:25:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99290 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27090 99291 2026-05-31T13:25:33Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99291 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27091 99292 2026-05-31T13:26:40Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99292 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27092 99293 2026-05-31T13:29:06Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99293 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27093 99294 2026-05-31T13:29:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99294 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27094 99295 2026-05-31T13:29:49Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99295 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27095 99296 2026-05-31T13:30:16Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99296 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27096 99297 2026-05-31T13:30:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99297 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27097 99298 2026-05-31T13:31:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99298 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27098 99299 2026-05-31T13:31:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99299 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27099 99300 2026-05-31T13:32:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99300 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27100 99301 2026-05-31T13:32:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99301 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27101 99302 2026-05-31T13:32:28Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99302 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27102 99303 2026-05-31T13:34:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99303 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27103 99304 2026-05-31T13:34:17Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99304 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27104 99305 2026-05-31T13:34:28Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99305 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27105 99306 2026-05-31T13:34:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99306 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27106 99308 2026-05-31T13:40:07Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99308 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27107 99312 2026-05-31T14:05:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99312 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27108 99313 2026-05-31T14:05:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99313 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27109 99314 2026-05-31T14:06:10Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99314 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27110 99315 2026-05-31T14:06:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99315 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27111 99316 2026-05-31T14:06:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99316 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27112 99319 2026-05-31T14:18:56Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99319 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27113 99320 2026-05-31T14:19:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99320 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27114 99321 2026-05-31T14:19:20Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99321 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27115 99325 2026-05-31T14:33:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99325 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27116 99326 2026-05-31T14:34:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99326 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27117 99327 2026-05-31T14:34:43Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99327 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27118 99328 2026-05-31T14:34:55Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99328 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27119 99331 2026-05-31T14:51:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99331 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27120 99332 2026-05-31T14:52:03Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99332 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27121 99333 2026-05-31T14:52:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99333 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27122 99334 2026-05-31T14:52:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99334 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27123 99337 2026-05-31T16:12:12Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99337 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27124 99338 2026-05-31T16:13:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99338 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27125 99339 2026-05-31T16:14:03Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99339 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27126 99340 2026-05-31T16:14:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99340 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27127 99347 2026-05-31T18:46:48Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page [[:mdwiki:Special:Redirect/revision/1457203|Sinusitis]] to:gpe #mdwikicx 99347 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] r0gf7axtnvt68k0p85plnlehx64o08u 99349 99347 2026-05-31T18:52:40Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sinusitis''', dem sanso know as '''rhinosinusitis''' den commonly known as a '''sinus infection''', be an inflammation of de mucous membranes wey line de sinuses wey dey result in symptoms wey fi include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure, loss of smell, anaa [[fever]].<ref name="pmid258339273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref>'''<ref name="pmid27113482">{{cite journal |vauthors=Head K, Chong LY, Piromchai P, Hopkins C, Philpott C, Schilder AG, Burton MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Systemic and topical antibiotics for chronic rhinosinusitis |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2016 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011994.pub2 |pmc=8763400 |pmid=27113482 |s2cid=205210696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722030626/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-22 |access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>''' == References == [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] <references /> == External links == idjodpstu9jvbjenjdugrlkcs4lt06h 99350 99349 2026-05-31T18:58:29Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99350 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sinusitis''', dem sanso know as '''rhinosinusitis''' den commonly known as a '''sinus infection''', be an inflammation of de mucous membranes wey line de sinuses wey dey result in symptoms wey fi include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure, loss of smell, anaa [[fever]].<ref name="pmid258339273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref>'''<ref name="pmid27113482">{{cite journal |vauthors=Head K, Chong LY, Piromchai P, Hopkins C, Philpott C, Schilder AG, Burton MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Systemic and topical antibiotics for chronic rhinosinusitis |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2016 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011994.pub2 |pmc=8763400 |pmid=27113482 |s2cid=205210696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722030626/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-22 |access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>''' Sinusitis be a condition wey dey affect both kiddies den adults. E be caused by a combination of environmental factors den a person ein health factors.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Battisti |first1=Amanda S. |title=Sinusitis |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |access-date=2024-11-12 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29262090 |last2=Modi |first2=Pranav |last3=Pangia |first3=Jon |archive-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134212/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |url-status=live }}</ref> E fi occur insyd individuals plus allergies, exposure to environmental irritants, structural abnormalities of de nasal cavity den sinuses den poor immune function.<ref name="Adkinson-20143">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chaw cases be caused by a viral infection.<ref name="cdc.gov-20132">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Recurrent episodes be more likely insyd people plus [[asthma]], [[cystic fibrosis]], den immunodeficiency.<ref name="pmid258339275">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] dmko6ydrqqblb3qo7ruwuuje8jksqxd 99351 99350 2026-05-31T19:03:18Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99351 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sinusitis''', dem sanso know as '''rhinosinusitis''' den commonly known as a '''sinus infection''', be an inflammation of de mucous membranes wey line de sinuses wey dey result in symptoms wey fi include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure, loss of smell, anaa [[fever]].<ref name="pmid258339273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref>'''<ref name="pmid27113482">{{cite journal |vauthors=Head K, Chong LY, Piromchai P, Hopkins C, Philpott C, Schilder AG, Burton MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Systemic and topical antibiotics for chronic rhinosinusitis |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2016 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011994.pub2 |pmc=8763400 |pmid=27113482 |s2cid=205210696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722030626/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-22 |access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>''' Sinusitis be a condition wey dey affect both kiddies den adults. E be caused by a combination of environmental factors den a person ein health factors.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Battisti |first1=Amanda S. |title=Sinusitis |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |access-date=2024-11-12 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29262090 |last2=Modi |first2=Pranav |last3=Pangia |first3=Jon |archive-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134212/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |url-status=live }}</ref> E fi occur insyd individuals plus allergies, exposure to environmental irritants, structural abnormalities of de nasal cavity den sinuses den poor immune function.<ref name="Adkinson-20143">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chaw cases be caused by a viral infection.<ref name="cdc.gov-20132">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Recurrent episodes be more likely insyd people plus [[asthma]], [[cystic fibrosis]], den immunodeficiency.<ref name="pmid258339275">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De diagnosis of sinusitis be based on de symptoms den dema duration along plus signs of disease wey endoscopic den/anaa radiologic criteria identify.<ref name="Adkinson-20142">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sinusitis be classified into acute sinusitis, subacute sinusitis, den chronic sinusitis. Insyd acute sinusitis, symptoms dey last for less dan four weeks, den insyd subacute sinusitis, dem dey last between 4 den 12 weeks. Insyd chronic sinusitis, symptoms for be present for at least 12 weeks.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier/Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |editor-last=Adkinson |editor-first=N. Franklin |edition=8th |location=Philadelphia, PA |editor-last2=Middleton |editor-first2=Elliott}}</ref> Insyd de initial evaluation of sinusitis an otolaryngologist, dem sanso know as an ear, nose den throat (ENT) doctor, fi confirm sinusitis dey use nasal endoscopy.<ref name="Adkinson-20142" /> Diagnostic imaging no usually be needed insyd de acute stage unless complications be suspected.<ref name="pmid258339274">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Insyd chronic cases, confirmatory testing be recommended by use of computed tomography.<ref name="pmid258339274" /> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] clafi6xfkzhp2z1vdfntnl8amgxrb3c 99352 99351 2026-05-31T19:09:12Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99352 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sinusitis''', dem sanso know as '''rhinosinusitis''' den commonly known as a '''sinus infection''', be an inflammation of de mucous membranes wey line de sinuses wey dey result in symptoms wey fi include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure, loss of smell, anaa [[fever]].<ref name="pmid258339273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref>'''<ref name="pmid27113482">{{cite journal |vauthors=Head K, Chong LY, Piromchai P, Hopkins C, Philpott C, Schilder AG, Burton MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Systemic and topical antibiotics for chronic rhinosinusitis |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2016 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011994.pub2 |pmc=8763400 |pmid=27113482 |s2cid=205210696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722030626/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-22 |access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>''' Sinusitis be a condition wey dey affect both kiddies den adults. E be caused by a combination of environmental factors den a person ein health factors.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Battisti |first1=Amanda S. |title=Sinusitis |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |access-date=2024-11-12 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29262090 |last2=Modi |first2=Pranav |last3=Pangia |first3=Jon |archive-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134212/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |url-status=live }}</ref> E fi occur insyd individuals plus allergies, exposure to environmental irritants, structural abnormalities of de nasal cavity den sinuses den poor immune function.<ref name="Adkinson-20143">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chaw cases be caused by a viral infection.<ref name="cdc.gov-20132">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Recurrent episodes be more likely insyd people plus [[asthma]], [[cystic fibrosis]], den immunodeficiency.<ref name="pmid258339275">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De diagnosis of sinusitis be based on de symptoms den dema duration along plus signs of disease wey endoscopic den/anaa radiologic criteria identify.<ref name="Adkinson-20142">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sinusitis be classified into acute sinusitis, subacute sinusitis, den chronic sinusitis. Insyd acute sinusitis, symptoms dey last for less dan four weeks, den insyd subacute sinusitis, dem dey last between 4 den 12 weeks. Insyd chronic sinusitis, symptoms for be present for at least 12 weeks.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier/Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |editor-last=Adkinson |editor-first=N. Franklin |edition=8th |location=Philadelphia, PA |editor-last2=Middleton |editor-first2=Elliott}}</ref> Insyd de initial evaluation of sinusitis an otolaryngologist, dem sanso know as an ear, nose den throat (ENT) doctor, fi confirm sinusitis dey use nasal endoscopy.<ref name="Adkinson-20142" /> Diagnostic imaging no usually be needed insyd de acute stage unless complications be suspected.<ref name="pmid258339274">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Insyd chronic cases, confirmatory testing be recommended by use of computed tomography.<ref name="pmid258339274" /> Prevention of sinusitis dey focus on regular hand washing, staying up-to-date on vaccinations, den avoiding smoking.<ref name="cdc.gov-20133">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Pain killers such as [[naproxen]], nasal steroids, den nasal irrigation fi be used to help plus symptoms.<ref name="pmid258339276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid258923692">{{cite journal |vauthors=King D, Mitchell B, Williams CP, Spurling GK |date=April 2015 |title=Saline nasal irrigation for acute upper respiratory tract infections |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:201653/UQ201653_OA.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006821.pub3 |pmc=9475221 |pmid=25892369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829061619/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_201653/UQ201653_OA.pdf?Expires=1630217866&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=fvzZFSRIkQZTLEhLp~QFYol~hVWVs5Yo2o0Vw3BhGOL7U3pmZx7K1xwMdix20C-ZBOBTDrFZyWfczpiMKk7xmMWYUsYU8tEF9SRghcv~x04vWlZkkUuL3E7OHRYrkCFawyesJkkEEQO5sQxtD0LLWuoQWlT7yRRWk4ZqrLeW7OCsFY5NhBYavteJhqCqtWifH5hIamsdfCYNZnVKx4mp66bQ5L5iozTDtmriPethrPxdoRvyPvYoPscI~ayOcvCjCjdYxsooSxLtw1KPpsbBbtEACOPp35YxrEPcON9XJO04wJeqpcy9FsRhJHM1Gg1-b8p5xUSx3LRrF42Dirskaw__ |archive-date=2021-08-29 |access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref> Recommended initial treatment give acute sinusitis be watchful waiting.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> If symptoms no dey improve insyd 7–10 days anaa worsen, then an antibiotic fi be implemented anaa changed.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> Insyd those insyd whom antibiotics be indicated, either [[amoxicillin]] anaa amoxicillin/clavulanate be recommended first line, wey amoxicillin/clavulanate be superior to amoxicillin alone buh plus more side effects.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> Surgery fi be recommended insyd those plus chronic disease wey fail medical management.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 3, 2012 |title=How Is Sinusitis Treated |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/Pages/treatment.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405025201/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/Pages/treatment.aspx |archive-date=5 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 4wbwcczz3wijgpkv2kb9prtjufyo3t2 99353 99352 2026-05-31T19:14:42Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99353 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sinusitis''', dem sanso know as '''rhinosinusitis''' den commonly known as a '''sinus infection''', be an inflammation of de mucous membranes wey line de sinuses wey dey result in symptoms wey fi include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure, loss of smell, anaa [[fever]].<ref name="pmid258339273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref>'''<ref name="pmid27113482">{{cite journal |vauthors=Head K, Chong LY, Piromchai P, Hopkins C, Philpott C, Schilder AG, Burton MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Systemic and topical antibiotics for chronic rhinosinusitis |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2016 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011994.pub2 |pmc=8763400 |pmid=27113482 |s2cid=205210696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722030626/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-22 |access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>''' Sinusitis be a condition wey dey affect both kiddies den adults. E be caused by a combination of environmental factors den a person ein health factors.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Battisti |first1=Amanda S. |title=Sinusitis |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |access-date=2024-11-12 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29262090 |last2=Modi |first2=Pranav |last3=Pangia |first3=Jon |archive-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134212/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |url-status=live }}</ref> E fi occur insyd individuals plus allergies, exposure to environmental irritants, structural abnormalities of de nasal cavity den sinuses den poor immune function.<ref name="Adkinson-20143">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chaw cases be caused by a viral infection.<ref name="cdc.gov-20132">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Recurrent episodes be more likely insyd people plus [[asthma]], [[cystic fibrosis]], den immunodeficiency.<ref name="pmid258339275">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De diagnosis of sinusitis be based on de symptoms den dema duration along plus signs of disease wey endoscopic den/anaa radiologic criteria identify.<ref name="Adkinson-20142">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sinusitis be classified into acute sinusitis, subacute sinusitis, den chronic sinusitis. Insyd acute sinusitis, symptoms dey last for less dan four weeks, den insyd subacute sinusitis, dem dey last between 4 den 12 weeks. Insyd chronic sinusitis, symptoms for be present for at least 12 weeks.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier/Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |editor-last=Adkinson |editor-first=N. Franklin |edition=8th |location=Philadelphia, PA |editor-last2=Middleton |editor-first2=Elliott}}</ref> Insyd de initial evaluation of sinusitis an otolaryngologist, dem sanso know as an ear, nose den throat (ENT) doctor, fi confirm sinusitis dey use nasal endoscopy.<ref name="Adkinson-20142" /> Diagnostic imaging no usually be needed insyd de acute stage unless complications be suspected.<ref name="pmid258339274">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Insyd chronic cases, confirmatory testing be recommended by use of computed tomography.<ref name="pmid258339274" /> Prevention of sinusitis dey focus on regular hand washing, staying up-to-date on vaccinations, den avoiding smoking.<ref name="cdc.gov-20133">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Pain killers such as [[naproxen]], nasal steroids, den nasal irrigation fi be used to help plus symptoms.<ref name="pmid258339276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid258923692">{{cite journal |vauthors=King D, Mitchell B, Williams CP, Spurling GK |date=April 2015 |title=Saline nasal irrigation for acute upper respiratory tract infections |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:201653/UQ201653_OA.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006821.pub3 |pmc=9475221 |pmid=25892369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829061619/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_201653/UQ201653_OA.pdf?Expires=1630217866&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=fvzZFSRIkQZTLEhLp~QFYol~hVWVs5Yo2o0Vw3BhGOL7U3pmZx7K1xwMdix20C-ZBOBTDrFZyWfczpiMKk7xmMWYUsYU8tEF9SRghcv~x04vWlZkkUuL3E7OHRYrkCFawyesJkkEEQO5sQxtD0LLWuoQWlT7yRRWk4ZqrLeW7OCsFY5NhBYavteJhqCqtWifH5hIamsdfCYNZnVKx4mp66bQ5L5iozTDtmriPethrPxdoRvyPvYoPscI~ayOcvCjCjdYxsooSxLtw1KPpsbBbtEACOPp35YxrEPcON9XJO04wJeqpcy9FsRhJHM1Gg1-b8p5xUSx3LRrF42Dirskaw__ |archive-date=2021-08-29 |access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref> Recommended initial treatment give acute sinusitis be watchful waiting.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> If symptoms no dey improve insyd 7–10 days anaa worsen, then an antibiotic fi be implemented anaa changed.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> Insyd those insyd whom antibiotics be indicated, either [[amoxicillin]] anaa amoxicillin/clavulanate be recommended first line, wey amoxicillin/clavulanate be superior to amoxicillin alone buh plus more side effects.<ref name="pmid258339276" /><ref name="pmid332365252">{{cite journal |last1=Orlandi |first1=Richard R. |last2=Kingdom |first2=Todd T. |last3=Smith |first3=Timothy L. |last4=Bleier |first4=Benjamin |last5=DeConde |first5=Adam |last6=Luong |first6=Amber U. |last7=Poetker |first7=David M. |last8=Soler |first8=Zachary |last9=Welch |first9=Kevin C. |last10=Wise |first10=Sarah K. |last11=Adappa |first11=Nithin |last12=Alt |first12=Jeremiah A. |last13=Anselmo-Lima |first13=Wilma Terezinha |last14=Bachert |first14=Claus |last15=Baroody |first15=Fuad M. |year=2021 |title=International consensus statement on allergy and rhinology: rhinosinusitis 2021 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/77501/1/Accepted_Manuscript.pdf |url-status=live |journal=International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology |publisher=Wiley |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=213–739 |doi=10.1002/alr.22741 |issn=2042-6976 |pmid=33236525 |s2cid=227165628 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307191717/https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/77501/1/Accepted_Manuscript.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-07 |access-date=2023-01-21 |last16=Batra |first16=Pete S. |last17=Bernal-Sprekelsen |first17=Manuel |last18=Beswick |first18=Daniel |last19=Bhattacharyya |first19=Neil |last20=Chandra |first20=Rakesh K. |last21=Chang |first21=Eugene H. |last22=Chiu |first22=Alexander |last23=Chowdhury |first23=Naweed |last24=Citardi |first24=Martin J. |last25=Cohen |first25=Noam A. |last26=Conley |first26=David B. |last27=DelGaudio |first27=John |last28=Desrosiers |first28=Martin |last29=Douglas |first29=Richard |last30=Eloy |first30=Jean Anderson |last31=Fokkens |first31=Wytske J. |last32=Gray |first32=Stacey T. |last33=Gudis |first33=David A. |last34=Hamilos |first34=Daniel L. |last35=Han |first35=Joseph K. |last36=Harvey |first36=Richard |last37=Hellings |first37=Peter |last38=Holbrook |first38=Eric H. |last39=Hopkins |first39=Claire |last40=Hwang |first40=Peter |last41=Javer |first41=Amin R. |last42=Jiang |first42=Rong-San |last43=Kennedy |first43=David |last44=Kern |first44=Robert |last45=Laidlaw |first45=Tanya |last46=Lal |first46=Devyani |last47=Lane |first47=Andrew |last48=Lee |first48=Heung-Man |last49=Lee |first49=Jivianne T. |last50=Levy |first50=Joshua M. |last51=Lin |first51=Sandra Y. |last52=Lund |first52=Valerie |last53=McMains |first53=Kevin C. |last54=Metson |first54=Ralph |last55=Mullol |first55=Joaquim |last56=Naclerio |first56=Robert |last57=Oakley |first57=Gretchen |last58=Otori |first58=Nobuyoshi |last59=Palmer |first59=James N. |last60=Parikh |first60=Sanjay R. |last61=Passali |first61=Desiderio |last62=Patel |first62=Zara |last63=Peters |first63=Anju |last64=Philpott |first64=Carl |last65=Psaltis |first65=Alkis J. |last66=Ramakrishnan |first66=Vijay R. |last67=Ramanathan |first67=Murugappan |last68=Roh |first68=Hwan-Jung |last69=Rudmik |first69=Luke |last70=Sacks |first70=Raymond |last71=Schlosser |first71=Rodney J. |last72=Sedaghat |first72=Ahmad R. |last73=Senior |first73=Brent A. |last74=Sindwani |first74=Raj |last75=Smith |first75=Kristine |last76=Snidvongs |first76=Kornkiat |last77=Stewart |first77=Michael |last78=Suh |first78=Jeffrey D. |last79=Tan |first79=Bruce K. |last80=Turner |first80=Justin H. |last81=Drunen |first81=Cornelis M. |last82=Voegels |first82=Richard |last83=Wang |first83=De Yun |last84=Woodworth |first84=Bradford A. |last85=Wormald |first85=Peter-John |last86=Wright |first86=Erin D. |last87=Yan |first87=Carol |last88=Zhang |first88=Luo |last89=Zhou |first89=Bing}}</ref> Surgery fi be recommended insyd those plus chronic disease wey fail medical management.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 3, 2012 |title=How Is Sinusitis Treated |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/Pages/treatment.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405025201/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/Pages/treatment.aspx |archive-date=5 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015}}</ref> Sinusitis be a common condition.<ref name="pmid258339272">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> E dey affect between about 10 den 30 percent of people each year insyd de [[United States]] den Europe.<ref name="pmid258339272" /><ref name="Adkinson-2014">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> De management of sinusitis insyd de United States dey result in more dan US$11 billion insyd costs.<ref name="pmid258339272" /> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] gy1r981p67krlyu4cxxp1wjyi78wu0n 99354 99353 2026-05-31T19:20:35Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sinusitis''', dem sanso know as '''rhinosinusitis''' den commonly known as a '''sinus infection''', be an inflammation of de mucous membranes wey line de sinuses wey dey result in symptoms wey fi include production of thick nasal mucus, nasal congestion, facial congestion, facial pain, facial pressure, loss of smell, anaa [[fever]].<ref name="pmid258339273">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref>'''<ref name="pmid27113482">{{cite journal |vauthors=Head K, Chong LY, Piromchai P, Hopkins C, Philpott C, Schilder AG, Burton MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Systemic and topical antibiotics for chronic rhinosinusitis |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2016 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD011994.pub2 |pmc=8763400 |pmid=27113482 |s2cid=205210696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722030626/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1489913/1/Schilder_Head_et_al-2016-The_Cochrane_library.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-22 |access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>''' Sinusitis be a condition wey dey affect both kiddies den adults. E be caused by a combination of environmental factors den a person ein health factors.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Battisti |first1=Amanda S. |title=Sinusitis |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |access-date=2024-11-12 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29262090 |last2=Modi |first2=Pranav |last3=Pangia |first3=Jon |archive-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134212/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470383/ |url-status=live }}</ref> E fi occur insyd individuals plus allergies, exposure to environmental irritants, structural abnormalities of de nasal cavity den sinuses den poor immune function.<ref name="Adkinson-20143">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chaw cases be caused by a viral infection.<ref name="cdc.gov-20132">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Recurrent episodes be more likely insyd people plus [[asthma]], [[cystic fibrosis]], den immunodeficiency.<ref name="pmid258339275">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De diagnosis of sinusitis be based on de symptoms den dema duration along plus signs of disease wey endoscopic den/anaa radiologic criteria identify.<ref name="Adkinson-20142">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sinusitis be classified into acute sinusitis, subacute sinusitis, den chronic sinusitis. Insyd acute sinusitis, symptoms dey last for less dan four weeks, den insyd subacute sinusitis, dem dey last between 4 den 12 weeks. Insyd chronic sinusitis, symptoms for be present for at least 12 weeks.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier/Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |editor-last=Adkinson |editor-first=N. Franklin |edition=8th |location=Philadelphia, PA |editor-last2=Middleton |editor-first2=Elliott}}</ref> Insyd de initial evaluation of sinusitis an otolaryngologist, dem sanso know as an ear, nose den throat (ENT) doctor, fi confirm sinusitis dey use nasal endoscopy.<ref name="Adkinson-20142" /> Diagnostic imaging no usually be needed insyd de acute stage unless complications be suspected.<ref name="pmid258339274">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Insyd chronic cases, confirmatory testing be recommended by use of computed tomography.<ref name="pmid258339274" /> Prevention of sinusitis dey focus on regular hand washing, staying up-to-date on vaccinations, den avoiding smoking.<ref name="cdc.gov-20133">{{cite web |date=September 30, 2013 |title=Sinus Infection (Sinusitis) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407181505/http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/URI/sinus-infection.html |archive-date=7 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=cdc.gov}}</ref> Pain killers such as [[naproxen]], nasal steroids, den nasal irrigation fi be used to help plus symptoms.<ref name="pmid258339276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid258923692">{{cite journal |vauthors=King D, Mitchell B, Williams CP, Spurling GK |date=April 2015 |title=Saline nasal irrigation for acute upper respiratory tract infections |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:201653/UQ201653_OA.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2015 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006821.pub3 |pmc=9475221 |pmid=25892369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829061619/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_201653/UQ201653_OA.pdf?Expires=1630217866&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=fvzZFSRIkQZTLEhLp~QFYol~hVWVs5Yo2o0Vw3BhGOL7U3pmZx7K1xwMdix20C-ZBOBTDrFZyWfczpiMKk7xmMWYUsYU8tEF9SRghcv~x04vWlZkkUuL3E7OHRYrkCFawyesJkkEEQO5sQxtD0LLWuoQWlT7yRRWk4ZqrLeW7OCsFY5NhBYavteJhqCqtWifH5hIamsdfCYNZnVKx4mp66bQ5L5iozTDtmriPethrPxdoRvyPvYoPscI~ayOcvCjCjdYxsooSxLtw1KPpsbBbtEACOPp35YxrEPcON9XJO04wJeqpcy9FsRhJHM1Gg1-b8p5xUSx3LRrF42Dirskaw__ |archive-date=2021-08-29 |access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref> Recommended initial treatment give acute sinusitis be watchful waiting.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> If symptoms no dey improve insyd 7–10 days anaa worsen, then an antibiotic fi be implemented anaa changed.<ref name="pmid258339276" /> Insyd those insyd whom antibiotics be indicated, either [[amoxicillin]] anaa amoxicillin/clavulanate be recommended first line, wey amoxicillin/clavulanate be superior to amoxicillin alone buh plus more side effects.<ref name="pmid258339276" /><ref name="pmid332365252">{{cite journal |last1=Orlandi |first1=Richard R. |last2=Kingdom |first2=Todd T. |last3=Smith |first3=Timothy L. |last4=Bleier |first4=Benjamin |last5=DeConde |first5=Adam |last6=Luong |first6=Amber U. |last7=Poetker |first7=David M. |last8=Soler |first8=Zachary |last9=Welch |first9=Kevin C. |last10=Wise |first10=Sarah K. |last11=Adappa |first11=Nithin |last12=Alt |first12=Jeremiah A. |last13=Anselmo-Lima |first13=Wilma Terezinha |last14=Bachert |first14=Claus |last15=Baroody |first15=Fuad M. |year=2021 |title=International consensus statement on allergy and rhinology: rhinosinusitis 2021 |url=https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/77501/1/Accepted_Manuscript.pdf |url-status=live |journal=International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology |publisher=Wiley |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=213–739 |doi=10.1002/alr.22741 |issn=2042-6976 |pmid=33236525 |s2cid=227165628 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307191717/https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/77501/1/Accepted_Manuscript.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-07 |access-date=2023-01-21 |last16=Batra |first16=Pete S. |last17=Bernal-Sprekelsen |first17=Manuel |last18=Beswick |first18=Daniel |last19=Bhattacharyya |first19=Neil |last20=Chandra |first20=Rakesh K. |last21=Chang |first21=Eugene H. |last22=Chiu |first22=Alexander |last23=Chowdhury |first23=Naweed |last24=Citardi |first24=Martin J. |last25=Cohen |first25=Noam A. |last26=Conley |first26=David B. |last27=DelGaudio |first27=John |last28=Desrosiers |first28=Martin |last29=Douglas |first29=Richard |last30=Eloy |first30=Jean Anderson |last31=Fokkens |first31=Wytske J. |last32=Gray |first32=Stacey T. |last33=Gudis |first33=David A. |last34=Hamilos |first34=Daniel L. |last35=Han |first35=Joseph K. |last36=Harvey |first36=Richard |last37=Hellings |first37=Peter |last38=Holbrook |first38=Eric H. |last39=Hopkins |first39=Claire |last40=Hwang |first40=Peter |last41=Javer |first41=Amin R. |last42=Jiang |first42=Rong-San |last43=Kennedy |first43=David |last44=Kern |first44=Robert |last45=Laidlaw |first45=Tanya |last46=Lal |first46=Devyani |last47=Lane |first47=Andrew |last48=Lee |first48=Heung-Man |last49=Lee |first49=Jivianne T. |last50=Levy |first50=Joshua M. |last51=Lin |first51=Sandra Y. |last52=Lund |first52=Valerie |last53=McMains |first53=Kevin C. |last54=Metson |first54=Ralph |last55=Mullol |first55=Joaquim |last56=Naclerio |first56=Robert |last57=Oakley |first57=Gretchen |last58=Otori |first58=Nobuyoshi |last59=Palmer |first59=James N. |last60=Parikh |first60=Sanjay R. |last61=Passali |first61=Desiderio |last62=Patel |first62=Zara |last63=Peters |first63=Anju |last64=Philpott |first64=Carl |last65=Psaltis |first65=Alkis J. |last66=Ramakrishnan |first66=Vijay R. |last67=Ramanathan |first67=Murugappan |last68=Roh |first68=Hwan-Jung |last69=Rudmik |first69=Luke |last70=Sacks |first70=Raymond |last71=Schlosser |first71=Rodney J. |last72=Sedaghat |first72=Ahmad R. |last73=Senior |first73=Brent A. |last74=Sindwani |first74=Raj |last75=Smith |first75=Kristine |last76=Snidvongs |first76=Kornkiat |last77=Stewart |first77=Michael |last78=Suh |first78=Jeffrey D. |last79=Tan |first79=Bruce K. |last80=Turner |first80=Justin H. |last81=Drunen |first81=Cornelis M. |last82=Voegels |first82=Richard |last83=Wang |first83=De Yun |last84=Woodworth |first84=Bradford A. |last85=Wormald |first85=Peter-John |last86=Wright |first86=Erin D. |last87=Yan |first87=Carol |last88=Zhang |first88=Luo |last89=Zhou |first89=Bing}}</ref> Surgery fi be recommended insyd those plus chronic disease wey fail medical management.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 3, 2012 |title=How Is Sinusitis Treated |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/Pages/treatment.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405025201/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/sinusitis/Pages/treatment.aspx |archive-date=5 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2015}}</ref> Sinusitis be a common condition.<ref name="pmid258339272">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Kumar KA, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD |date=April 2015 |title=Clinical practice guideline (update): Adult Sinusitis Executive Summary |journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.1177/0194599815574247 |pmid=25833927 |s2cid=206469424 |doi-access=free}}</ref> E dey affect between about 10 den 30 percent of people each year insyd de [[United States]] den Europe.<ref name="pmid258339272" /><ref name="Adkinson-2014">{{cite book |last1=Adkinson |first1=N. Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |title=Middleton's allergy: principles and practice |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |isbn=978-0-323-08593-9 |edition=Eight |location=Philadelphia |page=687 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603211855/https://books.google.com/books?id=vT9YAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 |archive-date=2016-06-03 |url-status=live}}</ref> De management of sinusitis insyd de United States dey result in more dan US$11 billion insyd costs.<ref name="pmid258339272" /> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * {{cite web | url = https://medlineplus.gov/sinusitis.html | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | work = MedlinePlus | title = Sinusitis }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nose disorders]] [[Category:Headaches]] [[Category:Inflammations]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 9mj1h71eef0ta4f7mfaa3oqsu9klubq 14 27128 99355 2026-05-31T22:32:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99355 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27129 99356 2026-05-31T22:32:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99356 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27130 99357 2026-05-31T22:32:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99357 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27131 99358 2026-05-31T22:46:55Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99358 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27132 99359 2026-05-31T22:47:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99359 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27133 99360 2026-05-31T22:47:21Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99360 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27134 99361 2026-05-31T22:47:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99361 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27135 99362 2026-05-31T22:49:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99362 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27136 99363 2026-05-31T22:49:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99363 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27137 99364 2026-05-31T22:49:46Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99364 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27138 99365 2026-05-31T22:49:59Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99365 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27139 99366 2026-05-31T22:50:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99366 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27140 99367 2026-05-31T22:51:59Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99367 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27141 99368 2026-05-31T22:52:12Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99368 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27142 99369 2026-05-31T22:52:30Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99369 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27143 99370 2026-05-31T22:52:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99370 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27144 99371 2026-05-31T22:54:20Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99371 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27145 99372 2026-05-31T22:54:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99372 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27146 99373 2026-05-31T22:55:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99373 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27147 99374 2026-05-31T23:14:55Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1356617845|Atlantic Ocean]]" 99374 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Atlantic_Ocean_to_Africa.ogv|thumb|Dem take dis video by de crew of Expedition 29 on board de ISS. De pass dey start from just northeast of de island of Newfoundland over de North Atlantic Ocean to central Africa, over [[South Sudan]].]] De '''Atlantic Ocean''' be de second largest of de world ein five oceanic divisions, plus an area of about 85,133,000 square kilometers (32,870,000 sq mi).<ref name="Atlantic Ocean – Britannica2">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Atlantic Ocean|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215072935/https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|archive-date=15 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> E dey cover approximately 17% of [[Earth|Earth ein surface]] den about 24% of ein water surface area. During de Age of Discovery, na e be known for separating de New World of de Americas ([[North America]] den South America) from de Old World of Afro-Eurasia ([[Africa]], Asia, den Europe). Thru ein separation of Afro-Eurasia from de Americas, de Atlantic Ocean play a central role insyd de development of human society, globalization, den de histories of chaw nations. While de Norse be de first known humans to cross de Atlantic, na e be de expedition of Christopher Columbus insyd 1492 wey prove to be de most consequential. Columbus ein expedition usher insyd an age of exploration den colonization of de Americas by European powers, most notably Portugal, Spain, [[French colonial empire|France]], den de United Kingdom. From de 16th to 19th centuries, na de Atlantic Ocean be de center of both [[Atlantic slave trade|an eponymous slave trade]] den de Columbian exchange while occasionally dey host naval battles. Such naval battles, as well as growing trade from regional American powers like de United States den [[Brazil]], both increased in degree during de early 20th century. After World War II, major military operations cam be rarer, though notable postwar conflicts dey include de Cuban Missile Crisis den de Falklands War. De ocean remain a core component of trade around de world. De Atlantic Ocean ein temperatures vary by location. For example, de South Atlantic dey maintain warm temperatures year-round, as ein basin countries be tropical. De North Atlantic maintain a temperate climate, as ein basin countries be temperate wey e get seasons of extremely low temperatures den high temperatures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SAS |first=Des Clics Nomades |title=Water temperature of the Atlantic Ocean - real time map and monthly temperatures |url=https://www.seatemperatu.re/seas-and-oceans/atlantic-ocean/ |access-date=2025-06-15 |website=SeaTemperatu.re |language=en}}</ref> De Atlantic Ocean dey occupy an elongated, S-shaped basin wey dey extend longitudinally between Europe den Africa to de east, den de Americas to de west. As one component of de interconnected World Ocean, e be connected insyd de north to de Arctic Ocean, to de [[Pacific Ocean]] insyd de southwest, de Indian Ocean insyd de southeast, den de Southern Ocean insyd de south. Oda definitions describe de Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica. Dem divide de Atlantic Ocean insyd two parts, de northern den southern Atlantic, by de Equator.<ref>[[International Hydrographic Organization]], [https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', 3rd ed. (1953)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|date=8 October 2011}}, pages 4 and 13.</ref> == Names == [[File:1710_De_La_Feuille_Map_of_Africa_-_Geographicus_-_Africa-lafeuille-1710.jpg|thumb|De Aethiopian Ocean dem depict insyd a 1710 French map of [[Africa]]]] De oldest known dey mention of an "Atlantic" sea cam from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211):<ref name="MangasPlácido1998">{{Cite book |last=Mangas |first=Julio |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=pZBSML97Ya0C|page=283}} |title=La Península Ibérica en los autores griegos: de Homero a Platón – SLG / (Sch. A. R. 1. 211) |last2=Plácido |first2=Domingo |last3=Elícegui |first3=Elvira Gangutia |last4=Rodríguez Somolinos |first4=Helena |publisher=Editorial Complutense |year=1998 |page=283}}</ref> Atlantikôi pelágei (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει, 'the Atlantic sea', etym. 'Sea of Atlas') den insyd ''The Histories'' of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα, 'Sea of Atlas' anaa 'de Atlantic sea'<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ἀτλαντίς, DGE Diccionario Griego-Español |url=http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101191304/http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |archive-date=1 January 2018 |website=dge.cchs.csic.es}}</ref>), wer de name dey refer to "de sea beyond de pillars of Hercules" (de Strait of Gibraltar), beyond de Atlas Mountains insyd Morocco den off de West African coast.<ref name="Oxford-Dict" /> Insyd dese uses, de name dey refer to Atlas, de Titan insyd Greek mythology, wey support de heavens den wey later appear as a frontispiece insyd medieval maps den atlases.<ref name="Oxford-Dict">{{Harvnb|Oxford Dictionaries|2015}}</ref> === Water masses === {| class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center;" |+Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses<ref>{{Harvnb|Emery|Meincke|1986}}</ref> !Water mass !Temperature !Salinity |- ! colspan="3" |Upper waters (0–500 m or 0–1,600 ft) |- | align="left" |Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Upper Water (ASUW) |0.0–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.0 |- | align="left" |Western North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (WNACW) |7.0–20&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.7 |- | align="left" |Eastern North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (ENACW) |8.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |35.2–36.7 |- | align="left" |South Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (SACW) |5.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |34.3–35.8 |- ! colspan="3" |Intermediate waters (500–1,500 m anaa 1,600–4,900 ft) |- | align="left" |Western Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (WASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.1 |- | align="left" |Eastern Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (EASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.4–35.3 |- | align="left" |Mediterranean Water (MW) |2.6–11.0&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.2 |- | align="left" |Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) |−1.5–3.0&nbsp;°C |34.7–34.9 |- ! colspan="3" |Deep den abyssal waters (1,500&nbsp;m–bottom anaa 4,900&nbsp;ft–bottom) |- | align="left" |North Atlantic<br /><br />Deep Water (NADW) |1.5–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.8–35.0 |- | align="left" |Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) |−0.9–1.7&nbsp;°C |34.6–34.7 |- | align="left" |Arctic Bottom Water (ABW) |−1.8 to −0.5&nbsp;°C |34.9–34.9 |} == References == [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] 1v3hg0lk356tch032lkofo3v1qhn4dr